Lapas
Lapas
Lapas
The Utility of Digital Aerial Surveys in Censusing
Dipteryx panamensis, the Key Food and Nesting Tree of the
Endangered Great Green Macaw (Ara ambigua) in Costa Rica
by
Sara L. M. Chun
University Program in Ecology
Duke University
Date:_______________________
Approved:
___________________________
Norman L. Christensen, Chair
___________________________
Gary S. Hartshorn
___________________________
Dean L. Urban
___________________________
Robin L. Chazdon
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in the University Program in Ecology
in the Graduate School
of Duke University
2008
ABSTRACT
The Utility of Digital Aerial Surveys in Censusing
Dipteryx panamensis, the Key Food and Nesting Tree of the
Endangered Great Green Macaw (Ara ambigua) in Costa Rica
by
Sara L. M. Chun
University Program in Ecology
Duke University
Date:_______________________
Approved:
___________________________
Norman L. Christensen, Chair
___________________________
Gary S. Hartshorn
___________________________
Dean L. Urban
___________________________
Robin L. Chazdon
An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in the University Program in Ecology
in the Graduate School
of Duke University
2008
Copyright by
Sara L. M. Chun
2008
Abstract
Remote sensing technologies offer an innovative way to study tropical forests
and complement research from forest inventory plots. From a logistic standpoint,
remote sensing mitigates some of the physical, political, and economic challenges that
complicate terrestrial studies of tropical forests. From a biological standpoint, remotely
sensed data can elucidate ecological phenomena and dynamics of tropical forests that
may be challenging to observe on the ground. I conducted a digital aerial survey during
the peak blooming period for Dipteryx panamensis. D. panamensis is a canopy‐emergent,
keystone tree species within the lowland Atlantic forests of Costa Rica. The aerial
survey occurred over Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge, which is situated in the
proposed San Juan‐La Selva Biological Corridor. Maquenque was decreed in 2005 to
protect the last breeding habitat for the endangered Great Green Macaw (Ara ambigua) in
Costa Rica. The Great Green Macaw depends on D. panamensis as its primary food and
nesting resource. However, because of Costa Rica’s complex deforestation history, the
Great Green Macaw remains imperiled due to habitat fragmentation, degradation, and
loss. Only 25 to 35 breeding pairs and 250 individuals likely persist in the country. My
research had three main objectives. First, I evaluated a classification technique that
capitalized on the unique spectral signature of blooming D. panamensis in order to detect
this species using a pattern recognition approach. Second, I determined the landscape
i v
density and distribution of this tree species using results from the aerial survey and
classification. I also noted environmental factors predicting potential D. panamensis
habitat using a classification and regression tree (CART) model, and I subsequently
calculated how much potential habitat exists in Costa Rica. Third, I identified
environmental conditions that indicate potential breeding habitat for the Great Green
Macaw using a CART model, and I calculated how much potential breeding habitat
exists in Costa Rica. Results of the classification work indicate that D. panamensis can be
identified based on its unique spectral signature. In particular, the IHS (intensity, hue,
saturation) color space was effective at resolving this tree. Results of the density
analysis suggest that canopy‐emergent D. panamensis trees occur at densities as high as 2
trees/hectare. This work demonstrates that D. panamensis exists in denser patches than
previously determined from forest inventory plots. Environmental conditions that will
support high densities of D. panamensis habitat occur between 45 and 125 meters in
elevation and on soil with an acid and clay profile. Nearly 240,000 hectares could
support high density patches of D. panamensis in Costa Rica. Potential Great Green
Macaw breeding habitat is defined by the density of D. panamensis trees within its 550‐
hectare breeding territory. Approximately 67,000 hectares of Great Green Macaw
breeding territory exist in Costa Rica. Ultimately, the conservation of both D. panamensis
and the Great Green Macaw in Costa Rica may require a multinational partnership
between Costa Rica and Nicaragua.
v
Dedication
Dedicated to the memories of my grandmothers, Popo Chun and Popo Lee, two
women whose own journeys spirited me to where I am today.
v
i
Contents
Abstract .........................................................................................................................................iv
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................xii
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1. Introduction............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 A land of pura vida .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 A bit about Costa Rica’s biodiversity ............................................................................ 5
1.3 A pock on the landscape: Costa Rica’s history of deforestation ............................... 6
1.4 Costa Rica’s system of protected areas........................................................................ 10
1.5 New conservation directions ........................................................................................ 11
1.5.1 Background on Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge and the proposed San
Juan‐La Selva Biological Corridor .......................................................................... 12
1.5.2 Current land use and human dimensions within the San Juan‐La Selva
Biological Corridor.................................................................................................... 12
1.5.3 San Juan‐La Selva Biological Corridor design....................................................... 14
1.6 Research opportunities within the San Juan‐La Selva Biological Corridor............ 16
1.7 Synopses of dissertation chapters ................................................................................ 16
Chapter 2. An evaluation of digital aerial photography as a means to survey Dipteryx
panamensis, a canopy‐emergent tree species, during its peak blooming in
Costa Rica................................................................................................................ 19
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 19
2.1.1 Remote sensing studies of tropical forests compared to forest
inventory plots .......................................................................................................... 19
vii
2.1.2 Overview of remote sensing platforms used to identify individual tree crowns
in the tropics .............................................................................................................. 22
2.1.3 Objectives.................................................................................................................... 26
2.2 Materials and methods .................................................................................................. 27
2.2.1 Study site: San Juan‐La Selva Biological Corridor............................................... 27
2.2.2 Aerial survey technique............................................................................................ 29
2.2.3 Digital photographs .................................................................................................. 32
2.2.4 Image enhancement: contrast stretch .................................................................... 34
2.2.5 Image enhancement: conversion to intensity, hue, and
saturation color space ............................................................................................... 37
2.2.6 Supervised classification .......................................................................................... 37
2.2.7 Post‐classification image processing: recode........................................................ 41
2.2.8 D. panamensis clump density determination.......................................................... 42
2.2.9 Classification error assessment................................................................................ 43
2.3 Results .............................................................................................................................. 46
2.3.1 Comparison of image enhancement transformations .......................................... 46
2.3.2 Signature separability ............................................................................................... 46
2.3.3 Classification error assessment................................................................................ 49
2.3.4 High density images ................................................................................................. 50
2.4 Discussion........................................................................................................................ 50
Chapter 3. Density distribution, habitat description, and fragmentation of a population
of Dipteryx panamensis in northern Costa Rica................................................... 54
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 54
3.1.1 Objectives.................................................................................................................... 55
viii
3.2 Background ..................................................................................................................... 56
3.2.1 Overview of biogeographic studies in the tropics ................................................ 56
3.2.1.1 Limitations of terrestrial forest inventory plots............................................. 56
3.2.1.2 The importance of documenting the distribution of keystone species ...... 57
3.2.2 Background on study species: D. panamensis ....................................................... 58
3.2.2.1 Conservation status and keystone species designation................................ 58
3.2.2.2 Phenological patterns ........................................................................................ 59
3.2.2.3 Interactions with other organisms................................................................... 61
3.2.2.4 Threats and conservation measures ................................................................ 62
3.2.2.5 Habitat requirements, distribution, and abundance..................................... 62
3.2.2.6 Pollen dispersal patterns for D. panamensis.................................................... 63
3.3 Materials and methods .................................................................................................. 65
3.3.1 Study Site: San Juan‐La Selva Biological Corridor .............................................. 65
3.3.2 Landscape distribution of D. panamensis................................................................ 65
3.3.2.1 Digital aerial surveys......................................................................................... 65
3.2.2.2 D. panamensis density determinations: semi‐automated supervised
classification and manual density approach................................................. 65
3.2.2.3 Creation of a D. panamensis density map using the IDW interpolation
method................................................................................................................ 68
3.3.3 Density trends over the study landscape and forested areas.............................. 71
3.3.4 Environmental factors predicting high density locations of D. panamensis: a
classification tree approach ..................................................................................... 71
3.3.5 Delineation of potential D. panamensis habitat ...................................................... 77
3.3.6 Fragmentation analysis of moderate density D. panamensis patches ................. 77
ix
3.4 Results and discussion................................................................................................... 80
3.4.1 Landscape distribution of D. panamensis................................................................ 80
3.4.2 Density trends over the study landscape and forested areas.............................. 80
3.4.3 Environmental factors that predict locations of high D. panamensis density.... 86
3.4.4 Delineation of potential D. panamensis habitat ...................................................... 86
3.4.5 Degree of fragmentation of moderate density D. panamensis patches ............... 88
3.5 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 93
Chapter 4. Determination and description of potential nesting habitat for the Great
Green Macaw (Ara ambigua) in northern Costa Rica using a classification and
regression tree model ............................................................................................ 97
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 97
4.1.1 Objectives.................................................................................................................... 99
4.2 Background ..................................................................................................................... 99
4.2.1 General description and ecology of the Great Green Macaw in Costa Rica ..... 99
4.3.3 Development of Great Green Macaw nesting habitat model: a classification
tree approach ........................................................................................................... 105
4.4 Results and discussion................................................................................................. 108
4.4.3 Location of potential Great Green Macaw nesting habitat................................ 110
Chapter 5. General conclusions.............................................................................................. 117
Appendix A: Newspaper article published in La Nación describing “suspicious”
overflights ........................................................................................................ 120
Appendix C: Recent ruling that bans the use, exploitation, or extraction of
D. panamensis ................................................................................................... 128
Biography................................................................................................................................... 143
xi
List of Tables
Table 1: Number of photos sampled for the classification error assessment .................... 44
Table 2: Results of the classification error assessment.......................................................... 50
Table 3: Response and predictor variables used in CART model to predict potential D.
panamensis habitat ....................................................................................................... 75
Table 4: Summary of response variable bins.......................................................................... 76
Table 5: Description of bins for fragmentation analysis ....................................................... 78
Table 6: Percentage of the total and forested landscape represented by each D.
panamensis density bin .............................................................................................. 82
Table 7: Summary of FRAGSTATS metrics............................................................................ 89
Table 8: Response and predictor variables used in the CART model to predict potential
Great Green Macaw habitat ...................................................................................... 107
xii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Location of Costa Rica within Central America and protected areas in Costa
Rica................................................................................................................................ 2
Figure 2: Location of Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge and proposed San Juan‐La
Selva Biological Corridor ........................................................................................... 4
Figure 3: Digital camera platform and airplane used in aerial surveys ............................. 31
Figure 4: Location of aerial surveys over the proposed San Juan‐La Selva Biological
Corridor ...................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 5: Sequence of image enhancement steps................................................................... 47
Figure 6: Sample signature separability plot.......................................................................... 48
Figure 7: Sample images with high densities of D. panamensis trees.................................. 51
Figure 8: Land use classification within proposed San Juan‐La Selva
Biological Corridor.................................................................................................... 72
Figure 9: Density distribution of D. panamensis ..................................................................... 81
Figure 10: Percentage of the total landscape represented in various D. panamensis
density bins .............................................................................................................. 83
Figure 11: Percentage of forested landscape represented in various D. panamensis
density bins .............................................................................................................. 84
Figure 12: Potential habitat that can support D. panamensis > 0.4 trees/hectare................ 87
Figure 13: Distribution of 13 subpopulation patches with moderate D. panamensis
density....................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 14: Connected moderate density D. panamensis patches.......................................... 92
Figure 15: Location of Indio‐Maíz Biological Reserve, Nicaragua in relation to potential
D. panamensis habitat in Costa Rica....................................................................... 95
xiii
Figure 17: Location of Indio‐Maíz Biological Reserve, Nicaragua in relation to potential
Great Green Macaw nesting habitat in Costa Rica ........................................... 115
xiv
Acknowledgments
Like most doctoral students, I never truly believed that I would arrive at this
stage of the dissertation process. To me, these final words of thanks represented some
imaginary endpoint that would never be realized. But here I am writing my
acknowledgements. I’m reminded of the plucky bunny hero in my favorite children’s
book, “The Velveteen Rabbit” and his quest to be real and not just a stuffed animal that
sat on a dusty shelf. Well, I feel that all of the blood, sweat, and tears that I shed along
my doctoral journey have finally transformed my thesis from the abstract into the real.
And this realness is palpable now.
Of course, many people assisted in the alchemy of converting my ideas into
reality. First and foremost, I need to recognize my two co‐advisors, Dr. Norm
Christensen and Dr. Gary Hartshorn. Your personalities and mentorship styles couldn’t
have been more complementary. Norm, thank you for your sage advice and affable
demeanor throughout these years. Though I have relished all of our conversations, I
have particularly enjoyed listening to all of your musings on life. And I never cease to
be impressed by the depth and breadth of your ecological knowledge. Gary, thank you
for taking me into the field and teaching me about the Neotropics. I will never forget
driving the bumpy roads through the San Juan‐La Selva Corridor, hanging out in Boca
Tapada, and sharing a hike on your favorite La Selva trail. You made me appreciate
Costa Rica as much as you do! I must also acknowledge my two other committee
xv
members, Dr. Robin Chazdon and Dr. Dean Urban. Robin, I cherish the moments I
overlapped with you at La Selva and learned from you. You thought about my project
even from afar and always had an interesting take on it. I also enjoyed getting to know
your family, and I admire how integral they are in your professional life. Dean, thank
you for sharing your knowledge on landscape ecology and getting me up to speed on R.
I appreciate you welcoming me into your lab group meetings early on. And your wry
sense of humor always makes my day!
Because of the international nature of my project, I have many people to
acknowledge both near and far. My pie‐in‐the‐sky idea of flying over the rain forest
began with an innocent conversation with Dr. George Powell after I chatted with him
about the Great Green Macaw and almendro tree back in the summer of 2004. It’s
probably a good thing I didn’t have a sense of all the places this project could go
wrong—or that I would one day be mistaken as a drug trafficker! Jorge Carranza
Sánchez with Mexico’s Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas (CONANP)
took my idea and made it happen. I owe him a huge debt of gratitude for traveling to
Costa Rica and assisting me with the aerial photography. Then, the Costa Rican pilots of
AeroBell gave my project wings—literally. I thank Olivier Chassot and Guisselle Monge
Árias with the Great Green Macaw Research and Conservation Project. Not only have
they given me access to data, but they have almost singlehandedly brought the vision of
Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge to life. At the La Selva Biological Station, Drs.
xvi
David and Deborah Clark are tropical ecologists extraordinaire. In particular, David has
shared his data on the big trees of La Selva and helped me think about my project. Dr.
Deedra McClearn gave me insight into the almendro’s flowering patterns. I thank
Marcia Snyder, former GIS manager at La Selva, for her geospatial assistance. I also
thank the many local scientists and staff at La Selva who helped with my travel and
research logistics. Finally, I am grateful to John and Chris Thomas for opening their
home in Alajuela and providing me with fellowship, family, and food during my many
trips to Costa Rica!
At Duke University, many people have helped me as I wrangled with oodles of
digital images and grappled with GIS. I want to especially acknowledge Pete Harrell and
Dr. Clinton Jenkins. Both were hugely generous with their time and helped me surmount
many roadblocks when I got stuck. The following also assisted at various points during
my analyses: Dr. Pat Halpin, Joe Sexton, Ron Sutherland, and Dr. Jennifer Swenson. The
Nicholas School IT kept my computer running smoothly. And Nancy Morgans and Meg
Stephens both helped me navigate the inner workings of the Nicholas School.
I have had the privilege of traversing the doctoral path in the company of many
good friends. We mutually supported each other and reminded one another that there
is a life outside of school. I feel especially blessed by my female friends who shared this
academic journey with me. I would like to say a heartfelt thanks to Ariana Sutton‐Grier,
Dawoon Jung, Erica Tsai, Julie DeMeester, Melissa Kenney, Michelle Hersh, and Regina
xvii
Peón Díaz Barriga. I also would like to thank the other halves—Carl Salk, Jackson Fox,
Nat Grier, and Paul Gong. Thank you to my friend Rodney Vargas for all the times we
lunched at Guglhupf and cheered on the Blue Devils. To Jeff Clark, I enjoyed your real‐
world take on environmental issues. Finally, I offer a sincere thank‐you to my adopted
Chinese family, the Kaos (Rom, Jeannie, Andrew, and Bianca). A chance meeting during
my first day in Durham led to this lifelong friendship. I have enjoyed all the afternoons
making dumplings, and it’s been a delight to watch Bianca and Andrew grow up to such
wonderful young adults.
Now I come to my real family. What can I say? You have all been with me
through every twist and turn in my life and allowed me the latitude to become who I
am. Thank you. Mom and Dad, you accompanied me as my Duke adventure started.
Wasn’t that cross‐country trip fun? I’ll never forget it. To my Mom, Ann Chun, I thank
you for dreaming big dreams for me yet always reminding me to stay grounded. To my
Dad, Robert Chun, I thank you for all the little ways you show you care—like my car,
the VIA magazines, and all the NY Times puzzles! To my younger brother, Matthew,
somehow we both found ourselves sharing this PhD experience together. I think our
parents have often wondered what they’d done wrong to have two kids suffering
through their PhDs! Well, of all the times we asked each other, “Why?” I know we both
were secretly cheering each other on. Thanks!
xviii
Finally, I owe my deepest gratitude to my best friend, Jerry Hsu. Although we
were both together and apart, you walked beside me during every step of this journey
and always inspired me to do my best. You raised my spirits when I was down, buoyed
my confidence when it wavered, and provided never‐ending entertainment when I
needed a laugh. Grand adventures now await us. I know it!
* * *
I thank the following funding sources that made my doctoral research possible:
Duke University Graduate School, Duke University Center for Latin American &
Caribbean Studies, Organization for Tropical Studies, Sigma Xi Scientific Research
Society, Kuzmier‐Lee‐Nikitine Fund, and the Lazar Scholarship through the Nicholas
School’s Student International Discussion Group.
xix
Chapter 1. Introduction
In 2007, more than 1.9 million international tourists (Fallas 2007) made their way
to the tiny country of Costa Rica, which is nestled within the Central American land
bridge between North and South America (Figure 1). Many of these tourists came
searching for adventure or sanctuary amongst the country’s dramatic volcanoes, lush
forests, and picturesque beaches. Whether these visitors identified themselves as
ecotourists1 or not, most were engaged in some form of nature‐based tourism. More
than half of all nonresident visitors explored a national park or protected zone during
their trip (ICT 2006). And these visitors came to the right place, to a country whose
unofficial motto of pura vida or “pure life” encapsulates the spirit of a people renowned
for their conservation ethic and value of the natural world.
There is ample evidence for why Costa Rica is heralded as an exemplar of how to
conduct tropical conservation in a developing country. Though only 51,100 km2
(roughly the size of the state of West Virginia), Costa Rica boasts over 150 protected
areas such as national parks, biological preserves, and wildlife refuges that cover nearly
25% of its national territory (Sanchez‐Azofeifa et al. 2003, WRI 2003). Maquenque
1 While many definitions of ecotourism abound, The International Ecotourism Society (2008) has defined it as
“responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the wellbeing of local
people”.
1
Figure 1: Location of Costa Rica within Central America and protected areas in Costa
Rica
2
National Wildlife Refuge (MNWR), which is embedded within the proposed San Juan‐
La Selva (SJLS) Biological Corridor (Figure 2), is one of the newest areas to join that list
of protected areas. Decreed in 2005, though not yet operational, MNWR may soon draw
some of Costa Rica’s 1.9 million visitors. If lucky, these tourists may catch a glimpse of
the dazzling Great Green Macaw (Ara ambigua 2), which feeds on and nests in Dipteryx
panamensis 3, a widespread tree of the lowland Atlantic forest.
Yet the story of MNWR and the rest of Costa Rica’s protected areas is a complex
one. Although this country is a model for tropical conservation and has pioneered
innovative strategies like debt‐for‐nature swaps, bio‐prospecting, and payments for
ecosystem services, Costa Rica had one of the highest deforestation rates during the 20th
century among Latin American countries. While this pattern of land clearing
dramatically altered the natural landscape, it also galvanized a cadre of local biologists
such as Mario Boza and Alvaro Ulgado (Boza 1993). And this spirit of pura vida
continues to pave the way for new conservation efforts like MNWR and the SJLS
Corridor that will be discussed later.
2 Ara ambiguus is also an accepted scientific name for the Great Green Macaw. Please see David and
Gosselin (2002).
3 Based on a recent nomenclatural ruling, this tree should be referenced as Dipteryx oleifera (Stevens et al.
2001). However, published studies on this tree in Costa Rica continue to use Dipteryx panamensis. Hence, I
am following that precedent in this document.
3
Figure 2: Location of Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge and proposed San Juan‐
La Selva Biological Corridor
4
Costa Rica exhibits exceptional biodiversity and a diverse array of ecosystems.
Biological inventories have identified over 200 species of mammals, 845 species of birds,
160 species of amphibians, 218 species of reptiles, and 10,000 species of vascular plants
comprising 4% of the total number of the world’s plant species (Boza 1993). Costa Rica
also exhibits a high degree of endemism. For example, Hartshorn and Hammel (1994)
estimate that 10% of the plants found in Costa Rica’s Atlantic lowlands are endemic to
the country. Scientists attribute this disproportionate amount of biodiversity to the fact
that Costa Rica is located along the Mesoamerican land bridge that links the continents
of North and South America and has facilitated the dispersal of plants and animals over
time (Wallace 1997). Costa Rica also has many diverse and unique ecosystems. In fact,
this country can be classified into 23 different life zones (Powell et al. 2000). The life
zone system uses gradients of mean temperature, annual precipitation, and
evapotranspiration to predict plant communities (Holdridge 1947, Holdridge et al. 1971).
Costa Rica is also included in the biodiversity hotspot of Mesoamerica due to this
region’s high concentration of endemic species yet exceptional loss of habitat overall
(Myers et al. 2000).
5
It may seem odd that a country that has protected nearly 25% of its national
territory had one of the highest tropical deforestation rates during the 20th century. Yet
it is a testament to how far Costa Rica has come in terms of balancing economic growth
with natural resource preservation. The arrival of the Spanish in the 1500s marked the
beginning of sporadic forest clearing in Costa Rica. This trend accelerated until the mid
1900s as thousands of hectares of forests were cleared for agriculture and cattle pastures
(Pfaff and Sanchez‐Azofeifa 2004). Many researchers attribute the rise in forest clearing
following World War II to various demographic, social, and political factors at both
national and international levels that put pressure on the country’s natural resources.
First, Costa Rica’s population expanded four‐fold in the two generations following
World War II from less than 800,000 to over 3 million people (Rosero‐Bixby and Palloni
1998). By the 1960s, Costa Rica had one of the world’s fastest population growth rates—
a 4% natural increase/year (Rosero‐Bixby and Palloni 1998). The annual population
growth rate has slowed considerably and is projected to be 1.5% between 2005 and 2010;
the total population is about 4.5 million people (United Nations Economic and Social
Affairs 2006). Demographers and ecologists have acknowledged a causal link between
pressures from population growth and increased natural resource use (Rosero‐Bixby
and Palloni 1998). The peak in population growth during the 1960s stemmed from
6
Costa Rica’s national policies that prioritized demographic growth and agricultural
production (Pfaff and Sanchez‐Azofeifa 2004). This ultimately led to forest clearing.
Costa Rica’s presence on the international commodities market during the 20th
century also affected spatiotemporal patterns of deforestation and influenced which
crops were planted in the wake of forest clearing. In the early 1900s, lands that could
grow coffee were cleared first (Pfaff and Sanchez‐Azofeifa 2004). These areas were
concentrated in the central volcanic region of the country. Depending on the shifting
prices of various commodities throughout the 20th century, forest was also removed to
support crops like banana, sugar cane, pineapple, and cattle. The latter resulted in what
Myers (1981) termed the “hamburger connection”, as foreign appetite for cheap beef
resulted in the widespread clearing of tropical forests in Central and South America in
order to raise cattle.
So how have these demographic and economic factors affected land‐use patterns,
and how much forest was lost during the peak of Costa Rica’s land clearing? Ultimately,
there have been numerous studies tracking Costa Rica’s deforestation trends, and new
remote sensing technologies have afforded a more precise documentation of land‐use
patterns. Joyce (2006) has prepared a comprehensive resource that summarizes land‐use
change in Costa Rica from 1966 to 2006. Here, I will just highlight some major trends
regarding deforestation rates. Based on aerial photos and Landsat Multispectral Scanner
data collected from five individual years between 1940 and 1983, Sader and Joyce (1988)
7
note that the total primary forest remaining in 1940, 1950, 1961, 1977, and 1983 was 67%,
56%, 45%, 32%, and 17%, respectively. Furthermore, deforestation occurred primarily in
tropical dry and moist life zones during the early period. Between 1977 and 1983, the
annual forest clearing rate was 8.8% in tropical wet forest, and over 78% of the primary
forest in this life zone had been lost. During this same period, tropical moist forest was
lost at an average annual rate of 16.4% and almost no primary forest in this life zone
remained by 1983. Many scientists concur that Costa Rica’s deforestation rate peaked in
the 1970s. In fact, Costa Rica had the fifth highest deforestation rate in the world from
1976 to 1980 as calculated by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization
(Sanchez‐Azofeifa et al. 2001). The annual deforestation rate remained high between
1986 and 1991 as forests were cleared annually at 4.2%/year (Sanchez‐Azofeifa et al.
2001). By the end of this period, almost all forest within the tropical moist forest and
premontane moist forest life zones had been eliminated.
In addition, Costa Rica’s social and political history may also be inextricably
linked to its deforestation record. Costa Rica managed to avoid most of the strife, civil
wars, and economic turmoil that plagued many of its Mesoamerican neighbors like
Nicaragua. In fact, Costa Rica suffered only one short civil war in 1948 after which the
army was disbanded; to this day, Costa Rica has no standing army (Campbell 2002).
This enlightened view of the military enabled the country to focus its spending on social
programs that benefit its populace. Costa Rica’s universal healthcare system is one of
8
the best in Latin America and comparable to industrialized nations (Rosero‐Bixby and
Palloni 1998). For example, life expectancy is on par with the United States at 79.7 and
75.0 years for females and males, respectively. In addition, this country has a well‐
developed educational system and boasts one of the most educated citizenry with a 98%
literacy rate for youth between 15 and 24 years of age according to WRI (2003). Such
progressive national policies have resulted in a populace accustomed to a standard of
living akin to developed countries, putting pressure on Costa Rica’s natural resources.
However, these economic and social successes have put this country in the
position to support and nurture national conservation efforts. The 1970s were the
inception of Costa Rica’s national parks system as a cadre of conservation‐minded
people decided to do something about Costa Rica’s rampant loss of primary forest.
Deforestation has slowed in the last two decades. Coupled with reforestation efforts
largely begun after 1979 as well as widespread secondary forest regeneration, some of
the damage done to Costa Rica’s forests has been mitigated (Butterfield 1994, Chazdon
2003). Foreign tourists are now flocking to this country that offers the political stability
and amenities not present in many Latin American countries. In addition, new
economies like ecotourism offer a way to bridge economic development with
sustainable natural resource use.
9
Costa Rica’s nascent conservation movement was borne out of a desire to protect
areas of natural beauty in the wake of high deforestation in the 1960s. Boza (1993)
acknowledges that the first national parks were created in areas of stunning scenic
beauty, on historic sites of national significance, or in areas of demonstrated
conservation importance. Thus, the first national parks were created in the early 1970s
and included Poás, Cahuita, and Santa Rosa National Parks. At this time, the early
conservationists had just five guards and a vehicle, but little experience and no
administrative support (Boza 1993). From these humble beginnings, Costa Rica now
boasts over 150 protected areas that include not only national parks but wildlife refuges
and national monuments that attract some of the 1.9 million annual visitors. These
protected areas are now managed under the National System of Conservation Areas
known as SINAC, which is part of the government’s Ministry of Environment and
Energy (MINAE). Even though over 25% of the country’s national territory is
designated as some type of protected area, only 12 of Costa Rica’s 23 life zones are
adequately represented with more than 5,000 ha under conservation (Powell et al. 2000).
Those 12 life zones account for 98% of the total area protected in the country. The
remaining 11 life zones are represented in just 2% of the total area protected in the
country, or not represented at all. The majority of the protected areas are concentrated
along higher elevation regions running along Costa Rica’s volcanic backbone. Life zones
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in lowland areas are less well represented as these areas were settled by humans and
were more susceptible to forest clearing. For example, only 9% of the tropical wet forest
life zone is protected (Powell et al. 2000). Not only do Powell et al. (2000) advocate the
expansion of existing protected areas in order to target underrepresented life zones, but
they also champion the establishment of corridors in order to facilitate the movement of
organisms with large habitat needs and foster genetic flow. Corridors have long been
proposed by conservation biologists as a means to link species, habitats, or processes
that operate at multiple spatial and temporal scales (Noss 1991). Despite Costa Rica’s
impressive conservation achievements, it is apparent that more can still be done.
With all that Costa Rica has achieved, it is not resting on its laurels. Decreed in
2005, Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge (MNWR) represents the newest addition to
Costa Rica’s network of protected areas. Because MNWR is located within lowland
Atlantic rain forest, it fills some of the gaps missing in the system of protected zones. In
addition, it represents the core area within a larger biological corridor effort known as
the San Juan‐La Selva (SJLS) Biological Corridor that would link protected areas in
southern Nicaragua to Costa Rica’s Central Volcanic Range reserve. MNWR and the
greater SJLS Corridor are the setting for the research contained in this dissertation.
1 1
The SJLS Corridor originated in March 2001 when the SJLS Executive Committee
was formed to implement the vision of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor (MBC)
project within Costa Rica. The MBC is a transnational effort among Guatemala, Belize,
El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, as well as the five southern
states of Mexico (Kaiser 2001). Established in 1997, the purpose of the MBC project is to
unite protected areas throughout the Central American isthmus by either expanding
extant protected areas or restoring intervening lands. The SJLS Corridor represents one
span of the MBC that will link five protected areas in southern Nicaragua (including the
264,000 ha Indio‐Maíz Biological Reserve) with Costa Rica’s Central Volcanic Range
reserve (Chassot et al. 2004). It comprises 246,608 ha of fragmented lands and is located
in northern Costa Rica within the provinces of Heredia and Alajuela in the Huetar Norte
region of the country. The SJLS Corridor takes its name after the San Juan River that
forms the border between Costa Rica and Nicaragua and the La Selva Biological Station,
a field station operated by the Organization for Tropical Studies in Costa Rica.
1.5.2 Current land use and human dimensions within the San Juan-La
Selva Biological Corridor
An estimated 45,000 people live in the SJLS corridor’s several towns and smaller
population centers (Chassot et al. 2004). Approximately, 30,000 people inhabit
communities adjacent to the corridor such as Puerto Viejo, La Virgen, and Horquetas de
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Sarapiquí. According to official census data from 2000, about 30 inhabitants per square
kilometer reside within the proposed corridor region (INEC 2001). The private
environmental research firm CEDARENA (Centro de Derecho Ambiental y de los
Recursos Naturales) conducted an exhaustive land tenure survey to identify property
owners and delineate inholdings within the Huertar Norte region. They ultimately
identified over 700 private farms with a registered title within MNWR. As the refuge is
developed, compensation and relocation of land owners will be a significant challenge.
Land use within the proposed corridor is varied and includes primary forest,
secondary forest, deforested areas, and agricultural zones. Much of the non‐forested
areas comprise a matrix of abandoned cattle pastures, tree plantations, and various
agricultural crops. This region’s land conversion can be attributed to government
incentives that encouraged the expansion of the agricultural frontier and the clearance of
forest for cattle pasture (Butterfield 1994). With the advent of numerous forestry laws as
well as a payments for ecosystem services program, much of this previously cleared
land is either regenerating naturally or being reforested. Landowners who maintain
their land in ways that promote the following services—mitigation of greenhouse gas
emissions; water use for domestic purposes, irrigation, and hydroelectricity; biodiversity
conservation; or ecotourist and recreational purposes—are allowed to apply to the
payments for ecosystem services program for financial remuneration (Snider et al. 2003).
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The SJLS Executive Committee has outlined a strategy to consolidate the matrix
of public and private lands and implement the SJLS Corridor (Chassot et al. 2004).
Lands will be purchased, and the property rights transferred to SINAC. The initial
design for the SJLS Corridor integrates three land‐use levels with increasing levels of
biodiversity protection and ecosystem integrity within the core (Figure 2). These levels
include 1) Core Protected Area, 2) Corridor Nuclei, and 3) Corridor Matrix. The goal of
the SJLS corridor initiative is to protect 100% of the core protected area and nuclei and
50% of the matrix (Chassot et al. 2004). A more detailed description of each region
follows.
MNWR forms the heart of the SJLS Corridor, as it constitutes the Core Protected
Area. It was officially decreed in 2005. Totaling approximately 59,700 ha or 24% of the
corridor, MNWR is situated just south of the Nicaraguan border. Its boundaries are
roughly circumscribed by three rivers, the Río San Juan to the north and the Río Toro
and Río Sarapiquí to the southeast. The Río San Carlos flows through the reserve and
divides it into two sections. MNWR comprises intact lowland Atlantic forest dominated
by a high density of the tree, D. panamensis. Lowland Atlantic forest is an ecosystem
type that is poorly represented in Costa Rica’s suite of protected areas. In addition to
safeguarding a unique habitat assemblage, one of the primary purposes of MNWR is to
protect the dwindling population of the Great Green Macaw, which depends on D.
1 4
panamensis as a food resource and nesting substrate. MNWR forms the core of the
proposed SJLS Corridor by uniting other wildlands and protected areas throughout
Costa Rica and Nicaragua such as Barra del Colorado Wildlife Refuge to the east, La
Selva Biological Station and Braulio Carrillo National Park to the south, and the Indio‐
Maíz Biological Reserve to the north in Nicaragua.
The Corridor Nuclei consist of three blocks of habitat constituting about 41,150
ha or about 17% of the SJLS Corridor (Chassot et al. 2004). Tirícias‐Crucitas, the largest
of the nuclear patches, totals 27,273 ha and would buffer protected areas in adjoining
Nicaragua. The Cerros Astilleros‐Lomas de Sardinal nuclear area encompasses 9,043 ha,
while the Cerros Arrepentidos nuclear area comprises 3,838 ha. While these nuclei have
been identified, none has officially been protected. Nor have any of the blocks been
prioritized for acquisition.
The remainder of the SJLS Corridor that does not comprise MNWR or the
Corridor Nuclei is designated as Corridor Matrix. Currently, the matrix is the most
fragmented and degraded portion of the corridor and includes the highest degree of
human habitation and varied land uses. This region presents the highest opportunities
for restoration or natural forest regeneration.
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The development of MNWR and the SJLS Corridor adds an exciting chapter to
Costa Rica’s complex yet extraordinary conservation story. Borne as a reaction to the
troubling patterns of deforestation during the 20th century, Costa Rica’s conservation
movement now has coalesced to consider the visionary SJLS Corridor project, which has
ecological ramifications beyond the country’s borders. This ongoing conservation
project has provided numerous opportunities for scientific research, and I am grateful
for the opportunity to participate in and contribute to the ongoing SJLS corridor efforts.
It has been an exciting process to observe! While the doctoral research contained in this
dissertation addresses broad ecological questions, it is my hope that this research may
also assist the ongoing conservation efforts in the proposed SJLS Corridor.
Chapter 2 is entitled “An evaluation of digital aerial photography as a means to
survey Dipteryx panamensis, a canopy‐emergent tree species, during its peak blooming in
Costa Rica”. Here, I examine the utility of digital aerial surveys that coincided with the
unique phenological period for D. panamensis to analyze this tree species’ distribution
and density across the SJLS Corridor. The primary purpose of this research was to
develop a semi‐automated classification approach that keyed in on the unique spectral
signature of blooming D. panamensis trees. This tree species is a keystone species and an
1 6
important nesting and food resource for the Great Green Macaw, the flagship organism
around which MNWR was created. Ultimately, this chapter highlights advances in
remote sensing technologies. In addition, it justifies the use of digital aerial
photography as a cost‐effective means of surveying tropical forests.
In Chapter 3, which is titled “Density distribution, habitat description, and
fragmentation of a population of Dipteryx panamensis in northern Costa Rica”, I utilize
the density estimates distilled from the aerial photography methods described in
Chapter 2 to create an interpolated surface showing the distribution of D. panamensis
throughout the SJLS Corridor. In addition, I identify environmental factors that predict
hotspots of high D. panamensis density by using a classification and regression tree
(CART) model. Finally, I examine whether patches of D. panamensis are disconnected
from each other based on measured pollen dispersal distances.
In the final chapter entitled “Determination and description of potential nesting
habitat for the Great Green Macaw (Ara ambigua) in northern Costa Rica using a
classification and regression tree model”, I examine what environmental factors predict
optimal Great Green Macaw nesting habitat. Because the Great Green Macaw relies on
mature D. panamensis trees as a nesting substrate, I use the interpolated surface showing
the distribution and density of D. panamensis to guide this analysis. In addition, I
quantify how much potential nesting habitat exists within the vicinity of the SJLS
1 7
Corridor. Finally, I note if there are any nesting habitat patches that should be
prioritized and targeted in the ongoing conservation efforts.
1 8
2.1 Introduction
Tropical forests are widely considered one of the most diverse and productive
terrestrial ecosystems. Though they cover less then 7% of Earth’s terrestrial surface
(they are restricted between 23.5° north and south latitudes), they may harbor nearly
half of the world’s biodiversity (Reid and Miller 1989). Incredible accounts of species
richness have been reported for tropical forests worldwide. For example, Gentry (1988)
found that one hectare (ha) of rain forest near Iquitos, Perú contained 283 species of trees
> 10 cm dbh (diameter at breast height), while Whitmore et al. (1985) counted 233
vascular plant species on just 0.01 ha of lowland tropical rain forest in Costa Rica.
Compare this to the fact that Europe, north of the Alps and west of Russia, has only 50
indigenous tree species while eastern North America has but 171 (Whitmore 1998).
Tropical regions also exhibit high degrees of endemism. Gentry (1992) noted that the
greatest numbers of endemic species occur in Amazonia, Central America (including
subtropical Mexico), coastal Brazil, and the northern Andes. In addition, tropical
ecosystems are considered to be crucial sinks for CO2 and may play an important role in
1 9
sequestering carbon and mitigating the effects of global climate change. Yet tropical
regions are threatened from a variety of anthropogenic forces such as deforestation,
agricultural intensification, pasture expansion, and urbanization (Lambin et al. 2003).
Achard et al. (2002) determined that the pace of tropical deforestation and forest
degradation from 1990 to 1997 was much higher than previously thought and could
have huge consequences on the ability of these systems to act as carbon sinks.
Sophisticated remote sensing technologies now enable tropical ecologists to track
these threats from afar, garner a large spatial perspective of tropical forests, and explore
these amazing ecosystems that so beguile scientist and layman alike. Until recently,
tropical ecologists have relied on a global network of terrestrial forest inventory plots to
study tropical forests. While forest inventory plots have provided invaluable, long‐term
data on ecological, biological, and physical factors such as tropical biodiversity, forest
dynamics, and nutrient cycling (Condit 1995, Sheil 1995, Clark and Clark 1999), they
have limitations. Clark et al. (2004b) note that many forest inventory plots are limited in
size, sparsely distributed around the globe, or biased in their placement. In addition,
forest inventory plots are relatively small; the mean size of the 17 forest dynamics plots
run by the Smithsonian’s Center for Tropical Forest Science is 32.3 ha (CTFS 2008).
Thus, they tend to poorly sample the large trees generally defined as those > 60 cm
diameter above buttress (Clark et al. 2004b). These large, canopy‐emergent trees have
crowns that soar many meters high making them difficult to study from the ground due
2 0
to obscuration by the intermediate foliage (Clark et al. 2004b, Trichon and Julien 2006).
Canopy studies using cranes, walkways, or tree‐climbing equipment were initiated
largely in the 1980s and enabled tropical ecologists to access the tree crown (Parker et al.
1992, Nadkarni 1994). However, these canopy studies only provide a localized glimpse
of ecological processes and afford limited detail at landscape scales.
Tropical ecologists have long recognized the potential of remote sensing
technologies to complement research in forest inventory plots and enhance the study of
tropical forests in general. Remote sensing refers to the acquisition of information on an
object, area, or phenomenon by a device that is not in contact with the object, area, or
phenomenon under study (Lillesand et al. 2004). From a logistic standpoint, remote
sensing mitigates some of the physical, political, and economic challenges that
complicate terrestrial studies of tropical forests. Tropical ecologists can access remote
landscapes via a “bird’s‐eye view” of the landscape. These areas could be otherwise
challenging to reach because of physical barriers, or dangerous to enter due to political
unrest. Economically, the use of computer‐assisted interpretation of remotely sensed
data may reduce time and costs of traditional field methods (Trichon 2001).
From a biological standpoint, remotely sensed data can elucidate ecological
phenomena and dynamics of tropical forests. Trichon (2001) asserts that aerial photos
may be used to identify particular trees of interest such as commercially important, rare,
endemic, or keystone species. Tree crown architecture and phenology can be studied
2 1
(Trichon 2001) as well as forest dynamics such as tree mortality, survivorship, and
growth (Clark et al. 2004b). Finally, probably the greatest opportunity of remote sensing
is the ability to study tropical forests across large spatial or temporal extents.
New remote sensing platforms and the availability of multispectral and
hyperspectral data are bringing us closer to conducting automated, individual tree
species recognition. As noted above, forest inventory plots tend to undersample very
large, canopy‐emergent trees. The advances in individual tree species recognition and
finer sensors may elucidate this important structural guild over much larger study areas
(Clark et al. 2004b).
Turner et al. (2003) describe the multitude of remote sensing platforms and
sensors used for biological conservation studies. Here, I will discuss those that have
been specifically used to examine tropical forests and highlight some that may enable
the study of individual tree crowns. In addition, I will detail the applications of high‐
resolution, digital aerial surveys as they are the remote sensing method used for the
work detailed in this chapter.
Previously, most studies in the tropics relied on remote sensing data coming
from spaceborne, satellite platforms such as Landsat Thematic Mapper sensors with a
spatial resolution of 30 m. This platform produces medium spatial resolution imagery
2 2
that is relatively inexpensive and has been useful in efforts to identify broad land‐
use/land‐cover classifications as well as to detect hotspots of deforested or fragmented
zones (Skole and Tucker 1993, Sanchez‐Azofeifa et al. 2003, Van Laake and Sanchez‐
Azofeifa 2004). These sensors can resolve aspects of tropical forest structure such as
differences between young secondary forest and primary forest. However, due to their
coarse spatial resolution, these sensors are unable to differentiate older secondary
growth or selectively logged forest from primary forest (Steininger 2000). In addition,
medium spatial resolution imagery such as Landsat Thematic Mapper cannot detect
features such as individual tree crowns.
High resolution, spaceborne, multispectral sensors such as the commercial
IKONOS, SPOT, and QuickBird satellites have provided new insight into tropical forest
dynamics and may even enable the discrimination of individual tree crowns. The most
recent SPOT satellite was launched in May 2002 and provides multispectral and
panchromatic imagery. QuickBird is a commercial satellite that was launched in 2001
and provides multispectral imagery at 2.4 and 2.8 meter resolutions, and panchromatic
imagery at 60 and 70 centimeter resolutions. IKONOS is another commercial satellite
launched in 1999 that collects high‐resolution imagery at 1 and 4 meter resolution and
offers both multispectral and panchromatic imagery. Palace et al. (2008) and Asner et al.
(2002) have had some success in estimating crown widths of individual trees and
examining forest canopy structure within the Brazilian Amazon using IKONOS
2 3
imagery. However, they found it difficult to separate adjacent, intermingled tree
crowns. Clark et al. (2004b) were able to detect individual tree crowns from IKONOS
images within the La Selva Biological Station and accurately measure crown area. They
also had moderate success differentiating secondary forests and selectively logged
forests from primary forests. Clark et al. (2004a) also were able discern individual,
emergent tree crowns using QuickBird imagery over the La Selva Biological Station in
Costa Rica. Researchers in the temperate zone, specifically Canada, have had more
success in conducting semi‐automated, individual tree crown recognition using a new
generation of high resolution, multispectral imagery known as CASI (Compact Airborne
Spectral Imager) (Leckie et al. 2003, Leckie et al. 2005). However, tree diversity at their
Canadian study site was much lower and comprised three dominant coniferous species,
each with distinctive crown architecture. Thus, the application of this work may be
limited in tropical forests where the tree diversity is so much higher and crown structure
more heterogeneous.
While these multispectral sensors provide limited ability to distinguish
individual tree crowns and identify species, Clark et al. (2005) were able to use airborne,
hyperspectral sensor data from the HYDICE (HYperspectral Digital Imagery Collection
Experiment) sensor to differentiate seven canopy‐emergent trees in Costa Rica at the
leaf, pixel, and crown levels. Hyperspectral sensors are passive sensors that acquire
simultaneous images in many relatively narrow, contiguous and/or non‐contiguous
2 4
spectral bands through the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. This study was the first published report on automated
tropical forest tree classification using high resolution, hyperspectral imagery. It is a
significant advance in using remote sensing to identify individual tree crowns and
species in the tropics.
Despite the advances in these high‐tech multispectral and hyperspectral sensors
and the progress in automated tree crown recognition, aerial photography still offers
many advantages in identifying and studying individual tree crowns within tropical
forests. Tropical ecologists have long recognized the usefulness of large‐scale aerial
photography in tropical species identification (Myers 1982). Now, traditional film‐based
cameras have given way to digital cameras that have resolutions in the megapixel range.
Digital cameras can be mounted on helicopters or small planes thereby giving the
tropical ecologist flexibility to time flights depending on the season in order to capture
specific phenological events. The flying altitude can be controlled, making the
identification of individual tree crowns more assured compared to present airborne or
spaceborne imagery. In addition, with the widespread availability of digital cameras,
aerial photography may be an affordable complement to more expensive airborne or
spaceborne imagery. In the tropics, where funding can be limited and conservation is
frequently conducted on a “shoe‐string” budget, digital aerial photography may provide
a cost‐effective, accessible, and large‐scale method to tropical forest conservation.
2 5
Recent work by tropical ecologists in Central and South America have
successfully showed that human photo‐interpreters had an 87% success rate in
identifying tropical forest trees in French Guiana in large‐scale aerial photographs
(Trichon and Julien 2006). Jansen et al. (2008) timed aerial overflights to coincide with
fruiting of several palm species on Barro Colorado Island, Panama in order to ascertain
if fruit abundance based on photogrammetric analysis correlated with direct fruit
counts. Both of these studies, however, relied on manual photo interpretation of images.
In addition, aerial photographs captured a small spatial extent of less than 25 ha. Foody
et al. (2005) stress that while visually interpreting aerial photographs may produce
accurate maps, it is an inherently subjective method. Instead, digital image classification
techniques should be further investigated. Few studies have explored image
classification methods using digital aerial photographs capturing a large spatial extent to
systematically identify individual tree crowns within a GIS framework.
2.1.3 Objectives
In this study, I examine the feasibility, cost‐effectiveness, and practicality of
censusing and discriminating Dipteryx panamensis using high resolution digital aerial
surveys timed to its peak blooming. D. panamensis is an ecologically and economically
important tree species. This work was conducted over the lowland Atlantic rain forests
of Costa Rica. My main objectives were to:
2 6
1. Evaluate the feasibility of using digital aerial surveys timed with the
unique phenological period for D. panamensis to analyze this tree species’
density across a large spatial extent;
2. Develop an image enhancement, classification, and machine learning
approach for the computer‐automated discrimination of this canopy‐
emergent tropical tree species;
3. Identify high density areas where D. panamensis trees are distributed;
4. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of this classification approach.
The digital aerial surveys were conducted over a portion of the proposed San
Juan‐La Selva Biological Corridor (SJLS) located within northeastern Costa Rica (Figure
2). The SJLS Corridor is situated in northern Costa Rica within the provinces of Heredia
and Alajuela within the Huetar Norte region. The SJLS Corridor spans approximately
246,608 hectares and comprises a matrix of land uses including primary forest,
secondary forest, agriculture, pasture, and human settlements. The predominant forest
type within the SJLS Corridor is lowland Atlantic rain forest dominated by the tree
species D. panamensis. The creation of the SJLS corridor is the vision of Costa Rica’s
Ministry of the Environment as well as several, local non‐governmental organizations
2 7
(NGOs). The SJLS Corridor forms one link of the regional Mesoamerican Biological
Corridor effort that aims to restore habitat to promote the movement of organisms with
large habitat needs and link protected areas within the seven Central American
countries and the four states of southern Mexico (Kaiser 2001). In 2001, the SJLS
Corridor executive committee (comprised of NGOs, government agencies, and research
groups) was charged with implementing the SJLS Corridor effort within Costa Rica. The
executive committee has outlined a strategy to consolidate the matrix of public and
private lands within the proposed corridor. The design of the SJLS corridor integrates
three land‐use levels with increasing levels of biodiversity protection and ecosystem
integrity (Chassot et al. 2004). These levels include the Corridor Matrix, the Corridor
Nuclei, and the Core Protected Area (Figure 2). Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge
(MNWR) forms the Core Protected Area within the SJLS Corridor. In 2005, MNWR was
officially decreed by Costa Rica’s Ministry of the Environment and was allotted
conservation funding and protection. MNWR was selected as the Core Protected Area
because it represents one of the last breeding habitats for the endangered Great Green
Macaw (Ara ambigua) in Costa Rica. Studies by Powell et al. (1999) indicate that the
Great Green Macaw depends on D. panamensis for food and nesting. The conservation
implications of the Great Green Macaw will be addressed within Chapter 4 of this
dissertation.
2 8
From July 4‐8, 2005, I conducted an extensive aerial survey over 140,178 hectares
or 57% of the SJLS Corridor 1. I chartered a Cessna 206 airplane from AeroBell, a local
Costa Rican airplane company, to fly transects over the SJLS Corridor. In general, flights
took off at 7 a.m. and lasted until 4 p.m. Costa Rica time. A total of 21 hours were flown.
I timed the overflights to coincide with the peak blooming for D. panamensis, and I
selected the flight dates based on published descriptions of D. panamensis flowering
patterns and personal observations by tropical ecologists at La Selva Biological Station.
Phenological studies conducted by Frankie et al. (1974) indicate that adult D. panamensis
trees begin blooming about one month into the Caribbean rainy season in Costa Rica.
Although the trigger for the blooming event varies annually, this event generally begins
in late May and continues into early August. After the onset of flowering, individual
adult D. panamensis trees flower asynchronously over a six‐week period with peak
blooming occurring in mid‐July (Perry and Starrett 1980). Flowers are a bright purple.
A more detailed description of the phenological patterns of D. panamensis follows in
Chapter 3 of this dissertation.
Jacaranda copaia is a less common tree species in the project area. However, it can
reach the canopy and produces purple flowers. Thus, this tree could potentially be
As an interesting side note, my aerial surveys did not go unnoticed by the locals living in northern Costa
1
Rica. For more information, please see Appendix A.
2 9
confused for flowering D. panamensis in the digital images. However, Wright and van
Schaik (1994) note an offset in the flowering periods for J. copaia and D. panamensis in the
tropical moist forest of Barro Colorado Island, Panama, and James et al. (1998) observe
that J. copaia flowers in the late dry season in the Coto Brus Valley of Costa Rica.
Because D. panamensis begins to flower at the start of the rainy season, I was confident
that I was photographing this species and not J. copaia.
I employed a Nikon D1X digital camera with an image sensor of 5.3 megapixels
to photograph the SJLS Corridor and capture blooming, canopy‐emergent D. panamensis
trees. The Nikon camera was mounted outside of the Cessna airplane via a stable
platform. Figure 3 depicts the digital camera platform. A test flight was performed to
ascertain the highest elevation that could be flown and still resolve individual, blooming
D. panamensis crowns. Although the pilot had to adjust the flying altitude at times due
to the presence of clouds, the Cessna maintained an average flying altitude of about 1371
meters above sea level (4500 feet) during the overflights. A cable connected the Nikon
camera to a laptop computer located inside the Cessna cabin. The digital photographs
were stored on the laptop as they were taken. In addition, a GPS unit captured
continuous positional information of the Cessna’s flight path. These positional data
were also recorded onto the laptop that was running the program Garmin MapSource.
The positional information was subsequently related to each digital photograph.
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Figure 3: Digital camera platform and airplane used in aerial surveys
3 1
The aerial survey required 21 flight hours to complete. A total of 63 flight
transects were flown. Figure 4 depicts the flight lines of the aerial survey. Forty‐four of
the flight transects were oriented east‐west. These transects were generally located over
the southern portion of the SJLS Corridor as well as MNWR. Nineteen flight transects
traversed the northwestern section of the SJLS corridor and were oriented north‐south.
In general, adjacent flight transects were separated a distance of 1 kilometer.
Photographs within the same flight transect were the most similar in terms of flying
elevation, time of day flown, and sun angle. Ultimately, 2,626 digital images were
collected that spanned about 140,178 hectares of the 246,608‐hectare SJLS Corridor.
Some transects were flown a second time because clouds obscured the first pass. Thus,
there were 2,550 images in the final image count without duplicates.
The Nikon camera’s shutter speed was adjusted based upon the flying altitude so that
adjacent photos within transects overlapped approximately 20%. In addition,
photographs between transects overlapped about 20%. The raw, unprocessed digital
photographs were collected in the Nikon Electronic Format (.nef) which is the
proprietary digital image format used by Nikon digital cameras. All digital images
contained a red, green, and blue (RGB) spectral band. The images did not contain an
infrared band. The raw images were unreferenced and lacked a geographic coordinate
system. However, general positional information could be ascertained for each photo by
3 2
Figure 4: Location of aerial surveys over the proposed San Juan‐La Selva Biological
Corridor
3 3
matching the data from the onboard GPS unit to time/date information collected with
each photograph. Based on an average flying altitude of 4500 ft., the digital images
contained an average field of view (FOV) of 120 hectares and a resolution of about 0.3
meters/pixel.
After the digital photographs were acquired, I converted the photographs to a
format suitable for analysis in a remote sensing platform. I used the Nikon Capture 4
program to convert the digital photographs from the .nef format to .tiff format. At this
stage, I rotated the images so that the images were oriented with north at the top. Next,
I converted the .tiff images to .img files (Erdas Imagine proprietary file format) using the
remote sensing program, Erdas Imagine 8.7. Images were retained as unsigned 8‐bit.
Because I undertook this remote sensing effort to census only one canopy‐
emergent tropical tree species, I enhanced my images in order to unpack and accentuate
the spectral detail of the blooming, purple D. panamensis crowns. The original, digital
images contained red, green, and blue bands. When displaying digital images on a
computer monitor, the appropriate bands are assigned to a red, blue, and green channel.
Here, every pixel within a composite, digital image can be represented within a 3‐
dimensional coordinate space, or color cube, where the three primary colors comprise
the three axes (Lillesand et al. 2004). In a visual monitor using an 8‐bit‐per‐pixel data
encoding, each pixel can be depicted by a “digital number” that ranges from 0‐255. The
3 4
RGB color cube is defined by the brightness values of each of the three primary colors.
As a technical term, brightness refers to the strength or intensity of a color.
A digital image’s spectral histogram depicts the distribution of the number of
pixels and the range of digital numbers (DN) for each channel. In the histogram, the x‐
axis contains the DNs ranging from 0 to 255, while the y‐axis represents the number of
pixels within the image containing a particular DN. Pixels with a smaller DN will
appear darker on‐screen, while those with a larger DN appear brighter. During
exploratory testing of the digital images, it was apparent that the histograms for each of
the three color bands were tightly clumped, thus underutilizing the full range of DN
values available for display and analysis. In order to unpack the spectral data contained
within the digital images, I performed a contrast stretch. The purpose of a contrast
stretch is to expand the narrow range of brightness values typically present in the
spectral bands of an input image over a wider range of DN values. The result is an
output image that has been accentuated in order to enhance the contrast between
features of interest making the image more interpretable to an image analyst (Lillesand
et al. 2004). Standard contrast stretches exist such as a linear stretch or a histogram
equalization stretch. However, the specific contrast stretch that was performed on all the
digital images was a Percentage Look‐Up Table (LUT) Stretch. This type of contrast
stretch clips off a specified percentage of pixels at the low and high ends of the
histogram and then allocates the remaining pixels linearly across the DN values, from 0‐
3 5
255. The purpose of such a stretch is to trim away “noise” at the ends of the histogram
that correspond to features that are not of interest to the image analyst.
I performed a contrast stretch first on one candidate image within each of the 63
flight transects and then applied these enhancements to images across the remainder of
the same flight transect. Images within the same flight transect were more similar in
terms of scene conditions compared with images within different flight transects.
Because flying elevation, flight time, and flight direction varied more across flight
transects and affected the digital scene within photographs, I performed subsequent
image enhancements and transformations based on the unit of the flight transect. For
each candidate image, I clipped 10% off the left end of the histogram and 2.5% off the
right end of the histogram. Finally, the contrast was adjusted across the image by 60%.
These contrast enhancements were performed on the RGB‐format, digital images using
the Contrast Tool in Erdas Imagine 8.7. The Percentage LUT Stretch accentuated the
contrast of the blooming D. panamensis trees within the digital images and unpacked the
spectral data for this specific feature of interest. Finally, I matched the remaining images
within a particular flight transect to the candidate image’s histogram using the batch
function. This procedure known as a histogram matching, converts the histogram of one
image to resemble the histogram of another (LeicaGeosystems 2003).
3 6
Following the contrast stretch, I performed another image enhancement to all of
the digital images. At this step, the digital images were still within the original RGB
color space. I converted the contrast‐stretched, RGB images to an alternate color space
known as intensity, hue, and saturation (IHS). This color space uses intensity, hue, and
saturation as the three positional parameters instead of red, green, and blue and is based
on a color sphere rather than a cube (Jenson 2005). Intensity is the overall brightness of a
color, and values range between 0 and 1. Hue is the principal wavelength of the pixel, or
dominant color, and values extend between 0 and 360. Saturation refers to the purity of
the color relative to gray, and values range between 0 and 1. Gillespie et al. (1986) assert
that the three color bands, RGB, tend to be highly correlated amongst each other.
Conversion of images in RGB color space to IHS color space serves to extract intensity,
hue, and saturation values from each of the red, green, and blue bands and reduce band
intercorrelation. In addition, this technique has proven quite effective in differentiating
green and senescent plant materials in digital imagery having only three bands and
lacking a near infrared band such as the imagery used in my study (Laliberte et al. 2006).
The purpose of the classification step was to extract spectral patterns contained
within the IHS band data of the digital images. Computer processors are able to
3 7
recognize and sort patterns present in the pixels of digital images and provide
meaningful interpretation of features within the scene. In this next step, I extracted
spectral patterns contained within the IHS band data of the enhanced digital images. I
capitalized on the unique spectral signature of blooming D. panamensis trees in order to
identify individuals across my digital images. All pixels within the digital images were
used for the supervised classification.
I collected spectral signatures on the IHS‐converted image in preparation for a
supervised classification. Spectral signatures were contained in a single signature file. I
used the same candidate image selected for the contrast stretch step to collect the
signatures. Spectral signatures are sample pixels that represent a certain feature of
interest that the classification algorithm can then use to classify other pixels in the image.
Examples of common features could be water, urban areas, bare ground, or vegetation.
Signatures are based on training samples collected within the image to be classified. I
collected training samples using the Region Growing Tool, which is a more conservative
method than a user‐defined Area of Interest (AOI). The Region Growing Tool defines
training samples based on specified user parameters such as a maximum training
sample size or a maximum distance that candidate pixels can be to each other spectrally.
Although I was most interested in defining tight signatures representing blooming D.
panamensis trees, I also collected signatures for other land features. This enabled the
supervised classification to allocate pixels for features besides blooming D. panamensis
3 8
into other classes. Some examples of additional classes included vegetation, water,
agriculture, dark regions, bare ground, roads, and clouds. I examined the distribution of
classes using the signature mean plot paying particular attention to the D. panamensis
classes. In addition, I examined the separability of the D. panamensis signatures
compared to the other signature classes by constructing a separability matrix. A
separability matrix compares if training classes are spectrally distinct from each other,
and separability is based on the transformed divergence metric. The maximum possible
divergence value is 2,000, and values less then 1,500 indicate spectrally similar classes.
I also examined the classification error rates by using a Contingency Matrix. In
all, a total of 64 signature files were collected to classify images in each flight transect.
The number of signature files is slightly higher than the number of flight transects (63)
due to the fact that some transects had to be flown at two different times due to the
presence of clouds. Thus, these transects were analyzed separately.
I used the training sample for each candidate image to perform a supervised
classification for the rest of the IHS‐transformed images within each transect. This is a
very unconventional classification method, as normally images are classified using their
unique signature file. However, I considered this method to be appropriate, expedient,
and effective in my analyses for several reasons. From a practicality standpoint, because
I had several thousand digital images to analyze, I needed an efficient way to classify
my images without collecting signature files for each image. As mentioned earlier, I
3 9
selected a candidate image from each flight image to conduct the initial image
enhancements and then gather training signatures because images within transects were
more similar to each other due to the flight elevation, time/day flown, and sun angle.
Thus, I considered it appropriate to use a single signature file for a candidate image as a
proxy for the rest of the images within a flight transect. Finally, I was only interested in
resolving blooming D. panamensis trees throughout all of the images. Thus, I did not
require such a precise classification level accuracy for signatures other than D.
panamensis.
I initially performed a few “test‐runs” of the supervised classification approach
on the images. Based on these test‐runs, it was apparent that the classification technique
performed the best in so‐called ideal conditions where the image scene contained mostly
forest as well as blooming D. panamensis. Other image scenes that contained a lot of bare
ground, various types of agriculture such as pineapple plantations, or non‐forested areas
tended to confuse the classifier. Based on this information, I applied the classification
technique on 801 of the 2,550 images. These images represented 31% of the total images
flown and were the ones that contained the most contiguous forest/vegetation cover.
Ultimately, I used a pixel‐by‐pixel classification approach using a maximum
likelihood classifier. A maximum likelihood classifier is based on the probability that a
pixel belongs to a particular class. The basic equation assumes that these probabilities
are equal for all classes, and that the input bands have normal distributions
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(LeicaGeosystems 2003). The maximum likelihood classifier is the oft‐cited classifier
approach used in remote sensing of forest trees (McGraw et al. 1998).
Following the supervised classification, I conducted a series of processing steps
in order to prepare the images for analysis to determine how well the automated
classification approach had identified blooming D. panamensis crowns.
The classified images were all recoded to identify pixels classified as blooming D.
panamensis trees. All other pixels that had been aggregated into another signature file
that was not designated as D. panamensis were recorded as background. A clump
function was then run to aggregate these contiguous pixels as a unit. Finally, two sieve
threshold functions were performed to remove pixel clumps smaller than 150 m2 and
larger than 2100 m2. I selected these lower and upper sieve thresholds to target and
remove small and large clumps erroneously classified as D. panamensis. Running the
smaller sieve threshold removed the “salt‐and‐pepper” effect present in the images and
eliminated small clumps that did not correspond to D. panamensis. This sieve level did
remove some clumps that corresponded to actual D. panamensis trees. However, a
sensitivity analysis revealed that the sieve level of 150 m2 minimized the error of non D.
panamensis clumps being included as this species. The upper sieve level of 2100 m2 was
selected after analyzing a subsample of 35 images and determining the largest D.
panamensis clump in these images as well as the smallest and largest clumps erroneously
4 1
identified as D. panamensis. The large sieve level of 2100 m2 effectively removed large
clumps that were not D. panamensis. In my analyses, few D. panamensis trees actually
achieve a crown area greater than 2100 m2. Thus, few D. panamensis trees were removed
due to this sieve function. These sieve thresholds also corresponded to the biology of D.
panamensis and represented lower and upper crown areas of canopy‐emergent D.
panamensis trees.
Following the sieve step, the number of clumps within each image was
quantified. In the majority of cases, a “clump” represents an individual D. panamensis
tree. However, it is possible that a “clump” could represent several, neighboring trees
with adjoining crowns. This is because the maximum likelihood classifier is unable to
discern discrete objects. Therefore, adjacent D. panamensis trees are perceived as a single
“clump” in the final classification output. There have been recent breakthroughs in
computer assisted pattern recognition techniques that use segmentation in addition to
traditional pixel‐based classification approaches. This new approach, known as object‐
oriented classification, first segments a landscape into “objects” based on similarity
criteria such as texture (Meinel and Neubert 2004). Thus, a tree crown would be more
easily separated from other landscape features and potentially separable from other
adjacent tree crowns. I briefly considered using an object‐oriented classification
approach to classify my images, and I evaluated several programs including eCognition.
4 2
However, due to price considerations and software availability, I ultimately opted for
the pixel‐by‐pixel classification approach in Erdas Imagine. Indeed, the fact that some
clumps represent multiple D. panamensis trees is trivial considering the number of D.
panamensis stems across the 140,178‐ha study area. In addition, from a macro‐biological
standpoint, most organisms that depend on D. panamensis for resources would be
unlikely to perceive two, comingled tree crowns as separate entities.
D. panamensis density per image was then determined by dividing the number of
D. panamensis clumps identified in the classified image by the image’s area. The area for
each image was calculated based on the field of view (FOV) represented in each image.
The FOV calculation incorporated the focal length of the digital camera, the height above
the landscape at which the image was taken, as well as the pixel dimensions of the
image.
I performed a post‐classification error assessment to determine various types of
errors associated with the supervised classification. The purpose of an error assessment
is to examine the different types of classification errors known as omission and
commission. For a thorough overview of assessing error in classifications of remotely
sensed data, please see Congalton (1991). Error of omission, also known as producer’s
or exclusion error, reflects the probability of a pixel being correctly classified into the
target category. Error of commission, also known as user’s or inclusion error, reflects
4 3
the probability that a pixel classified into a given category actually represents that
category on the ground. An error assessment is most often represented by an error
matrix.
Because the supervised classification that I performed was unconventional, I
performed a nontraditional error assessment based solely on the ability of the classifier
to distinguish D. panamensis clumps. I performed a manual error assessment on the
classified images following the sieve step. I divided the images into two sets based
primarily on the direction in which the aerial surveys were flown. The purpose of
aggregating the images into two sets prior to conducting the error assessment was to
organize images that were collected under similar flying conditions. The two image sets
were named MNWR (Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge) and NZ (Northern Zone)
after the regions over which they were flown. Table 1 summarizes the number of photos
sampled for the error assessment for the images in the MNWR and NZ regions.
Table 1: Number of photos sampled for the classification error assessment
The error assessment itself consisted of a manual assessment of how well the
classifier identified D. panamensis clumps. First, I manually identified and counted the
4 4
number of D. panamensis clumps within a candidate image from either the MNWR or
NZ Region. Next, I compared the D. panamensis clumps that I manually identified with
the D. panamensis clumps the classifier identified. Based on the manually identified D.
panamensis clumps, I quantified the number of D. panamensis clumps correctly identified
by the classifier that also corresponded to the D. panamensis clumps identified manually.
In addition, I quantified the number of tree clumps the classifier missed as well as the
number of non D. panamensis clumps that the classifier misidentified. The former
reflects the error of omission for the classifier while the latter reflects the error of
commission for the classifier. Because I was only interested in the classifier’s success in
identifying D. panamensis and because I trained the original classifier to identify D.
panamensis and not other landscape features, this error assessment did not include other
landscape categories. A traditional accuracy assessment would include errors of
omission and commission for multiple landscape categories. Hence, a complex error
matrix could be generated. Ultimately, my classified images reflect a binary world—D.
panamensis or non D. panamensis.
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2.3 Results
The image enhancement transformations were an appropriate method to analyze
digital photography that contained RGB bands but lacked an infrared band. Figure 5
shows the sequence of image enhancements and transformations for one image.
Sixty‐four separate signature files were collected in preparation for performing
the supervised classification. At least one candidate signature file was collected per
flight transect, and the same signature file was used to classify images within a
particular transect. I examined the specific training samples collected for blooming D.
panamensis within each signature file to ensure separability. Because of the sheer
number of signature files, I present the results of the separability analysis from one
signature file. Training classes collected for blooming D. panamensis crowns were
distinct compared to other landscape features such as vegetation, bare ground, water, or
shadow areas. Figure 6 is a graph of the mean plot for each of the training samples in
this candidate signature file. The graph shows the value for each of the three bands in
the IHS color space for each training class. In general, D. panamensis training samples
were the most distinct within the hue band of the IHS color space. The mean value for
this band was 47.4 and ranged from 24.2 to 60.9 indicating that this region of the hue
band correlated with the spectral signature for blooming D. panamensis.
4 6
Figure 5: Sequence of image enhancement steps
A) Original RGB image that has been contrast stretched; B) Image that has been
converted to IHS; C) Output from supervised classification; D) Image that has been
recoded for just D. panamensis; E) Image that has been sieved to remove small and
large tree clumps; F) Original RGB image for comparison.
4 7
Figure 6: Sample signature separability plot
4 8
Results from the signature separability matrix are shown in Appendix B. All of
the training classes gathered for this candidate signature are shown, and multiple
training classes were collected to capture the spectral signature of blooming D.
panamensis crowns. What is notable is that all of the D. panamensis training classes are
separate and distinct from the other training classes, as no value is less then 1,500. This
would indicate that training samples are spectrally similar. Some of the D. panamensis
training classes are spectrally similar to each other as evidenced by values less than
1,500, which is acceptable considering that these classes are sampling the same
environmental feature.
An error assessment was performed to determine the errors of omission and
errors of commission over the entire project area. Errors were also determined
separately for the MNWR and NZ regions. Together, the MNWR and NZ regions form
the entire project area. The overall error of commission was 22.2% while the overall
error of omission was 11.9%. The error of commission was acceptable based on other
published studies (Lunetta et al. 2004, Foody et al. 2005). Table 2 summarizes the errors
based on the classification error assessment.
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Table 2: Results of the classification error assessment
The automated classification technique was successful in classifying high density
areas of D. panamensis. The classifier worked especially well when applied to image
scenes containing the most intact, contiguous forest. Examples of high density regions
are show in Figure 7. These images display densities of 2.0 trees/ha and 1.83 trees/ha.
2.4 Discussion
This study underscores that digital aerial photography still has a place amongst
high‐tech airborne and spaceborne remote sensing technologies. This technique can be
used across a large spatial extent to investigate canopy‐emergent trees. Canopy‐
emergent trees are one of the least studied tropical tree guilds due to their soaring
crowns that often make them challenging to study from the ground (Clark et al. 2004b).
In addition, high resolution digital photography can be analyzed en masse in a GIS
platform by using a semi‐automated classification approach to identify individual tree
crowns. While an infrared band may increase the spectral separability of features,
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Figure 7: Sample images with high densities of D. panamensis trees
Blooming, canopy‐emergent D. panamensis trees are identifiable from their purple
crowns. Image A (97.8 ha) has a density of 1.83 trees/ha. Image B (95.2 ha) has a
density of 2.0 trees/ha.
5 1
alternative color spaces such as IHS and other image enhancements may help resolve
standard RGB digital images. Timing the overflights during a particular phenological
period for the focal species—such as a peak blooming event—may also boost the success
rate of the classifier. D. panamensis is a unique species, however. Fortuitously, this
study species has a distinct peak blooming event when other canopy‐emergent tree
species have only green foliage, making it a prime candidate to calibrate a classification
technique. However, this technique may need to be adjusted for species without a clear
phenological signal.
Although this classification approach represents a semi‐automated approach to
identifying and analyzing the spatial distribution of a particular tropical tree species,
this method does have some limitations. While a classification algorithm was developed
to extract the spectral signature of blooming D. panamensis trees, the classification
approach worked in ideal conditions when the image scene contained contiguous forest
cover. The classifier had a difficult time differentiating spectral differences of blooming
D. panamensis with bare ground and water present. Thus, only a limited number of the
total images could be analyzed using the classifier.
Despite some of these limitations, digital aerial photography may offer some
advantages in terms of time and money compared to spaceborne sensors. At this point,
image scenes captured from high resolution spaceborne sensors such as SPOT,
Quickbird, or IKONOS may be prohibitively expensive for large‐scale surveys such as
5 2
this project that extended over 100,000 ha. If the digital camera is in hand, the main
expense for an aerial survey will be the rental of the airplane or helicopter. In this study,
the cost of renting the plane was less than $5,000.
Ultimately, digital aerial surveys may complement more expensive remote
sensing imagery. This approach may be particularly handy in augmenting the spatial
extent of field plots, overcoming physical barriers, and sampling sites that may be
dangerous or difficult to enter on the ground. In the field of tropical ecology and
conservation, practitioners often look for creative ways to conduct research in light of
limited funding. Digital aerial photography may be one way to surmount such
challenges.
5 3
3.1 Introduction
Dipteryx panamensis is a large tree that occurs in lowland tropical moist and
tropical wet forests along the Atlantic coast from Nicaragua to Colombia (Bonaccorso et
al. 1980, Flores 1992). Along with several other tree species, D. panamensis comprises an
important component of the emergent canopy layer. Canopy‐emergent trees are defined
as having crowns that extend above the mean canopy layer (Clark and Clark 1987).
Tropical ecologists have struggled to accurately document the distribution and
population densities of tropical emergent trees using forest inventory plots. Although
forest inventory plots have long been used to examine biogeographic patterns of floristic
species richness, density, and distribution in the tropics (Condit 1995), small field plots
may poorly sample large trees. These are generally defined as > 60 cm diameter at
breast height (Clark et al. 2004b). Because large, canopy‐emergent tree species like D.
panamensis are frequently distributed at densities of less than one adult/ha (Clark and
Clark 1987), the size or placement of forest inventory plots may skew their density or
distribution values at a landscape level. However, remote sensing techniques present
new opportunities to examine the distribution of canopy‐emergent trees across a larger
spatial extent and present a more accurate representation of biogeographic patterns.
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3.1.1 Objectives
I sought to document the landscape distribution and density of D. panamensis in
the lowland Atlantic forests of Costa Rica. This tree plays an important role as a
keystone species in this region and is particularly important as a nesting and food
resource for the endangered Great Green Macaw (Ara ambigua). Specifically, I used
digital aerial surveys to census this tree species across 140,178 ha and augment the
coverage of traditional terrestrial plots. In addition, I used the results of this work to
examine the connectivity of subpopulations based on pollen dispersal distances. In
particular, I address the following specific questions in this chapter:
1. What is the distribution of D. panamensis across the study landscape?
2. What are the density trends for this species across the study landscape
and over forested areas?
3. What environmental factors predict locations of high D. panamensis
density?
4. How much potential habitat exists within the study area?
5. Are subpopulations of D. panamensis fragmented or connected based
upon measured pollen dispersal distances?
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3.2 Background
The renowned English naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace who lived from 1823‐
1913 is often considered the father of biogeography. Wallace (1876) is famous for his
studies on the distributions of animals and plants of the Malay Archipelago which are
documented in numerous books, most notably in the two‐volume work “The
Geographical Distribution of Animals”. Biogeography, the discipline that Wallace
pioneered, is the scientific field that examines the spatial, distributional, and abundance
patterns of biological diversity, both past and present (Lomolino et al. 2005). Tropical
ecologists have long been curious about patterns of species distribution. For example, a
central question driving ongoing studies in the tropics has been what abiotic and biotic
factors promote the latitudinal gradient in species diversity (Pianka 1966, Stevens 1989).
In other words, why do so many species’ distributions intersect at the tropics and how
do these species coexist?
3.2.1.1 Limitations of terrestrial forest inventory plots
Examining the spatial distribution and abundance of any organism is
constrained by the ability to census a large enough geographic area to garner an accurate
signal. Early tropical ecologists sought to explore patterns of tree species richness
through small plot‐based studies. For example, Black et al. (1950) conducted an early
5 6
examination of floristic diversity and population density of trees in Amazonian forests
within three 1‐ha plots. However, because of the rarity of many tropical tree species,
small plot studies may distort or all together miss uncommon species thereby belying
their true spatial abundance and distribution. Even in their pioneering study, Black et al.
(1950) cautioned against drawing conclusions on species diversity and abundance based
on a small sample area. A network of 50‐hectare plots throughout the tropics has sought
to augment the spatial area of study as well as compare forests throughout different
regions of the tropics (Condit 1995). These plots afford detailed study of floristic
richness, composition, and distribution as every individual ≥ 1 cm in diameter is
mapped and identified. While these plots are larger, Clark et al. (2004b) note that
tropical inventory plots are often subjectively located, too small to capture processes of
interest, or rarely sited using a statistical design.
3.2.1.2 The importance of documenting the distribution of keystone species
While tropical ecologists are often interested in documenting the spatial
distribution and abundance of rare tree species as these species may contribute to high
levels of both alpha and beta diversity (Pitman et al. 1999), attention should be given to
the distribution and biogeographic patterns of more common tropical tree species at
intermediate to large scales. In a study of 21 forest plots distributed across 40,000 ha of
the Peruvian Amazon, Pitman et al. (1999) determined that while the rarest species
occurred at a density of 1 stem/36.375 ha, 88% of tree species occurred at densities <1
5 7
individual/ha and at least half occurred somewhere at densities > 1.5 stems/ha. This
work suggests that most tree species in tropical regions may be habitat generalists that
occur at low densities but large absolute population size. Unlike rarer species, these
ubiquitous tree species may actually be the linchpin in an ecosystem and an important
keystone resource (Terborgh 1986, Mills et al. 1993, Nason et al. 1998). Much like a
keystone in an arch, a keystone species plays a disproportionate role in an ecosystem’s
functioning, and the loss or removal of a keystone species could cause a dramatic shift in
that ecosystem. Documenting the biogeographic ranges and habitat preferences of
common, keystone trees can also assist conservation endeavors aimed at protecting
these species and others that depend on them.
3.2.2.1 Conservation status and keystone species designation
Because of D. panamensis’ keystone status and importance in an ongoing
conservation project, I documented the distribution and density of flowering, canopy‐
emergent individuals across 140,178 ha. This work occurred over Costa Rica’s lowland
Atlantic forest and employed digital aerial surveys. While relatively ubiquitous, this
species is currently listed as a Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix III species (CITES 2008). Appendix III
species are those that are regulated within the jurisdiction of a particular country to
5 8
prevent or restrict exploitation. The country has also identified the need for cooperation
by other countries in order to control trade of this species.
In the lowland Atlantic forests of Costa Rica, D. panamensis and about a half
dozen other tree species form an important component of the emergent canopy layer.
Clark and Clark (1987) assert that the demography of tropical emergent species like D.
panamensis remains poorly known due to the low density of post‐seedling individuals
and the fact that most adults occur at densities less than 1 tree/ha. Adult D. panamensis
trees may reach 50 m in height and close to 1.5 m diameter at breast height (Flores 1992);
reproductive maturity is likely attained at about 30 m in height (Perry and Starrett 1980).
Based on tree ring counts and 14C dating, individuals may live close to 300 years with a
theoretical maximum age of 645 years (Fichtler et al. 2003).
Like the fig tree (Nason et al. 1998), D. panamensis is considered another keystone
tree resource in the tropics. The fruits of D. panamensis mature at the onset of the dry
season, a time when the fewest tree species present edible, ripe fruits (Frankie et al. 1974,
Bonaccorso et al. 1980). In a given year, a large adult D. panamensis tree may produce an
estimated 10,000 fruits (Bonaccorso et al. 1980). However, individual trees may oscillate
between years of high and low fruit production.
3.2.2.2 Phenological patterns
The phenological pattern of D. panamensis has been well studied. D. panamensis
trees flower annually, and the timing of the first flowers occurs immediately after the
5 9
months with highest light and lowest rainfall (OʹBrien et al. 2008). Thus, flowering
generally commences around May prior to the onset of the rainy season in northeastern
Costa Rica. Individuals of D. panamensis bloom asynchronously with overlapping 6‐
week flowering periods (Perry and Starrett 1980). Flowering generally peaks in July and
declines by August. However, O’Brien (2008) observed some D. panamensis trees still
flowering into October. Flowers, which are arranged along lateral or terminal panicles,
generally last for one day before falling to the ground. The presentation of relatively
few flowers each day by an individual tree and the asynchronous overlap of blooming
individuals seem to encourage inter‐tree pollinator movement and favor out‐crossing
(Perry and Starrett 1980). While it has been long thought that this species is an obligate
out‐crosser (Perry and Starrett 1980), recent genetic work by Hanson et al. (2008) reveals
instances of self‐pollination.
Immature fruits first appear in early July, and mature fruits are present on the
trees from November to March (Bonaccorso et al. 1980). The fruits are elliptical drupes
that comprise a thin exocarp, a fleshy mesocarp, and a hard endocarp that protects a
single seed (De Steven 1988). As fruit production ceases, D. panamensis trees exhibit
moderate deciduousness. Individuals shed their leaves synchronously during the driest
months from February to May (OʹBrien et al. 2008). A new flush of leaves soon emerges.
6 0
3.2.2.3 Interactions with other organisms
In keeping with D. panamensis’ designation as a keystone tree resource, this
species participates in a complex web of interactions with other organisms. Not only
does it require other species for critical services like pollination and seed dispersal, but it
also supports a host of other species. The prime pollinators include at least 13 species of
medium‐to‐large bees (Perry and Starrett 1980). Bonaccorso et al. (1980) observed at
least 16 species of mammals that will eat the fruit. Seed commensals that only consume
the fleshy mesocarp, do not penetrate the endocarp, and leave the seed intact include
primates, bats, marsupials, rodents, and carnivores. Some of these species may even
disperse seeds away from the parent tree. Fruit bats, particularly in the genus Artibeus
are notable dispersers of D. panamensis fruit and will often carry the drupes considerable
distances until they reach a feeding roost often in a palm. Seed predators that damage
the stony endocarp and frequently consume the seed include many rodents such as red‐
tailed squirrel (Sciurus granatensis), agouti (Dasyprocta punctata), paca (Agouti paca), and
spiny rat (Proechimys semispinosus) (Bonaccorso et al. 1980). Hundreds of migratory or
resident birds may frequent D. panamensis trees to forage. A notable species includes the
endangered Great Green Macaw (Ara ambigua). Powell et al. (1999) noted that D.
panamensis accounted for 85% of Great Green Macaw feeding observations during the
month of January. In addition, 86% of Great Green Macaw nests occur in the hollows of
this tree (Chassot et al. 2002, Monge et al. 2003).
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3.2.2.4 Threats and conservation measures
Although D. panamensis is relatively abundant within the lowland Atlantic
forests of Costa Rica, it is threatened primarily from logging since its wood is used to
make plywood. However, due to the density, weight, and crystalline deposit content of
D. panamensis wood, this species was extremely difficult to fell with axes and manual
saws (Flores 1992). Until recently, solitary individuals stood in pastures cleared of more
pliable tree species. Only with the advent of steel chain saws could this tree be targeted.
Because of this species’ keystone status within the lowland Atlantic forest ecosystem as
well as its significance to the Great Green Macaw, Costa Rica’s Ministry of the
Environment enacted a series of forestry laws that restrict logging of D. panamensis by
50%. However, enforcement still remains a challenge. In 2005, a new national wildlife
refuge known as Maquenque was decreed (refer to material in Chapter 1). Situated in
the larger San Juan‐La Selva (SJLS) Biological Corridor, the primary purpose of this
59,700‐ha refuge is to protect breeding and nesting habitat of the Great Green Macaw.
This mandate effectively affords protection to D. panamensis populations.
3.2.2.5 Habitat requirements, distribution, and abundance
Although aspects of D. panamensis’ phenology are well‐studied, specific details
about its habitat requirements, distribution, and abundance across a larger spatial extent
are still needed. Information about those factors could assist the ongoing conservation
efforts while augmenting basic biological data on the species. The following broad
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habitat conditions were described by Flores (1992). D. panamensis is generally found on
humid plateaus with alluvial or sandy soils and sometimes acid and clay soils at
elevations between 20‐1300 meters above sea level. What is known about the densities
of D. panamensis seedlings, saplings, and adult trees come from relatively small plot
studies. As noted earlier, plot size and the delineation of plot boundaries may skew
density values. The few estimates of adult D. panamensis densities within intact forest
come from plots established at the La Selva Biological Station and include trees that are
being followed for a long‐term demographic project. Reported density measurements
range from 0.45 trees/ha (85 ha plot) to 0.97 trees/ha (65‐ha plot) (Hanson et al. 2006,
Hanson et al. 2008). However, these density estimates are difficult to interpret as the
plots substantially overlap and are relatively small making them susceptible to skew.
Nonetheless, Clark and Clark (1987) assert that tropical emergent species like D.
panamensis are frequently distributed at densities of less than 1 adult/ha challenging our
abilities to study their demographics, abundances, or distribution across large spatial
scales. However, remote sensing techniques present new opportunities to examine this
species, especially large adults, from an aerial vantage point.
3.2.2.6 Pollen dispersal patterns for D. panamensis
A recent study by Hanson et al. (2008) examined the effects of varying levels of
habitat fragmentation on the genetic structure, genetic diversity, and pollen dispersal
distances of adult and progeny populations of D. panamensis within four different
6 3
habitats—continuous forest, forest fragments, pastures adjacent to fragments, and
isolated pastures. Using genetic techniques to analyze parentage, Hanson et al. (2008)
determined that D. panamensis progeny located in isolated pastures were the results of
the longest pollination dispersal distances compared to the other three habitats. Pollen
traveled a mean of 557 m with the furthest distance being 2.3 km for these offspring in
isolated pasture. This is compared to the shortest pollen dispersal distance among
continuous forest trees of 240 m. While pollen tended to travel farther amongst trees in
pastures, these trees exhibited lower outcrossing rates compared to trees in continuous
forest or forests fragments. This suggests that long distance pollen movement is
possible for these pasture trees, but the frequency is a lot lower due to higher rates of
self‐pollination. Thus, these tree populations could be at risk of long‐term genetic
erosion due to the fragmented landscape.
While this study by Hanson et al. (2008) elucidates the effect of habitat loss on the
genetic structure of D. panamensis, it focused on the southern extent of the proposed SJLS
Corridor and was conducted at a relatively small spatial scale. The study sites were
separated by a mean distance of 18.4 km, and the largest study site was 65 ha. Results
from the work by Hanson et al. (2008) could be used to scale up to a landscape level in
order to study the separation of D. panamensis stands based on pollen dispersal
distances.
6 4
Patterns of D. panamensis distribution, density, and fragmentation were
discerned at a landscape level across 140,178 hectares within the proposed San Juan‐La
Selva Biological Corridor (SJLS) located in northeastern Costa Rica (Figure 2) (refer to
material in Chapter 1).
3.3.2.1 Digital aerial surveys
The landscape distribution of canopy‐emergent D. panamensis trees was based on
a digital aerial survey from July 4‐8, 2005. The survey was timed to coincide with this
species’ peak blooming. For a detailed description of the aerial survey methods as well
as the post‐flight image processing, please refer to Chapter 2.
3.2.2.2 D. panamensis density determinations: semi‐automated supervised
classification and manual density approach
After the digital images were captured, the images were adjusted and classified
using a supervised approach (Chapter 2). The purpose of these steps was to spectrally
enhance the images in preparation for a supervised classification. The supervised
classification then identified blooming D. panamensis trees in an automated fashion. Of
the original 2,550 digital images that were gathered during the aerial survey, 801 were
6 5
analyzed using the automated, supervised classification approach. Thus, only about
31% of the digital images collected were analyzed using the classification approach. The
classifier performed well on images such as these that contained contiguous forest or
vegetation cover. Based on the error assessment (Chapter 2) that identified the errors of
omission and commission for the classification within the two survey areas termed
MNWR (Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge) and NZ (Northern Zone), I
systematically adjusted the number of tree clumps identified within each image scene by
a uniform percentage. Although the error within all images was not uniform, this
approach addressed the average error throughout. The adjustment value was based on
the manual error assessment and represented:
Here, the numerator of this equation represents the actual number of blooming
D. panamensis within each image scene, while the denominator reflects the number of
blooming D. panamensis as determined by the classifier. In general, the classifier tended
to overestimate the number of D. panamensis clumps within each scene. All images
within the MNWR region were adjusted by 79%. However, the NZ images did not
require adjustment. There is a reason for the difference in adjustment values between
the two sites. Images within the NZ were captured on the same day and mostly
possessed scenes of contiguous, uninterrupted forests. These were ideal conditions for
the application of the classifier. Images within MNWR were captured over several days
6 6
and possessed more variable scene conditions like agriculture, pastures, towns, or water.
The classifier was less successful over these scenes and tended to overestimate the
number of D. panamensis tree clumps within the MNWR study area. Although I applied
a systematic adjustment for these images, this does not completely remove all error from
the images. However, the degree of error remaining within these images regarding the
number of D. panamensis tree clumps is acceptable compared to the number of trees that
are being surveyed over the entire 140,178‐hectare study area.
The classified images likely contained a higher density of D. panamensis due to
the preponderance of intact forest within the scene. Thus, I selected a spatially stratified
subset of the remaining images to perform a manual count of D. panamensis within each
scene. These images had not been analyzed via the supervised classification. A total of
503 images were selected for the manual count representing about 20% of the total
digital images collected. Because these images contained less contiguous forest and
more human altered landscapes, the manual count was not exceptionally time intensive
and provided a more accurate assessment of D. panamensis trees than the supervised
classification approach. However, the supervised classification was appropriate for
image scenes with contiguous vegetation and a lot of blooming D. panamensis as the
classifier provided a more automated, systematic, and complete approach. A manual
effort for these particular images would have been prohibitively time consuming.
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Following either the classifier or manual approach, D. panamensis density within
each image was determined by dividing the total number of D. panamensis tree clumps
within each image by the image’s area. The area for each image was calculated based on
the field of view (FOV) represented in each image. The FOV calculation incorporated
the focal length of the digital camera, the height above the landscape that the image was
taken, and the pixel dimensions of the image. The average FOV for all classifier and
manual images was 113.45 ha (SD 24.01). Because the locations of all images had been
recorded with an onboard GPS unit during the original aerial survey, the density value
for each image could be spatially depicted within a GIS framework.
3.2.2.3 Creation of a D. panamensis density map using the IDW interpolation method
In order to depict the spatial variation in D. panamensis density across the study
area, I created an interpolated surface within a GIS framework of all of the D. panamensis
densities garnered from individual images. Interpolation is a technique that enables the
creation of a continuous raster surface from sampled data. Because it is often impossible
to perform a complete census of an area due to financial or time constraints,
interpolation is a method by which intervening, non‐sampled locations are estimated
from sampled values (Theobald 2003).
Numerous interpolation methods exist such as spline, kriging, natural neighbor,
and inverse distance weighting (IDW). Selecting the appropriate technique depends on
the type of data to be displayed, data accuracy, and the spatial distribution of the data
6 8
points. Interpolators like IDW and spline are deterministic because they assign values to
unsampled locations based on the surrounding measured values and mathematical
formulas that determine the smoothness of the resulting surface. Kriging is considered a
geostatistical method and the resulting interpolation is based on a statistical model that
includes autocorrelation. In addition, interpolators can be exact or inexact. Exact
interpolators preserve the original input value at the sample location. Exact
interpolators are suitable for data that can be measured reliably and contain a lot of
certainty. With inexact interpolators, however, input values may vary from their
original value in order to achieve a better fit in the resulting interpolation.
Because the D. panamensis density values covered the project area in an evenly
spaced fashion, I utilized the IDW interpolation method using the Geostatistical Analyst
tool in ArcGIS 9.1 to create a continuous map of D. panamensis density. The IDW
method was appropriate because as an exact interpolator, it preserved the original
density input values. The IDW interpolation also explicitly assumes that closer things
are more similar to one another than things that are farther apart. The IDW method
estimates new cell values in the output raster surface by averaging the values of the
sample data points in the vicinity of each cell (ESRI 2005). The closer an input point is to
the cell being estimated, the more weight it has in determining the value of that cell.
Thus, the weight of a measured point diminishes with distance—hence the term
“inverse distance weighting”. The power parameter in the IDW method affects how fast
6 9
the weights decrease. If the power parameter equals 0, there is no decrease with
distance. As the power parameter rises above 0, the weights of distant points decrease
rapidly. The Geostatistical Analyst tool in ArcGIS 9.1 has a way to optimize the power
parameter. In general, the power parameter should be calibrated depending on the
ecological phenomena being modeled. For example, a larger power parameter should
be used to model phenomena that have a more localized effect.
A total of 1,304 D. panamensis density inputs were used for the interpolation.
These density inputs were distilled from the same number of images. The image sample
represents 51% of the total number of images gathered and covers approximately
147,856 ha. This area exceeds the size of the area originally flown (140,178 ha) as some
images overlap in coverage. An optimized power function of 1.24 was used in the IDW
interpolation model. The sample window was an ellipsoid shape and included at least 4
neighboring input points. A cross‐validation was performed on the data set in order to
determine how well the model performed. The cross‐validation step systematically
omits a point and compares its predicted value to its true value. The deviation from the
predicted to the true value is expressed by the root mean square error (RMSE) given
below:
RMSE = (∑ x − x 0 )2 /n
The RMSE is the square root of the average squared difference between the
predicted value (x) and the “true” value (x0) where n is the number of points. The RMSE
7 0
for the interpolation model was 0.18. The optimized power parameter of 1.24 produced
the lowest RMSE compared to power parameters of other values.
Based on the interpolation, I produced a density map showing the distribution of
D. panamensis across the study area. The map displayed the densities based on
increments of 0.1.
3.3.3 Density trends over the study landscape and forested areas
I used the interpolated density map to analyze density trends across the study
landscape. I was specifically interested in locations where high densities of D.
panamensis were predicted. In particular, I examined the distribution of D. panamensis
densities across the total landscape as well as over only forested area. The forested areas
were derived from a land‐use classification of a satellite image over the northeastern
part of Costa Rica. The satellite classification shows land use from 1997‐2000 (Figure 8).
This satellite classification was conducted by the Earth Observation Systems Lab,
University of Alberta, Canada. The satellite classification’s extent is cropped and does
not cover the entire area of the aerial survey. Thus, some of the analyses had to be
abridged.
I used the D. panamensis density map as well as other GIS data to identify
environmental conditions that have the potential to support regions of high D.
7 1
Figure 8: Land use classification within proposed San Juan‐La Selva Biological
Corridor
7 2
panamensis density. For this analysis, I used a classification and regression tree (CART)
model. CART models are one of many methods that can be used to predict species‐
habitat distributions and identify potential habitat (Guisan and Zimmermann 2000).
However, CART models offer several advantages over traditional methods such as
linear discriminant analysis or cluster analysis due to their flexibility. De’ath and
Fabricius (2000) note that CART models are uniquely equipped to deal with ecological
data that are often complex, unbalanced, or missing values. They are a nonparametric
approach to distinguishing differences among groups (Breiman et al. 1984, Vayssieres et
al. 2000). In addition, because CART models are graphical in nature, each conditional
path can easily be executed in a GIS platform in order to display habitat distributions
(Urban et al. 2002).
The response variable in a CART model can either be categorical or continuous.
If it is the former, a classification tree is produced; if it is the latter, a regression tree is
obtained. The explanatory variables may be categorical, continuous, or a mix of both.
CART models produce a decision tree by recursively partitioning the data. At each split,
data are aggregated into two mutually exclusive groups, each of which is as
homogeneous as possible. The subgroups are then partitioned further until the data
cannot be split anymore or a stopping criterion is met. The objective is to partition the
response variable into homogeneous groups but also keep the tree reasonably small
(Deʹath and Fabricius 2000). Because CART models attempt to partition all the data,
7 3
they can often over‐fit the data. Large decision trees may actually be meaningless.
Thus, these decision trees are then pruned back to the desired size in order to avoid
over‐fitting the data.
Decision trees are presented graphically with a root node at the top, which
represents the undivided data, and branches and leaves toward the bottom. Terminal
leaves represent homogeneous data that no longer can be partitioned. The pathway to
each terminal leaf in the decision tree defines a set of environmental conditions under
which the splitting rule associated with that leaf will apply (Moore et al. 1991). It is this
set of conditions that can be entered into a GIS platform and used to graphically display
potential habitat.
In order to identify potential habitat that can support high density D. panamensis
stands, I utilized a CART model. The response variable was D. panamensis density,
which was binned into different density categories making the model output a
classification tree. Environmental predictor variables were a mixture of categorical and
continuous. Predictor variables were selected based on an a priori knowledge of
environmental factors that could be important in determining D. panamensis occurrences
and potential habitat. These were gleaned from the literature and included information
on soil, elevation, and rivers. Descriptions of the specific response and predictor
variables that were considered in the model are summarized in Table 3.
7 4
Table 3: Response and predictor variables used in CART model to predict potential
D. panamensis habitat
Data for the response and predictor variables were contained within GIS rasters
or shapefiles that were standardized to the same spatial extent and geographic
projection. GIS data were projected to WGS 1984 UTM Zone 16N. All GIS analyses
were conducted using ArcGIS 9.1. Data for the response variable, DENSITY, consisted
of 1,265 observations representing a particular D. panamensis density bin. Hence, the
response variable was categorical. These density bins were distilled from the original D.
panamensis density values originating from the digital images covering the SJLS
Corridor. Density values were obtained using both an automated pattern recognition
technique as well as a manual assessment of blooming D. panamensis crowns (Section
3.2.2). Each density value was geographically referenced to the location in which the
original photograph was taken and all points were contained in a GIS shapefile. The
density bins are summarized in Table 4.
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Table 4: Summary of response variable bins
The predictor variables were obtained by using the D. panamensis shapefile and
intersecting the point locations with the raster files for each predictor variable in order to
extract the underlying data values. GIS data for the environmental predictor variables
originated from the Organization for Tropical Studies.
The CART analysis was performed in the R Statistical Program using the “tree”
package (R Development Core Team 2008). I tested several classification trees to
determine which predictor variables were relevant in identifying potential habitat that
could support high D. panamensis density. Predictor variables that did not produce a
logical split in the classification tree were removed from consideration. The “tree”
settings were customized for the analysis. For example, the minimum required number
of observations per node was changed from 20 to 10. Classification trees were run
utilizing the cross‐validation tool and with it disabled. The final classification tree was
run using the following environmental variables: SOILSUB and ELEV. This
classification tree required no pruning.
7 6
I was specifically interested in the environmental conditions that could support
D. panamensis populations at densities > 0.4 trees/ha. Thus, I used the parameters from
the classification tree in order to produce a map depicting potential D. panamensis
habitat.
I utilized the D. panamensis density map developed in Section 3.2.3 to analyze
how habitat patches of this species were connected throughout the landscape. Hanson
et al. (2008) observed that D. panamensis progeny located in isolated pastures were the
results of the longest pollination dispersal distances, with the farthest distance being 2.3
km. Thus, I used this distance as a threshold. Distances below this value would indicate
that two discrete patches were connected based on pollen flow between them. Distances
above this value would denote that two patches were disconnected. I delineated D.
panamensis patches by categorizing the density map into four different density bins.
These density bins roughly corresponded to habitat quality. Regions without any D.
panamensis trees had densities between 0 and 0.1 trees/ha. Low density regions had
densities between 0.1 and 0.2 trees/ha. Moderate density areas exhibited densities
between 0.2 and 0.5 trees/ha. Finally, high density regions possessed densities > 0.5
trees/ha. These bins are detailed in Table 5. The purpose of this analysis was to gauge
7 7
one aspect of habitat fragmentation based on pollen dispersal. Examining seed dispersal
patterns could have provided a glimpse of seedling recruitment, the effectiveness of
animal seed dispersers, or another aspect of habitat fragmentation. However, only data
on pollen movement were available.
Table 5: Description of bins for fragmentation analysis
I used the program FRAGSTATS to analyze how moderate density patches of D.
panamensis were connected throughout the landscape based on the pollen dispersal
distance of 2.3 km. FRAGSTATS was developed by McGarigal et al. (2002), and it is
designed to compute a wide variety of landscape metrics at patch, class, and landscape
scales. In particular, I examined the connectivity of moderate density patches to other
moderate or high density patches. Only patches that were over 20 ha and were
contained entirely within the bounds of the study area were included. I also determined
the mean patch size and the mean Euclidean distance of each moderate density patch to
its nearest neighbor. The latter metric provided a measure of habitat patch isolation
across the landscape.
7 8
I also computed the connectance index between these moderate density D.
panamensis patches. In FRAGSTATS, connectance measures the number of functional
joinings between patches of the same class that are within a specified distance of each
other. It assesses whether each patch is connected to every other patch in the landscape
based on the distance threshold. Here, I used the value of 2.3 km based on the longest
pollen dispersal distance measured by Hanson et al. (2008).
The fragmentation analysis described above was primarily a heuristic exercise
and employed several simplifying assumptions about the landscape and the ecology of
pollen and gene flow. First, this analysis examined whether direct pollination events
could occur among trees located in a discrete moderate‐density patch to trees located in
another moderate‐density patch. I utilized the distance threshold of 2.3 km, which
represents the maximum pollination dispersal distance between D. panamensis trees
measured by (Hanson et al. 2008). The analysis ignores the potential contribution of
isolated trees within the intervening areas between patches that are located in either low
or no‐density regions. Thus, I am not claiming that moderate‐density patches within the
landscape are genetically isolated from each other, nor am I maintaining that gene flow
does not occur between these patches. I am merely examining whether direct
pollination events could occur. In addition, I am not specifically examining gene flow as
my analysis is not occurring at the individual tree level—rather the patch level.
7 9
Ultimately, the purpose of this analysis is to apply Hanson et al.’s (2008) results based on
a localized study and scale up to a landscape level.
Figure 9 shows the distribution of D. panamensis density across the 140,178‐ha
study area. Densities are binned into increments of 0.1 tree clumps/ha. The
northwestern part of the study area contains the highest densities with, canopy‐
emergent trees reaching 2 tree clumps/ha. This high‐density region borders Nicaragua.
3.4.2 Density trends over the study landscape and forested areas
Table 6 summarizes the percentage of the total landscape surveyed that is
represented in each D. panamensis density bin. Table 6 also shows the distribution of D.
panamensis density over only forested areas. The satellite classification that was used to
identify forested areas does not cover the entire extent of the density map. In particular,
the satellite classification does not extend into the extreme northern part of the study
area where D. panamensis densities are the highest. Hence, approximately 3,388 ha of the
original D. panamensis density map are not included in this analysis which is why these
values are missing. Figure 10 represents the percentage of the total landscape
represented in each D. panamansis density bin. Figure 11 represents the percentage of
the forested landscape represented in each D. panamensis density bin.
8 0
Figure 9: Density distribution of D. panamensis
8 1
Table 6: Percentage of the total and forested landscape represented by each D.
panamensis density bin
8 2
Figure 10: Percentage of the total landscape represented in various D. panamensis
density bins
8 3
Figure 11: Percentage of forested landscape represented in various D. panamensis
density bins
8 4
This research highlights that canopy‐emergent D. panamensis trees can occur at
densities as high as 2 trees/ha. Nearly 20 ha were identified that support this density
level. In addition, nearly 600 ha contain densities over 1.5 trees/ha, and 1,900 ha contain
densities over 1.0 tree/ha. The aerial survey could only detect individual trees that
protruded from the canopy and those that were in flower. Thus, the total density of this
species would be higher if other life‐history stages like understory trees or non‐
flowering individuals were included.
Density patterns within the La Selva Biological Station are also worth noting. La
Selva, which is operated by the Organization for Tropical Studies, comprises about 1,600
ha of tropical wet forests. Only 413 ha of La Selva (25%) contained densities between
0.1‐0.2, and 96 ha of La Selva (6%) contained densities between 0.2‐0.3 ha. The
remainder of the field station had densities less then 0.1 tree clumps/ha.
While it is often thought that canopy‐emergent tree species like D. panamensis
exist at densities less then 1 adult‐tree/ha (Clark and Clark 1987), this work clearly
shows that this species can occur at much higher densities. However, the distribution of
this species throughout the entire study area averages between 0.3 and 0.4 trees/ha.
Thus, over a large spatial area, the relative densities are more moderate. Nonetheless,
the results of this work may assist in ongoing conservation endeavors such as MNWR
and the SJLS Corridor aimed at protecting this keystone tree and other species within
the lowland Atlantic rain forest of Costa Rica.
8 5
Results from the classification tree model indicated the environmental conditions
predicted to support D. panamensis stands with a density of 0.4 tree clumps/ha or
greater. These environmental conditions occur between elevations of 45‐125 meters and
on the Humult, Aquent, and Tropept‐Aquept soil suborders.
Figure 12 shows the distribution of potential habitat predicted to support D.
panamensis at densities of 0.4 tree clumps/ha and above. The map highlights the greater
SJLS Corridor vicinity. Potential habitat covers about 236,568 hectares and is the result
of the classification tree model. Although the potential habitat includes the Humult,
Aquent and Tropept‐Aquept soil suborders, 96% of the potential habitat occurs on the
Humult suborder. Humult soils are soils with high organic mater content (humus) that
are generally found on high ground (tierra firme). They belong to the Ultisol soil order.
Soils belonging to this order are normally found on old land surfaces and are formed
from the processes of clay mineral weathering (Brady and Weil 2002). They are low in
bases and have subsurface horizons of illuvial clay accumulations.
Ultimately, the classification tree model predicts that D. panamensis will occur
within a much narrower elevation range than a previous habitat description by Flores
(1992). She stated that the elevation distribution of this species is between 20 and 1300
8 6
Figure 12: Potential habitat that can support D. panamensis > 0.4 trees/hectare
8 7
meters. This species is much more restricted to lowland habitat then previously
described as it is predicted to occur between 45 and 125 meters in elevation. The soil
conditions predicted to support densities of this species >0.4 tree clumps/ha generally fit
prior published reports. Flores (1992) stated that this species is found on alluvial or
sandy soils and sometimes in acid and clay soils. The Humult soil suborder fits this soil
profile because it is derived from clay mineral weathering, is low in bases, and has a
high organic content.
Elevation emerged as an important environmental predictor variable in the
CART model because it likely serves as a proxy for other edaphic conditions that can
support D. panamensis. For instance, soils between 45 and 125 meters in elevation may
exhibit appropriate soil texture or drainage conditions for this species.
Based on the habitat analysis, 236,568 ha have the potential to support this
species at densities over 0.4 trees/ha. This area represents less then 5% of the country.
Thus, despite this species’ designation as a common, generalist tree, conservation
measures that prohibit its removal should be renewed and strengthened. In addition,
potential habitat should be protected and/or restored.
Thirteen patches with moderate D. panamensis densities were analyzed for
whether direct pollination events could occur between trees within each discrete patch.
8 8
These 13 patches are indicated in Figure 13. These patches were derived from the D.
panamensis density map by applying a threshold to identify density regions between 0.2
and 0.5 tree‐clumps/ha. I considered patches connected if 2.3 km or less separated them.
Patches were fragmented if they were separated by over 2.3 km. Basic metrics were also
collected for these 13 patches including patch size and Euclidean distance to the nearest
patch. Results for these metrics are summarized in Table 7. The mean patch size was
263 ha while the mean Euclidean distance was 1.52 km.
Table 7: Summary of FRAGSTATS metrics
The connectance index for these 13 patches was 12.1%. The connectance index is
a measure of the functional joinings between patches where each pair of patches is either
connected or not based on a specific distance threshold. It is reported as a percentage of
the maximum possible connections given the number of patches. The distance threshold
for this landscape was 2.3 km based on the longest pollen dispersal distance measured
by Hanson et al. (2008). This connectance index indicates that of the maximum possible
connections between the 13 patches, only 12.1% of the potential connections are less than
2.3 km.
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Figure 13: Distribution of 13 subpopulation patches with moderate D. panamensis
density
9 0
Figure 14 illustrates the connectivity and fragmentation of the 13 moderate
density patches based on a pollen dispersal distance of 2.3 km. Connected patches are
shaded the same color. Based on this analysis, there are four separate subpopulations.
It is unlikely that direct pollination events can occur between subpopulations of different
colors. Seven of the patches (shaded dark blue) are connected to a larger habitat patch.
One subpopulation (shaded light green) is located within the La Selva Biological Station.
Based on the extent of this study area, direct pollination events are unlikely between this
patch and the other 12 moderate density patches.
The purpose of this analysis was to gauge one aspect of fragmentation based on
pollen dispersal distances across patches of D. panamensis. This study does not suggest
that the four subpopulations are genetically isolated from each other as there are
intervening D. panamensis trees in the low or no density regions. However, what this
work implies is that there are certain moderate density patches that have direct pollen
flow between patches and are hence more connected. These patches may be more
disconnected to other moderate density patches that occur over 2.3 km away. Thus,
trees within a linked subpopulation may be more genetically similar to each other
compared to trees in patches farther afield. Based on the scope of this work, the trees
located within the subpopulation at the La Selva Biological Station may be genetically
more similar to each other than trees in the other subpopulations. Pollen from these
trees may not be flowing to other clusters of moderate density patches.
9 1
Figure 14: Connected moderate density D. panamensis patches
9 2
3.5 Conclusions
This study indicates that canopy‐emergent D. panamensis trees have the potential
to exist at densities approaching 2 adult trees/ha. This density is much higher than
previous measurements which ranged from 0.45 trees/ha to 0.97 trees/ha (Hanson et al.
2006, Hanson et al. 2008). Elevation and soil suborder are also important conditions that
predict appropriate habitat that can support D. panamensis. In particular, elevation may
serve as a proxy for other important edaphic conditions such as drainage or soil texture.
In addition, this work examines the landscape distribution of an important keystone
species across 140,178 ha. Because this area lies within a proposed biological corridor,
results from this work may inform the ongoing conservation endeavors.
The FOV of the digital images that were used to determine the density estimates
averaged 113 ha. The FOV is analogous to the size of a very large terrestrial forest
inventory plot. However, these sampling units that comprised the overall density map
were much larger than most forest inventory plots in the tropics. As Clark et al. (2004b)
stress, remote sensing provides a way to increase the size of areas sampled and improve
the statistical sampling design. Because the crowns of adult D. panamensis often extend
above the canopy, the aerial survey method also permitted the study of a species that
can be difficult to track from the ground.
Because D. panamensis was censused during its peak blooming, the results
suggest that there is a sizable reproductive population. Although a copious crown of
9 3
flowers may not necessarily translate into an abundant fruit crop, this work does
indicate that dense areas may experience high reproductive output. Many animals,
including the endangered Great Green Macaw, consume D. panamensis fruits. Thus, a
healthy, reproductive population is crucial to sustain the organisms dependent on this
keystone resource. However, the results of the fragmentation analysis indicate that the
landscape contains some D. panamensis subpopulations where pollen may not be moving
directly. This could affect the long‐term genetic diversity of certain regions. An
interesting complement to this work would be to study patterns of D. panamensis gene
flow through seed dispersal. Patterns of seed dispersal could provide another glimpse
of habitat fragmentation based on movement of seeds by mammalian seed dispersers as
well as recruitment of seedlings. This work could elucidate new habitat opportunities
for the Great Green Macaw.
Finally, this work suggests that similarly dense regions of D. panamensis exist
across Costa Rica’s border. The highest densities of this species were located in the
northern part of the aerial survey right at the border with Nicaragua’s Indio‐Maíz
Biological Reserve (Figure 15). This region likely has similar, high densities of D.
panamensis but distributed over a much larger geographic area. Indio‐Maíz Biological
Reserve is one of Nicaragua’s largest protected areas covering 264,000 ha. Despite the
fact that many local inhabitants still extract natural resources here due to the country’s
tumultuous history, this reserve is one of the largest remaining stands of primary rain
9 4
Figure 15: Location of Indio‐Maíz Biological Reserve, Nicaragua in relation to
potential D. panamensis habitat in Costa Rica
9 5
forest in all of Central America (Nygren 2004). Thus, the Indio‐Maíz Biological Reserve
is an important piece in the larger landscape. Subsequent research on D. panamensis
should occur in the Indio‐Maíz Biological Reserve in order to extend the biogeographic
study of this species. In addition, future conservation efforts should promote
multinational partnerships that protect biodiversity spanning both countries.
9 6
4.1 Introduction
The Great Green Macaw (Ara ambigua) is the second largest New World macaw
and one of only two macaw species native to Costa Rica. Because this species is
threatened by habitat loss and degradation, nest‐robbing and trapping for the
international bird trade1, as well as persecution via hunting (Guedes 2004), the Great
Green Macaw is listed as endangered on the International Union for Conservation of
Nature’s (IUCN) Red List (EN A2cd+3cd) (BirdLife International 2005). In addition, the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora has
designated the Great Green Macaw as an Appendix I species (CITES 2008). Appendix I
species are threatened with extinction, and all international trade in commercial
specimens is prohibited.
In northeastern Costa Rica, Powell et al. (1999) estimate that only 35 Great Green
Macaw breeding pairs and 200 individuals remain. A follow‐up to this study suggests
that the overall population may have expanded slightly to 250 individuals (Vargas M.
2008). While habitat fragmentation and degradation are affecting the persistence of this
1 Great Green Macaw nestlings have fetched $300 apiece in Costa Rica (Bjork and Powell 1999).
9 7
species in Costa Rica, scientists contend that the loss of breeding habitat and removal of
its nesting trees are having the greatest impact on this species (Powell et al. 1999). Like
most other macaw species, the Great Green Macaw is a secondary cavity nester.
Breeding pairs rely on large hollows in mature trees to lay eggs and raise their young.
In particular, Great Green Macaw breeding pairs have an affinity for one particular tree
species. A census of Great Green Macaw nests that occurred between 1994 and 2003
identified that nearly 90% were located in large Dipteryx panamensis trees (Powell et al.
1999, Chassot et al. 2002). Not only is this tree species important as a nesting substrate
for the Great Green Macaw, but its fruits are an important food resource throughout the
breeding season. Although D. panamensis is a relatively common, canopy‐emergent
species within the lowland Atlantic forest of Costa Rica, it has been logged extensively
in the past.
The creation of Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge (MNWR) in 2005
represents a positive first step in the protection of potential nesting and breeding habitat
for the Great Green Macaw in northern Costa Rica (Figure 2). This region was targeted
because it contains several large nesting trees used by Great Green Macaw breeding
pairs. In addition, MNWR protects foraging habitat that may be critical during the
Great Green Macaw’s breeding season. MNWR is also embedded within the larger San
Juan‐La Selva (SJLS) Biological Corridor effort that aims to connect protected areas in
southern Nicaragua to those in central Costa Rica (Chapter 1).
9 8
4.1.1 Objectives
To complement this conservation project, I conducted research to further
elucidate the ecology of the Great Green Macaw’s nesting and breeding habitat. I
utilized the results of an aerial survey that I performed in 2005 documenting the
distribution and density of D. panamensis trees across 140,178 ha in northern Costa Rica
(Chapters 2 and 3). I synthesized the biogeographic distribution of D. panamensis with
the locations of known nesting trees used by the Great Green Macaw in order to assess
the quantity and quality of nesting habitat for this species. In particular, I addressed the
following questions:
1. What environmental factors predict optimal Great Green Macaw nesting
habitat?
2. Based on these environmental factors, how much potential habitat exists
within northern Costa Rica?
3. What areas should be targeted as conservation priorities?
4.2 Background
The Great Green Macaw belongs to the family Psittacidae. It is one of 17 species
of macaws, of which one is extinct, another is extinct in the wild, and seven other species
are endangered (Texas A&M University 2006). In general, macaws are characterized by
9 9
a long tail, large beak, and bare facial patch (Abramson 1999). Adult Great Green
Macaws are mostly yellowish‐green with a scarlet forehead. This species approaches 31
inches in length and can weigh up to 1.3 kg (Stiles and Skutch 1989). The Great Green
Macaw occurs as two sub‐species. The nominate race occurs in humid, lowland forests
of the Atlantic/Caribbean lowlands of eastern Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica,
both slopes of Panama, and in northwestern Colombia; the race guayaquilensis occurs on
the Pacific slopes of Western Ecuador (Snyder et al. 2000, BirdLife International 2005).
According to Snyder et al. (2000), the Central American populations are restricted to four
isolated subpopulations that are confined to lowland Atlantic forest. The subpopulation
that is the focus of this chapter occurs from southeastern Nicaragua to northeastern
Costa Rica. (Hereinafter, I will use population to refer to the Costa Rican portion of the
Nicaraguan/Costa Rican subpopulation.)
Until recently, very little was known about the Great Green Macaw’s food,
nesting, and habitat requirements. As of 1989, its nest was still undescribed (Stiles and
Skutch 1989). One of the first extensive examinations of ecological, behavioral, and
demographic dynamics of Costa Rica’s Great Green Macaw population was initiated in
1994 by the Great Green Macaw Research and Conservation Project, which is now
affiliated with the Centro Científico Tropical (CCT) in San José, Costa Rica. This
research by Powell et al. (1999) comprised radio‐telemetry efforts to determine Great
Green Macaw home ranges, monitoring and data collection on all known nest sites, and
100
phenological studies of tree species that constituted its diet. During the study period,
Powell et al. (1999) estimated that Costa Rica’s population of Great Green Macaw
averaged around 200 individuals with no more than 35 reproductively active pairs. A
follow‐up to this study was conducted in 2008, and it indicated that the overall
population may have increased to 250 Great Green Macaw individuals (Vargas M. 2008).
In northern Costa Rica, the breeding range has shrunk by 90% and is restricted to about
1,120 km2. This area abuts southern Nicaragua and the San Juan River to the north and
is bordered by the Sarapiquí and San Carlos Rivers to the east and west, respectively. In
2005, part of this region was decreed MNWR.
The Great Green Macaw is dependent on D. panamensis trees for food and
nesting. As secondary cavity nesters, Great Green Macaw breeding pairs select large D.
panamensis trees with hollows in order to construct nests. This tree is subject to
numerous threats that may cascade and affect the Great Green Macaw’s long‐term
viability (Chapter 3). The scarcity of natural nest sites may be one of the major factors
limiting the number of adult macaws—including the Great Green—that can reproduce
during a breeding season (Munn 1992). Cavities take a long time to form since the
process is initiated by decomposition when water or moisture enters the wood, drains
down the inside of the trunk or branch, and empties out of the tree through fissures and
cracks (Mawson and Long 1994). While macaws will clean and maintain cavities, they
do not form them on their own, hence the designation as secondary cavity nesters.
101
Because macaws may use the same nesting tree year after year, the removal of a single
nesting tree represents a reduction in reproductive output over the life of the tree, since
hundreds of macaw chicks may be reared from a single tree during its lifetime
(Brightsmith 2005). In addition, the fact that most wild macaw species have a naturally
low reproductive rate only compounds these anthropogenic threats and underscores the
importance of identifying and protecting their nesting and breeding habitat (Nycander
et al. 1999).
Between 1994 and 2002, 66 active Great Green Macaw nests located in northern
Costa Rica were tracked by CCT scientists. Of these, 57 (86%) were located in large D.
panamensis trees (Powell et al. 1999, Chassot et al. 2002). The remaining nests were
located in large trees of the following species: Carapa nicaraguensis, Goethalsia meiantha,
and Vochysia ferruginea (Powell et al. 1999). In northern Costa Rica, nesting occurs
between December and June with egg‐laying occurring in late January. Nests contain
eggs in January or February and nestlings between February and April. Most chicks
fledge by late April.
The Great Green Macaw closely tracks fruit production of a variety of tree
species and may forage on fruit from over 30 species as they move between Costa Rica’s
lowlands and higher volcanic regions. Great Green Macaws consume D. panamensis
fruit from about September to April (Chapter 3). During peak D. panamensis fruit
production in January, this resource may account for 85% of the Great Green Macaw’s
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diet (Powell et al. 1999). January is also a crucial time in the Great Green Macaw’s
reproductive cycle as this month coincides with its egg‐laying period and precedes
hatching and nestling development. Around June, the birds disperse from lowland,
Atlantic forests to higher elevations of Costa Rica’s volcanic ranges and drier forests in
Nicaragua. This seasonal migration correlates with the cessation of fruiting for D.
panamensis, and the birds are likely searching for alternative food sources at higher
elevations. Between April and August when D. panamensis fruit are scarce, Great Green
Macaws will switch to fruit from Sacoglottis trichogyna. Powell et al. (1999) reported that
D. panamensis and S. trichogyna accounted from between 65% and 95% of foraging trees
between October and July. A study of Great Green Macaws in Ecuador also noted this
population’s seasonal movements coupled with changes in food availability (Berg et al.
2007).
Snyder et al. (2000) conjectured that it is the loss of the large nesting trees,
specifically D. panamensis in Costa Rica that may jeopardize the long‐term viability of
this species. Results from work that I conducted regarding the distribution of D.
panamensis density across 140,178 ha in northern Costa Rica indicate that this tree species
still exists in relatively high densities (Chapter 3). Reproductive, adult D. panamensis can
103
reach densities as high as 2 trees/ha. Nearly 20% of the land surveyed exhibits densities
of 0.5 trees/ha and higher, and over 50% exhibits densities of 0.2 trees/ha and higher.
However, an analysis of landscape connectivity and fragmentation indicated that
moderate density patches of D. panamensis exhibit a very small average patch size.
Direct pollen flow may also be lacking between these patches as they are separated by
distances greater then the maximum pollen dispersal distance measured for this species
(Chapter 3).
Because the quantity and quality of nesting habitat is critical for the Great Green
Macaw, I investigated whether there are environmental factors that predict optimal
Great Green Macaw nesting habitat, how much potential habitat exists within northern
Costa Rica, and if there are any habitat patches that should be prioritized for
conservation. To address these points, I developed a habitat model to identify critical
habitat variables that predict optimal Great Green Macaw nesting habitat. I then used
these variables as well as existing GIS base layers in order to create a map of potential
GGM nesting habitat. This work occurred in the vicinity of MNWR within the proposed
SJLS Corridor.
I used data documenting the locations of existing Great Green Macaw nest sites
and information regarding habitat requirements during the breeding season. These data
were collected as part of a larger effort by the CCT to detail the Great Green Macaw’s
104
ecology (Powell et al. 1999). Based on telemetry studies, CCT scientists identified that
breeding pairs utilize a home range of 550 ha on average. This territory does not overlap
with the breeding habitat of other pairs. In addition, CCT researchers identified active
Great Green Macaw nests as well as formerly active nests that had been cut. Nests were
located based on extensive field surveys and interviews with local residents, and the
nest locations were then recorded using a GPS. These data are maintained as a GIS
point file, which I used in my analyses. CCT scientists identified 66 trees that the Great
Green Macaw had used from 1994 to 2003 as nesting sites. Nest sites were not always
active in consecutive years because nesting pairs often skip a nest site that had been
active the previous breeding season. Of the 66 sites identified, 57 (86%) were located in
large D. panamensis trees (Chassot et al. 2002). Because of data availability, I utilized the
locations of 51 nest sites that had been identified from 1994‐2003. Of these 51 nest sites,
10 trees had been cut by the end of the survey period. In some cases, the nests had been
cut deliberately even after the tree had been protected and demarcated as a nesting tree.
In these instances, it is likely that the Great Green Macaw chicks were being targeted. In
other cases, some nest trees had been removed unwittingly.
I used environmental variables that are important components in delineating
Great Green Macaw nesting habitat. These environmental variables were contained in
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GIS raster data that covered the project area. All GIS data were projected to WGS 1984
UTM Zone 16N, and raster data had the same grid cell size of 30 m.
I modeled potential Great Green Macaw nesting habitat by using a Classification
and Regression Tree (CART) approach (Chapter 3). The CART analysis was performed
in the R Statistical Program using the “tree” package (R Development Core Team 2008).
For background on CART models, please see Chapter 3. I considered the locations of the
Great Green Macaw nest sites as presences. I intersected the presence points with the
raster surfaces for each environmental variable in order to extract the underlying data
values and create a spreadsheet with the resulting data values. Because five of the
original 51 nest points fell outside of the extent of the environmental layers, I removed
these points from my analysis. Thus, the 46 nests represented presences.
In order to create a complementary portrait of the landscape as a whole, I
generated 50 points and randomly arrayed them spatially across the project area. The
random points were at least 1 km away from each other in distance, and they were
restricted from a 550 ha buffer around each of the nest points, which corresponded to
the breeding territory of a Great Green Macaw pair. Ultimately, one of the random
points fell outside the extent of the environmental layers resulting in 49 points. These 49
points reflect average background conditions across the project area. Similar to the
presence points, I intersected the background points with the raster surfaces for each
environmental variable in order to extract the underlying data values and create a
106
spreadsheet with the resulting background values. The presence and background points
represented the response variable in the CART model. Because the response variable
was categorical, the model was run as a classification tree. I evaluated several
classification tree models that included various combinations of the environmental
predictor variables. Predictor variables that did not produce a logical split in the
classification tree were removed from consideration. A description of the response and
predictor variables appears in Table 8.
Table 8: Response and predictor variables used in the CART model to predict
potential Great Green Macaw habitat
107
The final classification tree included two environmental predictor variables
(DENS_550HA and ELEV) and was calibrated with 11 terminal nodes. This
classification tree was pruned based on “misclassification” and produced a final
classification tree containing three terminal nodes. A confusion matrix was constructed
to determine the classification success in assigning group membership of the “presence”
samples. The classification success for this group was 91%. Thus, only 4 of the 46
known nest “presence” points did not occur in areas satisfied by environmental
conditions predicted by the CART model.
Results from the classification tree model indicate that Great Green Macaw pairs
nest in habitat where adult, reproductive D. panamensis trees occur in densities of 0.2
trees/ha or greater within a 550 ha buffer around the nesting tree and where the ground
elevation is less then 132 meters. D. panamensis density within the breeding territory is
the most important environmental condition predicting potential Great Green Macaw
nesting habitat. If this condition is satisfied, then the overall quality of the surrounding
forest is insignificant. Thus, if the mean density of adult, reproductive D. panamensis
trees meets or exceeds 0.2 trees/ha, Great Green Macaw pairs may nest in habitat with a
108
range of forest cover. Results from the classification tree indicate that there is no
relationship between the distance of nesting trees to rivers or roads.
The results of this study underscore the importance of large, reproductive D.
panamensis trees in delineating potential Great Green Macaw nesting habitat. Breeding
habitat occurs in lowland areas (<132 m) where D. panamensis trees grow at densities that
meet or exceed 0.2 trees/ha within the 550‐ha breeding territory. D. panamensis trees are
a critical resource for this bird during all phases of the breeding season—from the time it
selects a nesting tree in late December to when juveniles fledge in June. Nearly 90% of
all Great Green Macaw nests identified in northern Costa Rica are located within
hollowed cavities of large D. panamensis trees. Results of the habitat analysis suggest
that Great Green Macaw pairs select nesting trees that are surrounded by relatively
dense stands of reproductive D. panamensis trees. D. panamensis fruit likely sustain the
adults, chicks, nestlings, and fledglings over the course of the breeding season.
Fortuitously, the Great Green Macaw breeding season coincides with the peak
production of D. panamensis fruit. During the nest‐building period in late December,
adults are likely foraging for food in the vicinity of the nest tree. Once the eggs are laid,
the female remains on the nest while the male forages within the breeding territory;
when nestling are present, both parents will forage for food (Powell et al. 1999). Because
breeding Great Green Macaw pairs will utilize a 550‐ha swathe of forest around the nest
109
tree in order to forage for food, the quality and quantity of D. panamensis trees in the
vicinity are crucial.
Figure 16 shows the distribution of potential Great Green Macaw nesting habitat
within the lowland Atlantic rain forest of northern Costa Rica. Approximately 67,271 ha
of potential Great Green Macaw nesting habitat exists within the northern reaches of the
study area. Assuming that Great Green Macaw breeding pairs require 550 ha of non‐
overlapping habitat during the breeding habitat, northern Costa Rica could support
about 120 breeding macaw pairs. It is estimated that only 35 breeding pairs currently
utilize this area (Powell et al. 1999). The “holes” in the map, where non‐habitat occurs
within predicted nesting habitat, are regions that generally occur above the elevation
threshold predicted by the CART model. Many of these regions do meet the criteria for
D. panamensis density within the breeding territory. While these regions would most
likely be able to support Great Green Macaw nests, these regions were excluded from
predicted habitat since the CART model was influenced by the locations of the known
nest trees. These trees generally occurred in lowland areas.
The habitat analysis did not identify forest cover as a primary indicator of Great
Green Macaw habitat. This study suggests that as long as adequate D. panamensis stands
exist within the breeding territory, Great Green Macaw may be willing to nest within a
110
Figure 16: Potential Great Green Macaw nesting habitat within Costa Rica
Yellow nest sites were excluded from the CART model since they fell outside of the
study area. Green nest sites did not occur in areas predicted by the CART model to be
potential Great Green Macaw nesting habitat. The area circled in yellow was identified
as a conservation priority as it contains the highest densities of D. panamensis.
111
mosaic of landscapes such as pastures, forest fragments, or secondary forests. Of course,
relatively dense stands of D. panamensis are likely correlated with forest cover, and of the
67,271 ha of potential Great Green Macaw nesting habitat identified, nearly 76% occurs
in areas with forest cover greater than 50%. However, the possibility that Great Green
Macaw may nest in areas of varying forest cover may represent an opportunity for those
working to expand Costa Rica’s Great Green Macaw population. In fact, Bjork and
Powell (1999) noted that several Great Green Macaw nesting trees were located in cattle
pastures.
4.5 Conclusions
The landscape within the lowland Atlantic forests of northeastern Costa Rica
represents a patchwork of primary forest surrounded by a network of pastures,
agricultural zones, and regenerating forests. This network of multiple land uses is a
reminder of a time when Costa Rica had one of the highest deforestation rates,
averaging around 3.7% from the early 1970s to the early 1990s (Sanchez‐Azofeifa et al.
2003). However, many ecologists suggest that tropical forest restoration may undo some
of the damage done by prior anthropogenic degradation (Lamb et al. 2005, Chazdon
2008). Targeted restoration of D. panamensis trees within abandoned pasture may
jumpstart the recovery of land that is currently not viable for Great Green Macaw
nesting or foraging. Such actions may ensure the long‐term presence and viability of
this species within Costa Rica’s forests.
112
However, while targeted habitat restoration and forest regeneration may
represent one solution to maintaining Costa Rica’s Great Green Macaw population,
habitat protection must be the first step, and existing nesting trees should be
safeguarded. In fact, a recent decision by Costa Rica’s 4th Chamber of the Supreme
Court on September 16, 2008 states that MINAE must abstain from the continuation or
initiation of the use, exploitation, or extraction of D. panamensis (Fallas 2007) (Appendix
C). This is a very positive development.
Understanding what environmental conditions predict potential Great Green
Macaw habitat is also essential in developing or fine‐tuning any conservation program
for this species. MNWR was established in 2005, and one of its primary purposes is to
protect breeding habitat for the Great Green Macaw in Costa Rica. Approximately
43,700 ha of land identified as potential Great Green Macaw breeding habitat lies within
the boundaries of MNWR. This covers nearly 75% of the new wildlife refuge. However,
an important region of potential breeding habitat that is currently unprotected is located
in the northwestern part of the study area (Figure 16). My selection of this patch as a
conservation priority is based on the following criteria. Not only does this area meet the
minimum requirements of D. panamensis density within a 550‐ha breeding territory, but
this zone possesses some of the highest measured densities of adult D. panamensis trees
on record of nearly 2 adult trees/ha (Chapter 3). Thus, I am basing my recommendation
on the extent of D. panamensis density in this region. In addition, I do not believe that
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surveys have been conducted in this region for Great Green Macaw nests. This region
would benefit from extensive ground studies of this bird species. Future efforts to
preserve Great Green Macaw breeding habitat need to prioritize this habitat patch. At
the very least, the logging moratorium against removing large D. panamensis trees
should be strictly enforced in this area.
Despite emerging information about the Great Green Macaw’s breeding habitat
and current conservation efforts to preserve habitat, Costa Rica’s population of Great
Green Macaw may never reach the potential of 120 breeding pairs predicted here.
Habitat fragmentation and other anthropogenic threats may simply be too widespread.
Although this research indicates that there is more than enough foraging habitat during
the breeding season because D. panamensis densities are high, the number of suitable
nesting trees may be limited. Even with adequate food during the breeding season as
represented by high densities of reproductive D. panamensis trees, it is the scarcity of
natural nest sites that may be limiting the number of adult Great Green Macaws that
reproduce annually (Munn 1992).
While Costa Rica’s Great Green Macaw may remain on the brink, a note of hope
lies across the San Juan River and over the border in Nicaragua. The Indio‐Maíz
Biological Reserve is located just across Costa Rica’s northeastern border (Figure 17). It
comprises nearly 264,000 ha of lowland Atlantic forest, the same type of forest where
Great Green Macaw pairs breed in Costa Rica. Because of Nicaragua’s recent political
114
Figure 17: Location of Indio‐Maíz Biological Reserve, Nicaragua in relation to
potential Great Green Macaw nesting habitat in Costa Rica
115
history, much of the Indio‐Maíz Biological Reserve remains intact and unlogged. While
extensive field surveys of Great Green Macaw in Nicaragua remain scarce, it is
estimated that the Nicaraguan population is nearly ten times the size of the population
south of the border and that the Costa Rican population is merely a subpopulation of the
much larger Nicaraguan population (Powell et al. 1999). Most likely, the Indio‐Maíz
Biological Reserve contains extensive forest swathes with extremely high densities of D.
panamensis trees only seen in a few patches in northern Costa Rica. Likely, many areas
exceed the minimum Great Green Macaw nesting requirement of 0.2 trees/ha within the
breeding territory. Thus, to maintain the Great Green Macaw within Costa Rica,
ongoing efforts to protect the habitat in Nicaragua need to be funded. In addition, the
level of research that has been conducted in Costa Rica should be extended north. For
example, known nesting trees should be identified and protected and the breeding
population should be more accurately censused. If appropriate GIS and remote sensing
data exist, a similar study could be initiated to identify potential Great Green Macaw
nesting habitat in the Indio‐Maíz Biological Reserve based on the parameters from the
present work.
116
This dissertation provides new insights into the utility of digital aerial surveys in
censusing an ecologically and economically important tropical tree species across a large
spatial extent. I demonstrate that digital aerial surveys can be timed to capture the
unique blooming pattern for the canopy‐emergent tree, Dipteryx panamensis. In
particular, I developed a semi‐automated, pattern recognition technique that capitalized
on the distinct spectral signature of blooming D. panamensis trees. Specifically, the
alternate color space, IHS (intensity, hue, and saturation), enhanced the images and
enabled D. panamensis to be identifiable by the computer classifier. The aerial survey
occurred in Costa Rica over a portion of two new protected areas—the proposed San
Juan‐La Selva Biological Corridor and Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge. It covered
over 140,000 ha. Results of this work suggest that digital aerial surveys may provide a
cost effective and efficient approach to studying tropical landscapes that may be
dangerous or challenging to enter on the ground. This approach is especially effective in
studying the distribution of large, canopy‐emergent tree species, like D. panamensis,
which are often difficult to study from the ground. In addition, digital aerial surveys
may augment the size of traditional forest inventory plots. Due to biases in placement,
terrestrial plots often misrepresent the abundance or density of large, infrequently
distributed trees.
117
Besides testing a novel remote sensing technique, this dissertation also examined
the landscape distribution and conservation implications of D. panamensis. I created a
raster surface depicting the density of D. panamensis across the entire aerial survey extent
using the output from the digital photographs. This work provided basic, ecological
information regarding D. panamensis, and indicated that reproductive, canopy‐emergent
trees can exist in densities as high as 2 adult trees/ha. An analysis of the environmental
conditions that can support D. panamensis showed that this tree species is restricted to
regions between 45 and 125 meters in elevation on soil with an acid and clay profile.
Finally, the distributional work on D. panamensis provided the basis for an
analysis on the environmental factors that predict nesting habitat for the endangered
Great Green Macaw (Ara ambigua). Because D. panamensis is a critical food and nesting
resource for the Great Green Macaw, this dissertation highlighted important
conservation implications and priorities for both D. panamensis and the Great Green
Macaw. Results from this dissertation underscored that Great Green Macaw breeding
pairs nest in habitat where adult, reproductive D. panamensis trees occur in densities of
0.2 trees/ha or greater within a 550 ha buffer around the nesting tree.
Ultimately, the future of the Great Green Macaw may rely on the conservation of
the Indio‐Maíz Biological Reserve in Nicaragua. This protected area is one of the largest
remaining stands of primary rain forest in Central America. It is likely that D.
panamensis occurs in high densities in Nicaragua similar to or greater than those
118
identified in Costa Rica. In addition, Costa Rica’s population of Great Green Macaw,
which numbers only around 250 individuals, is likely a mere subpopulation of the larger
population that exists over the border in Nicaragua. Subsequent research and
conservation efforts of both D. panamensis and the Great Green Macaw in Costa Rica
should include a bi‐national partnership with Nicaragua. Such a visionary collaboration
may ensure the survival of the Great Green Macaw for many more generations!
119
120
I had the dubious distinction of having my aerial survey work written up in the July 7,
2005 issue of Costa Rica’s national newspaper, La Nación (Hernández 2005). While the
aerial surveys were conducted for research purposes, the last sentence of this article
suggests an alternative purpose of the overflights!
121
122
Results of the Signature Separability matrix*
Training Sample
Black_1 Black_2 Black_3 Vegetation_1 Vegetation_2 Vegetation_3 Vegetation_4
Names
Black_1 0
Black_2 977 0
Black_3 1443 290 0
Vegetation_1 2000 2000 2000 0
Vegetation_2 2000 2000 2000 1073 0
Vegetation_3 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 0
Vegetation_4 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1960 0
Vegetation_5 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 719 1644
Vegetation_6 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 593 1989
Vegetation_7 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1785 425
Vegetation_8 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Vegetation_9 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1752 1547
Dipteryx
panamensis_1 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_2 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_3 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_4 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_5 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_6 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_7 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_8 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_9 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_10 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_11 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_12 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Water_1 2000 2000 2000 2000 1999 2000 2000
Water_2 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Bare_Ground_1 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Bare_Ground_2 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Road_1 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Road_2 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Pasture_1 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1130 1993
Pasture_2 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Pasture_3 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1921 2000
Bare_Ground_3 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Road_3 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
*Numbers after the name indicate that multiple training samples were collected to
describe a training class. Training samples are distinct if values are greater than 1,500.
123
Results of the Signature Separability matrix, cont.
Names of
Dipteryx
Training Vegetation_5 Vegetation_6 Vegetation_7 Vegetation_8 Vegetation_9
panamensis_1
Classes
Black_1
Black_2
Black_3
Vegetation_1
Vegetation_2
Vegetation_3
Vegetation_4
Vegetation_5 0
Vegetation_6 1408 0
Vegetation_7 1005 1938
Vegetation_8 2000 2000 2000 0
Vegetation_9 1035 1956 943 2000 0
Dipteryx
panamensis_1 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 0
Dipteryx
panamensis_2 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 664
Dipteryx
panamensis_3 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1870
Dipteryx
panamensis_4 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1835
Dipteryx
panamensis_5 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 640
Dipteryx
panamensis_6 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1158
Dipteryx
panamensis_7 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1851
Dipteryx
panamensis_8 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1832
Dipteryx
panamensis_9 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1883
Dipteryx
panamensis_10 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1998
Dipteryx
panamensis_11 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Dipteryx
panamensis_12 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 1982
Water_1 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Water_2 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Bare_Ground_1 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Bare_Ground_2 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Road_1 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Road_2 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Pasture_1 1727 1694 1945 2000 1981 2000
Pasture_2 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Pasture_3 1999 1761 2000 2000 2000 2000
Bare_Ground_3 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Road_3 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
124
Results of the Signature Separability matrix, cont.
125
Results of the Signature Separability matrix, cont.
126
Results of the Signature Separability matrix, cont.
127
128
This article describes the recent ruling on D. panamensis and was published in Costa
Rica’s national newspaper, La Nación (Ávalos R. 2008).
129
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Biography
Sara L. M. Chun was born in 1976. She grew up in Mountain View, California.
In 1998, she graduated from Harvard College with a bachelor’s degree in Biology.
During her college years, Sara made several research trips to the tropical countries of
Costa Rica, Malaysia, and Indonesia. These trips piqued Sara’s curiosity of tropical
systems. After college, Sara spent three years working as a restoration ecologist at H. T.
Harvey & Associates, an environmental consulting firm based in San Jose, California.
Some of her job duties included designing and monitoring riparian and wetland
restoration sites, writing environmental reports such as Mitigation and Monitoring
Plans, and drafting scopes and budgets for project proposals. In the fall of 2001, Sara
began the doctoral program in the University Program in Ecology at Duke University.
Sara is committed to balancing academic research with teaching and professional
development. As a doctoral student at Duke University, Sara participated in the
Preparing Future Faculty (PFF) program. The PFF program matches doctoral students
with a faculty mentor at a local teaching college so that participants can observe and
experience faculty responsibilities at a variety of academic institutions. In the fall of
2007, Sara taught her own graduate course entitled, “Ecosystem Science and
Management” to 23 master’s students. This course was conducted through the Duke
Environmental Leadership program, which is an online executive master’s program.
143
Sara’s doctoral research was supported by grants from the Duke University
Graduate School, Duke University Center for Latin American & Caribbean Studies,
Nicholas School of the Environment, Organization for Tropical Studies, and Sigma Xi
Scientific Research Society.
144