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CONTROL SYSTEMS(FORMULA NOTES/SHORT NOTES)

INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. Open loop control system:

An open loop control system also called a non-feedback control system.

• In open loop-controlled system output is controlled.

• Accuracy of open loop control system depends on the accuracy of input calibration.

Block Diagram Representation of Open Loop System:

C ( s)
G ( s) =
R ( s)

2. Closed Loop Control System:

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C (s) G(s)
=
R( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s )

Comparison Between Open Loop & Close Loop Control System

S.No. Open loop control system Close loop control system

The changes in output of system cannot The changes in output of system can be
1.
be corrected. corrected.
2. No sensor is available. Sensor is available.

3. It is non feedback control system. It is feedback control system.

The accuracy of an open-loop system The close loop system works more
depends on the calibration of the input. accurately since the error between the
4.
Any departure from pre- determined reference input and the output is
calibration affects the output. continuously measured through feedback.
Generally stable but cannot be stabilize Due to feedback, system can become
5.
if become unstable. stable and can be stabilized.
6. More sensitive for parameter variation. Less sensitive for parameter variation.

7. Simple & Economic Complex & Costly

Transfer Function
The transfer function of an LTI systems may be defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output
to the Laplace transform of input under the assumption.

Y ( s)
G ( s) =
X ( s)

•The transfer function is completely specified in terms of its poles and zeros and the gain factor.

•The TF function of a system depends on its elements, assuming initial conditions as zero and is
independent of the input function.

•To find DC gain of the system, put s = 0.

Example:

s+4 4
G (s) = ; Gain =
2 9
s + 6s + 9

If a step, ramp or parabolic response of Transfer Function is given, then we can find impulse
response directly through differentiation of that Transfer Function.

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d
(Parabolic response) = Ramp response
dt

d
(Ramp response) = Step response
dt

d
(Step response) = Impulse response
dt

Rules of Block Diagram:

Rule Original diagram Equivalent diagram

1. Combining blocks in
cascade

2. Moving a summing point

after a block

3. Moving a summing point

ahead of a block

4. Moving a take off point

after a block

5. Moving a takeoff point

ahead of a block

6. Eliminating a feedback
loop

Signal Flow Graphs:

It is a graphical technique that deals with the relation between the variable of a system described in
the form of set of linear algebraic equation.

•Signal flow graph of Block diagram.

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Mason’s formula:

This is a technique for reducing signal flow graphs to single transfer functions that relate the output
of a system to its input. There is general gain formula, called Mason’s rule, that allow the
determination of the input-output relations of an SFG by inspection. The transfer function of a
system is given as,

C ( s) 
Pk  k
T .F = = k =1

R( s ) 

Where,

K= 1, 2, 3, ......

N = no of forward path

PK = Gain of Kth forward path

ΔK = 1 – [Sum of individual loop gain not touching to Kth forward path] + [Sum of product of
2 non touching loop gain that not touching to kth forward path]

Δ = Determinant of the graph or characteristics function

Δ = 1 – (Sum of all individual loop gain) + (Sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of two non-touching loops) – (Sum of the gain products of all possible
combinations of three non-touching loops) + ………

Time Response Analysis of Control System

The time response of a control system is divided in two parts:

1. Transient response
2. Steady state response

Transient response is dependent upon the system poles only and not on the type of input. It is
due to the non-zero initial conditions. It is therefore enough to analyze the transient response using
a step input.

The steady-state response depends on system dynamics and the input signal. It is then examined
using different test signals by final value theorem.

Total response of a system = Transient response + Steady state response

C(t) = Ctr(t) + Css(t)

Where, C(t) = overall response of the system,

Ctr(t) = transient response component of the system and

Css (t) = steady state response component of the system

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Different test signal and their transforms

Test signal Time domain Laplace Transform Wave form

Unit impulse δ (t) 1

Unit step function u(t) 1/s

Unit Ramp tu(t) 1/s2

t2
Unit parabolic u(t) 1/s3
2

t d
− Im pulse dt = step signal ; dt
Ramp = step ;

t d
− Ramp dt = parabolic ; dt
Parabolic = Ramp

t dt
− step dt = Ramp; dt
step = Impulse

INITIAL VALUE AND FINAL VALUE THEOREM

1. Initial value of the response:

c(0) = Lt c(t) = Lt sC(s)

t →0 s →

Initial value theorem is applied only when the number of poles of C(s) is more than the number of
zeros i.e. function C(s) must be strictly proper.

2. Final value of the Response:

c() = Lt c(t) = Lt sC(s)

t → s →0

Final value theorem is applied when all the poles of C(s) lie in the left half of the s-plane.

TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER CONTROL SYSTEM

A second order control system is one for which the highest power ‘s’ in the denominator of its
transfer function is equal to 2.

Consider a linear time-invariant system where input to the system is given by x(t) & its
corresponding output as y(t).

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The block diagram representation in Laplace domain is

or

Block diagram of second order control system

The characteristic equation of the second order system is

2 2
C.E. = s + 2ns + n = 0

–2n  42n2 – 4n2

s1, s2 =
2

s1, s2 = –n  2n2 – n2

s1, s2 = –n  n 2 – 1

1. Case 1: ξ = 0

In this case, the poles of the system lie on jω axis and hence the system is said to be undamped
system.

2. Case 2: ξ = 1

In this case, the roots or poles of the system is always real and equal and equals to –ωn i.e.

s1, s2 = – ωn

Therefore, the system is said to be critically damped system.

3. Case 3: 0 < ξ < 1

In this case, the poles of the system are complex conjugate to each other. i.e.

s1 , s2 = –n  jn 1 – 2

Hence, the system is called under damped system.

4. Case 4: ξ > 1

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In this case, the roots or poles of the system are real but unequal i.e.,

s1 , s2 = –n  n 2 – 1

Therefore, the system is said to be over damped system.

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For Step input:

  1 − 2  
e−nt
• C (t) = 1 − sin n 1 − 2 t  tan−1  
   
1 − 2   

  1 − 2  
e−nt
• e (t) = sin n 1 − 2 t  tan−1  
   
1 − 2   

  1 − 2  
e−nt
• ess = lim sin n 1 − 2 t  tan−1  
t →    
1 − 2   

→  → Damping ratio; n → Damping factor

1.   1 (Under Damped):

  1 − 2  
e−nt
C (t) = 1 − sin d t  tan−1  
   
1 − 2   

2.  = 0 (Undamped):

C(t) = (1 – cosωnt)

3.  = 1 (Critically Damped):

−n t
C (t ) = 1 − e (1 + nt )

4.   1 (overdamped):

 
−   − 2 −1  nt
e  
C (t) = 1 −
2 2 − 1   − 2 − 1 
 

Time constant of the response

1
T =
( − 2 − 1 n )
Tundamped>Toverdamped>Tunderdamped> Tcritical damp

Time Domain Specifications:

• Rise time (tr):

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Rise time is defined as the time at which the output reaches its final value for the first time.

−
tr = ;  = cos−1 
2
n 1 − 

• Peak time (tp):

Peak time is defined as the time at which the response of the system reaches its peak value
for the first time.

n
tp =
d

For first peak, n = 1 (maxima)


tp =
d

• Peak Overshoot (Mp):

Peak overshoot is defined as the deviation of the response of the system from its final value
at its first time. Mp can be positive or negative.

1 − 2
% MP = e−n /  100

• Settling time (ts):

Settling time is the time required sinusoidal amplitude settled to its final value.

ts = 3T for 5% tolerance,

ts = 4T for 2% tolerance

• Delay time (td):

Delay time is defined as the time required to reach half of its final value from zero instant.

1 + 0.7
td =
n

STEADY STATE ERROR (ESS)

Steady state error is defined as the amount of output deviated from its desired response during
steady state is known as steady state error. It is denoted by ess.

Now, consider a closed loop system,

C(s) = E(s)G(s)

Error signal is given as

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C(s)
E (s) =
G(s)

For closed loop system,

C ( s) G(s)
=
R ( s) 1 + G(s)H(s)

G(s).R(s)
C (s) =
1 + G(s)H(s)

Putting the value of C(s) in E(s)

1
E(s) = .R(s)
1 + G(s).H(s)

Where E(s) is error signal and R(s) is input signal.

G(s) H(s) is the open loop transfer function.

Using final value theorem of Laplace theorem,

ess = lim e ( t ) = lim sE ( s )

t → s →0

  1  
ess = lim  s   R ( s )
s →0
 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )  

Static Error Coefficients:

• Step input:

sR ( s )
ess = lim e ( t ) = lim E ( s ) = lim
t → s →0 s →0 1 + GH

1
ess = (Positional error)
1 + KP

KP = lim G ( s ) H ( s )
s→0

Where, KP is static position error constant.

• Ramp input:

1
ess =
Kv

Kv = lim s G ( s ) H ( s )
s →0

Where, KV is static velocity error constant.

• Parabolic input:

1
ess = , Ka = lim s2 G ( s ) H ( s )
Ka s →0

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Where, Ka is static acceleration error constant.

Type < input → ess = 

Type = input → ess (finite value)

Type > input → ess = 0

Steady state Error for Different types of system:

Type of System Unit Step Input Unit Ramp Input Unit Parabolic Input
K p =K
KV = 0 Ka = 0
1
Type – 0 System ess = ess =  ess = 
1+K
KV = K
Kp =  Ka = 0
1
Type – 1 System ess = 0 ess = ess = 
K
Ka = K
Kp =  KV = 
1
Type – 2 System ess = 0 ess = 0 ess =
K

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Routh Hurwitz Stability Criteria

C ( s) G (s)
CLTF = =
R ( s) 1 + G ( s) H (s)

1 + G(s)H(s)= 0 is called as a characteristic equation.

FORMATION OF ROUTH ARRAY

For an nth order system, the characteristic equation is

q(s) = A0 sn + A1sn−1 + .... + An−1s + An = 0

Routh Hurwitz Criterion is based on ordering the coefficient of the system’s characteristic equation
into an array called the Routh array.

The first two rows of the Routh array is filled by the coefficient of the characteristic equation.

If n is odd, then the first row is filled up by all the odd positioned coefficients and the second row is
filled up by all even positioned coefficient and vice versa for n even.

Considering n is even

sn A0 A2 A4
sn – 1 A1 A3 A5

The further rows are evaluated as

A1A2 − A0 A3
B1 =
A1

A1A4 − A0 A5
B2 =
A1

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B1A3 − A1B2
C1 =
B1

B1A5 − A1B3
C2 =
B1

The process continues till the last row of the array contains only the independent coefficient of the
characteristic equation.

STABILITY RULES WITH RESPECT TO ROUTH MATRIX

• The closed loop system is said to be stable if all the elements in the first column of the Routh
matrix/array have same sign(either positive or negative).
• A system is said to be unstable if there is at least one sign change in the first column of the
Routh array.
• Number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh’s array indicate the number of closed
loop poles in the right half of the s-plane.
• If a complete row in a Routh array becomes zero, then the system is said to be having
symmetric poles about the origin.
• Routh Hurwitz Criterion cannot be applied for the system with exponential trigonometric or
imaginary coefficient.

Note : Routh Hurwitz Criterion gives only information about the number of roots in the right half of
s-plane. It gives no information about location of the poles.

Example :

Find the stability of a system represented by the character equation.

A0s3 + A1s2 + A2s + A3 = 0

s3 A0 A2

s2 A1 A3
A1A2 − A0A3
s1
A1
s0 A3
Solution:

For stability,

A0  0, A1  0, A3  0

A1A2 − A0A3
0
A1

So, A1A2 − A0A3  0

 A1A2  A 0 A3

Internal External
  
Product Product 

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Root Locus
ANGLE & MAGNITUDE CONDITION FOR ROOT LOCUS

For studying the close loop transfer function stability, let us consider a system with open loop
transfer function as G(s).H(s)

For negative feedback close loop system, characteristics equation is given as,

1 + G(s) H(s) = 0

G(s) H(s) = -1

= -1 + j0

Magnitude:

|G(s) H(s) | = 1

Angle:

∠G(s) H(s) = tan-1 b/a

= tan-1 0/-1

= ±180°

RULES OF DRAWING THE ROOT LOCUS

1. Root locus start from open loop poles with k = 0 and terminates at open loop zeros
with k=  .

2. Root locus is symmetrical about real axis. It is because complex poles always exist in
conjugation.

3. The number of branches of root locus = P if P > Z; Z if Z > P

Where, P = number of open loop poles & Z = number of open loop zeros.

4. Root locus exist on real axis, if number of open loop poles and zeros to the right side of a
point on the real axis is an odd number.

Let,

s +1
G(s)H(s) =
(s + 2)(s + 3)(s + 4)

Here, Number of zeros = 1 (s = -1)

Number of poles = 3 (s = -2, -3, -4)

Number of root loci/ branches = 3

Number of loci/ branches ending at infinity = P - Z = 3 – 1 = 2

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5. Number of Asymptotes

It is the path along which the root locus moves towards infinity. The number of asymptotes is

= P - Z; if P > Z

= Z - P; if Z > P

Where, P = number of open loop poles

Z = number of open loop zeros

6. Centroid

It is the point of intersection of asymptotes to the negative real axis.

σ=
 (Real part of open loop poles) -  (Real part of open loop zeros)
P-Z

7. Angle of asymptotes

It is the angle made by the asymptotes with positive real axis in s-plane. Mathematically it is
given by,

A =
( 2q + 1)180
P−Z
Where, q = 0, 1, 2…………., (n-m-1)

Number of zeros at infinity = P - Z; only when P > Z

Number of poles at infinity = Z - P; only when Z > P,

Where n is the number of finite poles & m is the number of finite zeros.

8. Break-away and Break-in points

These are the points at which two loci/branches coming towards each other, meet and get diverted
in opposite direction.

• If there are two consecutive open loop poles on real axis and there exist a root locus between
them then there is always a break away point between them.
• If there are two consecutive open loop zeros on real axis and root locus exist between them
there has to be a break in point between them.

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Break away and break in point lie on real axis but sometimes they may lie on complex plane also.

Breakaway and break in point can be determined by putting,

dK
=0
ds

9. Angle of Departure & Angle of Arrival

9.1. Angle of Departure

It is the angle made by branch of root locus with real axis when the branch emerges from a complex
pole. Angle of departure from complex open pole at s= s 1 is given by,

D s = s1
= 180o + GH' s = s
1

Where, GH’= (s-s1) G(s)H(s)

9.2. Angle of Arrival

It is the angle made by root locus with real axis when the branches of the root locus arrive at a
complex zero.

Angle of arrival at a complex zero at s= s1 is given by,

A s = s1
= 180o − GH' s = s
1

Where, GH’= (s-s1) G(s)H(s)

10. Point of intersection of the RLD with respect to the imaginary axis:

It is the point of intersection of root locus with jω axis. jω cross over gives the critical value of gain
parameter K at which the system becomes oscillatory. It also gives the frequency of oscillation at
this critical value of K. jω cross over can be obtained by using Routh’s array.

Frequency Domain Analysis

FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

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The performance and characteristics of a system in frequency domain are measured in terms of
frequency domain specifications. The requirements of a system to be designed are usually specified
in terms of these specifications.

The frequency domain specifications are:

1. Resonant Peak (Mr)

The maximum value of the magnitude of closed loop transfer function is called the resonant peak,
Mr. A large resonant peak corresponds to a large overshoot in transient response.

2. Resonant Frequency (ωr)

The frequency at which the resonant peak occurs is called resonant frequency, ωr This is related to
the frequency of oscillation in the step response and thus it is indicative of the speed of transient
response.

3. Bandwidth (ωb)

The Bandwidth is the range of frequencies for which normalized gain of the system is reduce by 3
db. The frequency at which the gain is reduce by 3 db is called cut-off frequency. Bandwidth is
usually defined for closed loop system and it transmits the signals whose frequencies are less than
the cut-off frequency.

The Bandwidth is a measure of the ability of a feedback system to reproduce the input signal, noise
rejection characteristics and rise time. A large bandwidth corresponds to a small rise time or fast
response.

4. Cut-off Rate

The slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut off frequency is called cut-off rate. The cut -off
rate indicates the ability of the system to distinguish the signal from noise.

5. Gain Margin, Kg

• The gain margin, Kg is defined as the value of gain, to be added to system, in order to bring
the system to the verge of instability.
• The gain margin, Kg is given by the reciprocal of the magnitude of gain of open loop transfer
function at phase cross over frequency.
• The frequency at which the phase of open loop transfer function is 180° is called the phase
cross-over frequency, ωpc.

1
Gain Margin,Kg =
(
| G jpc | )
The gain margin in dB can be expressed as,

1
Kgin dB = 20logKg = 20log
(
| G jpc | )

6. Phase Margin (  )

• The phase margin  is defined as the additional phase lag to be added at the gain cross over
frequency in order to bring the system to the verge of instability.
• The gain cross over frequency ωgc is the frequency at which the magnitude of the open loop
transfer function is unity (or it is the frequency at which the dB magnitude is zero).

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• The phase margin  , is obtained by adding 180° to the phase angle ф of the open loop
transfer function at the gain cross over frequency.

Phase margin,  = 180° + фgc

Where, фgc = ∠ G(jωgc)

FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

• Resonant Peak (Mr)

1
Resonant peak, Mr =
2 1 − 2

• Resonant frequency (ωr)

The resonant frequency, r = n 1 − 22

• BANDWIDTH (ωb):
1

b = n 1 − 22 + 2 − 42 + 44  2

 

GAIN CROSSOVER FREQUENCY & PHASE CROSSOVER FREQUENCY

1. Gain Crossover frequency:

The gain cross-over frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of G(jω)H(jω) is equal to
unity i.e.

G ( j ) H ( j ) = 1

2. Phase Crossover frequency:

The phase cross-over frequency is the frequency at which the phase angle of G(jω)H(jω) is -180⁰
i.e.

G ( j ) H ( j ) = −180

GAIN MARGIN (GM) & PHASE MARGIN (PM)

1. Gain Margin

Gain Margin is the amount of gain in dB that can be added to the loop before closed loop system
becomes unstable. The GM is given by

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1 1
GM = 20log10 = 20log10
a G ( j ) H ( j )
= −20log10 G ( j ) H ( j ) at phase cross-over frequency
= −20log10 G ( j pc ) H ( j pc )

2. Phase Margin

Phase Margin is the amount of pure phase delay that can be added before the system becomes
unstable. The PM is given by

PM = 180 + G ( j ) H ( j ) at gain cross-over frequency

= 180 + G ( jgc ) H ( jgc )

POLAR PLOT
Starting of polar plot of all minimum Phase system.

End of polar plot of all minimum Phase system.

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TABLE : Typical Sketches of Polar Plot

Type: 0, Order: 1
1
G ( s) =
1 + sT
1 1
G ( j ) = =
1 + j T 1 + 2 T 2  tan−1 T
1
=  − tan−1 T
2 2
1+  T
As  → 0, G ( j) → 10
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 90

Type: 1, Order: 2
1
G ( s) =
s (1 + sT )
1 1
G ( j) = =
j (1 + jT ) 90 1 + 2 T 2  tan−1 T
1
=  − 90 − tan−1 T
 1 + 2 T 2
As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 90
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 180

Type: 0, Order: 2
1
G ( s) =
(1 + sT2 ) (1 + s2 )
1
G ( j) =
(1 + jT2 ) (1 + jT2 )
1
=
2 2 −1
1 +  T  tan 1 T1 1 + 2 T22  tan−1 T2
1
= (
 − tan−1 T1 − tan−1 T2 )
(1 +  T )(1 +  T )
2 2
1
2 2
2

As  → 0, G(j  ) → 1 ∠0°
As  → ∞, G(j  ) → -180°
Type: 0, Order: 3
1
G ( s) =
(1 + sT1)(1 + sT2 ) (1 + sT3 )
1
G ( j) =
(1 + jT1)(1 + jT2 ) (1 + jT3 )
1
=
2 2
1
−1 2 2
1 +  T  tan T1 1 +  T  tan−1 T2 1 + 2 T32  tan−1 T3
2

1
=
2 2
(
 − tan−1 T1 − tan−1 T2 − tan−1 T3 )
1+  T 1 1 + 2 T22 1 + 2 T32
As  → 0, G ( j) → 10
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 270

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Type: 1, Order: 3
1
G ( s) =
s (1 + sT1 ) (1 + sT2 )
1
G ( j) =
j (1 + jT1 ) (1 + jT2 )
1
=
90 1 + 2 T12  tan−1 T1 1 + 2 T22  tan−1 T2
1
= (
 −90 − tan−1 T1 − tan−1 T2 )
(
 1+  T 2 2
1 )(1 +  T ) 2 2
2

As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 90
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 270
Type: 2 Order: 4
1
G (s) = 2
s (1 + sT1 ) (1 + sT2 )
1
G ( j) =
j (1 + jT1 ) (1 + jT2 )
2

1
=
2  − 180 1 + 2 T12  tan−1 T1 1 + 2 T22  tan−1 T2
1
= (
 −180 − tan−1 T1 − tan−1 T2 )
2
(1 +  T )(1 +  T )
2 2
1
2 2
2

As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 180
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 360

Type: 2, Order: 5
1
G (s) =
s (1 + sT1 ) (1 + sT2 ) (1 + sT3 )
2

1
G ( j) =
( j) (1 + jT1 ) (1 + jT2 ) (1 + jT3 )
2

1
=
  − 180 1 +  T  tan T1 1 + 2 T22  tan−1 T2 1 + 2 T32  tan−1 T3
2 2 2
1
−1

1
= (
 −180 − tan−1 T1 − tan−1 T2 − tan−1 T3 )
2
(
1+  T 2 2
1 )(
1 + 2 T22 1 + 2 T32 )( )
As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 180
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 450 = 0 − 90
Type: 1, Order : 1
1
G (s) =
s
1 1 1
G ( j) = = =  − 90
j 90 
As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 90
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 90

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1 + sT
G ( s) =
sT
1 + jT 1 1 1
G ( j) = = +1 = +1 =  − 90 + 1
jT jT T90 T
As  → 0, G ( j) →  − 90 + 1
As  → , G ( j) → 0 − 90 + 1

G(s) = s
G(j  ) = j  =  ∠90°
As  → 0, G(j  ) → 0∠90°
As  → ∞, G(j  ) → ∞∠90°

G(s) = 1 + sT
G(j  ) = 1 + j  T = 1 +  T∠90°
As  → 0, G(j  ) →1 + 0∠90°
As  → ∞, G(j  ) → 1 + ∞∠90°

Nyquist Plot
It is the mapping of Nyquist contour into GH plane i.e. corresponding to the entire Nyquist contour,
the Nyquist plot G(s)H(s) is plotted.

Nyquist stability criterion (NSC):

Consider a closed loop control system as shown in figure below:

The closed loop transfer function T(s) of the above system is given by

G(s)
T (s) =
1 + G(s)H(s)

The poles of 1 + G(s) H(s) gives the same number of poles as of G(s)H(s) i.e. open-loop system and
the zeroes of 1 + G(s)H(s) gives the same number of poles of T(s) i.e. closed loop system. On
comparing the closed loop transfer function with

(s − z1)(s − z2 )(s − z3 )....

T(s) =
(z − p1)(s − p2 )(s − p3 )....

p1, p2, p3, ……………are the poles of closed loop system.

z1, z2, z3, …………...are the zeroes of the closed loop system.

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By drawing the polar plot and completing closed loop contour from –∞ to 0 to +∞.

Nyquist stability criteria states that the number of encirclements about the critical point (-1+j0)
should be equal to poles of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s), which are in the right half of s-
plane.

Mathematically, N = P – Z

If Z = 0 then N = P

Where,

N is equals to the number of anticlockwise encirclement

P is the number of open loop poles lie in Right half of s plane &

Z is the number of closed loop poles lie in Right half of s plane

NOTE:

open loop system must be stable if P=0

close loop system must be stable if Z=0

BODE PLOT
The step by step procedure for plotting the magnitude plot is given below:

Step 1 : Convert the transfer function into Bode form or time constant form. The Bode form of the
transfer function is

K (1 + sT1 )
G (s) = s = j
⎯⎯⎯⎯ → G ( j)
 s2 s 
s (1 + sT2 ) 1 + 2 + 2 
 n n 
K (1 + jT1 )
=
 2 
j (1 + jT2 ) 1 − 2 + j2 
 n n 

Step 2 : List the corner frequencies in the increasing order and prepare a table as shown below.

Term Corner frequency rad/sec Slope db/dec Change in slope db/dec

In the above table enter K or K / ( j) or K ( j) as the first term and the other terms in the
n n

increasing order of comer frequencies. Then enter the comer frequency, slope contributed by each
term and change in slope at every comer frequency.

Step 3: Choose an arbitrary frequency to, which is lesser than the lowest comer frequency.
Calculate the db magnitude of K or K / ( j) or K ( j) at  , and at the lowest comer frequency.
n n

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K (1 + jT1 )
2

G ( j) =
( j) (1 + jT2 ) (1 + jT3 )
2

Note: 6dB/octave = 20 dB/decade

Step 4 : Then calculate the gain (db magnitude) at every corner frequency one by one by using the
formula,

Gain at y = change in gain from x to y + Gain at x

 y 
= slope from x to y  log  + Gain at x
 x 

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Step 5 : Choose an arbitrary frequency h . which is greater than the highest corner frequency.
Calculate the gain at h by using the formula in step 4.

Step 6 : In a semi log graph sheet mark the required range of frequency on x-axis (log scale) and
the range of db magnitude on y-axis (ordinary scale) after choosing proper units.

Step 7: Mark all the points obtained in steps 3, 4, and 5 on the graph and join the points by straight
lines. Mark the slope at every part of the graph.

Note: The magnitude plot obtained above is an approximate plot. If an exact plot is needed, then
appropriate corrections should be made at every corner frequency.

PROCEDURE FOR PHASE PLOT OF BODE PLOT

The phase plot is an exact plot and no approximations are made while drawing the phase
plot. Hence the exact phase angles of G(j  ) are computed for various values of  and
tabulated. The choice of frequencies are preferably the frequencies chosen for magnitude
plot. Usually, the magnitude plot and phase plot are drawn in a single semi log - sheet on a
common frequency scale.

Take another y-axis in the graph where the magnitude plot is drawn and in this y-axis mark
the desired range of phase angles after choosing proper units. From the tabulated values of
 and phase angles, mark all the points on the graph. Join the points by a smooth curve.
MINIMUM & NON- MINIMUM PHASE SYSTEM

1. Minimum Phase System:

The transfer function with all poles and zeros in the left half of the s-plane are called minimum
phase transfer function.

2. Non-Minimum Phase System:

The transfer function which has one or more zeros in the right half of the s- plane is known as non-
minimum phase system.

3. All Pass System:

The transfer function having a pole-zero pattern which is antisymmetric about the imaginary axis,
i.e. for every pole in the left half plane, there is a zero in the mirror image position, is called as all-
pass system.

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Controllers and Compensators

1. CONTROLLERS

I. PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER

Proportional Controller

Transfer function of a proportional controller is given as,

GC(s) = KP

Effects of Proportional Controller:

• Damping ratio decreases by factor KP

• Natural undamped frequency increases by factor KP
• Reduces the steady state error by increasing gain.

II. INTEGRAL CONTROLLER

Integral control adds a pole at the origin for the open-loop system.

Integral Controller

Transfer function of Integral controller is given as,

KI
GC ( s ) =
s

Effects of integral controllers:

• It adds an open loop pole at origin.

• It increases the type and order of the system by 1.
• It Decrease the steady state error.
• It reduced the stability of the system.
• It improves the steady state performance.
• It acts like a low pass filter.

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III. DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER

Derivative controller adds a zero at the origin for the open-loop system.

Derivative Controller

Transfer function of a derivative controller is given as,

GC(s) = KD. s

Effects of derivative controller:

• It adds an open loop zero at origin.

• It reduces the order and type of the system by 1.
• It is used to increase the stability of the system by adding zeros.
• Steady state error increases, as type of the system decreases.
• Transient response is improved.
• Differentiation makes the system sensitive to noise.

IV. PROPORTIONAL + DERIVATIVE (PD) CONTROLLER

Proportional Derivative Controller

Transfer function of a PD controller is given as,

GC(s) = KD. s + KP

Effects of PD Controller:

• PD controller adds an open loop zero on negative real axis.

• It is used to increase the stability without affecting the steady state error.
• Damping ratio increases.
• Peak overshoot decreases.
• Transient response is improved.
• Bandwidth increases, so noise in the system increases.
• Settling time reduced.
• Rise time decreases.
• Delay time increases.
• Improves gain margin and phase margin.

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V. PROPORTIONAL + INTEGRAL (PI) CONTROLLER

Transfer function of PI controller is given as,

KI
GC ( s ) = KP +
s

PI controller

Effects of PI Controller:

• It adds an open loop zero on negative real axis and open loop pole at origin.
• It increases type and order of the system by 1.
• As the type of the system is increases, therefore, steady state error is reduced, and hence
steady state response is improved.
• As the order of the system increases, therefore, the relative stability decreases.
• Bandwidth reduced.
• Noise in the output is reduced and thus signal to noise ratio is increased.

VI. PROPORTIONAL + INTEGRAL + DERIVATIVE (PID) CONTROLLER

PID controller

Transfer function of a PID controller is given as,

GC (S) = KP + KI / s + KD.s
KD.s2 + KP .s + KI
=
s
Effects of PID Controller:

• It adds two open loop zeros in left half of s-plane and one open loop pole at origin.
• One zero compensates the pole and other zero will increase the stability.
• It improves both transient as well as steady state response.
• It is used to decrease the steady state error.
• Response is faster and highly accurate.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF P, I, AND D CONTROLLERS

A proportional controller (KP) will have the effect of reducing the rise time but never eliminate the
steady-state error.

An integral control (KI) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it may make
the transient response worse.

A derivative control (KD) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the
overshoot, and improving the transient response.

Effects of each of controllers KP, KD, and KI on a close-loop system are summarized in the table
shown below.

Closed Loop Response Rise Time Overshoot Setting Time Steady State Error

KP Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease

KI Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

KD Small Change Decrease Decrease Small Change

2. COMPENSATORS

There are two types of compensators.

1. Lead compensator

2. Lag compensator

LEAD COMPENSATOR

The lead compensator has the transfer function of the form:

1
s + Zc s+
Gc ( s ) = = T
s + Pc 1
s+
aT

Zc
Where, a =  1 or Zc  Pc
Pc

And T > 0

Hence, we have the pole-zero plot as shown below:

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Pole-Zero Plot of Lead Compensator

Maximum Phase Lead for Lead Compensator:

For lead compensator, the maximum phase angle is given by

1 −  
m = sin−1  ;   1
1 +  

EFFECTS OF LEAD COMPENSATOR:

• The general effect is to add more damping to the closed loop system.
• Rise time and settling time are reduced.
• Phase margin improves.
• Improvement in relative stability.
• The bandwidth of the closed-loop system is increased; this corresponds to faster time
response.
• Steady state error of the system is not affected.

LAG COMPENSATOR

The lag compensator having a transfer function of the form:

1
s + Zc s+
Gc ( s ) = = T
s + Zp 
s+
T

Zc
Where,  =  1 or Zc  Pc
Pc

and T > 0

Hence, we have the pole-zero plot as shown below:

Pole-Zero Plot of Lag Compensator

Maximum Phase Angle for Lag Compensator:

For lag compensator, the maximum phase angle is given by

1 −  
m = sin−1  ;   1
1 +  

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EFFECTS OF LAG COMPENSATOR:

• Gain crossover frequency is decreased and thus the Bandwidth of the system is reduced.
• Magnitude of the forward path transfer function is attenuated near above the gain crossover
frequency, thus improving the relative stability.
• The rise time and settling time of the system are usually longer.
• The system is more sensitive to parameter variations because the sensitivity function is
greater than unity for all frequency (approximately greater the bandwidth).

State Space Analysis

Important Definitions:

1) State: The state of a dynamic system is defined as a minimal set of variables such that the
knowledge of input for t ≥ t0, completely determines the behaviour of the system for t > t 0.

2) State Variables: The variables involved in determining the state of a dynamic system X(t), are
called the state variables. X 1(t), X2(t)....Xn(t) are nothing but the state variables. These are normally
the energy storing elements contained in the system.

3) State Vector: The 'n' state variables necessary to describe the complete behaviour of the
system can be considered as 'n' components of a vector X(t) called the state vector at time ‘t’. The
state vector X(t) is the vector sum of all the state variables.

4) State Space: The space whose co-ordinate axes are nothing but the ‘n’ state variables with time
as the implicit variable is called the state space.

5) State Trajectory: It is the locus of the tips of the state vectors, with time as the implicit
variable.

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State Equation:

.
X ( t ) = AX ( t ) + BU ( t )

where , X(t) = State vector matrix of order n × 1

U(t) = Input vector matrix of order m × 1

A = System matrix or Evolution matrix of order n × n

B = Input matrix or control matrix of order n × m

Output equations:

Y (t) = C X (t ) + D U (t )

Where, Y(t) = Output vector matrix of order p × 1

C = Output matrix or observation matrix of order p × n

D = Direct transmission matrix of order p × m

Transfer Function Matrix:

−1
C sI − A  B + D = H (s)

Transfer Matrix Description:

Y(s) = H(s)U(s)

State Space Methods:

1. General State Equation Solution:

t A ( t − )
x ( t ) = eAt − to x ( to ) + to e Bu (  ) d

−1 −1
X ( s ) = sI − A  X 0 + sI − A  BU(s)
zero input response zero state response

n−1
x n = Anx 0 +  An−1−mBu n
m= 0

2. General Output Equation Solution:

t A ( t −)
y ( t ) = CeAt − to x ( to ) + C e Bu (  ) d + Du ( t )
to

n −1
y n = CAnx 0 +  CAn−1−mBu n + Du n
m= 0

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X 0 + C sI − A  B + D U(s)

−1 −1
Y ( s ) = C sI − A 
 
zero input response zero state response

STATE-TRANSITION MATRIX

eAt = (t) = L  sI − A  

−1 −1

 

Properties of the State-Transition Matrix

The state-transition matrix STM possesses the following properties:

1.  (0) = I (the identity matrix)

2.  –1(t) =  (–t)

3.  (t2 – t1 )  (t1 – t0) =  (t2 – t0) for any t0, t1, t2

4. (t)k=  (kt) for k = positive integer

.
5. (t) = A (t)

Controllability

Qc = [B : AB : A2B :………….An-1B]

Where, Qc = controllability test matrix (n x nm)

Condition for state controllability,

|Qc|≠ 0 (Matrix should be non-singular)

Observability

Qo = [CT : ATCT : (AT)2CT :………….(AT)n-1CT]

Where, Qo = observability test matrix (n x np)

Condition for state observability,

|Q0|≠ 0(Matrix should be non-singular)

NOTE:

If A is a diagonal matrix then

(i) System is observable if matrix C has any non zero element.

(ii) System is controllable if matrix B has any non zero element.

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