VI B Tech PE Lecture 11B / 2015-16

AERATED DRILLING

BY
Prof.A.K.Pathak
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Indian School of Mines University Dhanbad
E-mail: akhilendra_pathak@yahoo.co.in

"Aerated drilling operations reduce the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid
column so that the pressure in the wellbore is less than the formation pressure".
Introduction
Conventional drilling practice calls for maintaining the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid between the formation's pore pressure and its fracture pressure. The drilling fluid is
continuously circulated within the wellbore to control the formation fluids and transport
cuttings to the surface. It also works as a stabilizing agent within the wellbore, and
lubricates and cools the drill bit. The fluid is either a water-based or oil-based liquid that
varies from 7.8 to 19 pounds per gallon, and contains a variety of solid and liquid
products to impart density, fluid loss characteristics and rheological properties.
The conventional practice described above has long been recognized as the safest
method for drilling a well. It does, however, have drawbacks. Since the drilling fluid
pressure is higher than the natural formation pressure, fluid invasion frequently occurs,
causing permeability damage to the formation. This damage is mainly caused by
washout or physical blockage by the intrusion of fluids and/or solids into the formation
structure.

Aerated drilling is defined as the practice of drilling a well with the wellbore fluid
gradient less than the natural formation gradient. It differs from conventional drilling in
that the bottom hole circulating pressure is lower than the formation pressure, thereby
permitting the well to flow while drilling proceeds.

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 Normal drilling practice
Aerated fluid drilling mainly refers to a fluid (water or mud) based drilling system, into
which air has been injected under pressure, in order to lower the hydrostatic pressure in
the wellbore, often resulting in a desired ECD (equivalent circulating density) of 5lbs/gal.
or less. Air can be added to the system conventionally down the drill string or be
injected directly into the annulus by means of a parasite string.

Aerated fluid systems have proved very beneficial when applied in situations where
other air systems cannot function, such as in severe loss zones that produce
unmanageable quantities of water when drilled underbalanced. By regulating air
volumes with the mud pump rate, a state of equilibrium in the annulus can be reached,
resulting in neither losses nor gains to the formation.

Aerated drilling layout

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History of Underbalanced/Aerated Drilling
The concept of drilling with low pressure circulating fluid was first patented in the United
States in the year 1866. Early applications used compressed air to drill the hole. As the
technology evolved over the years, gas internal systems with stable foams and aerated
fluids were introduced for specific drilling conditions.
The technique called flow drilling   was first developed in South Texas, and became very
popular worldwide with the early successful applications in Southern Canada, Australia
and China. It was primarily used for the re-development of fields where the depleted
pressure was an important concern.
During the 1990’s, underbalanced drilling was successfully applied in onshore and
offshore drilling operations throughout Europe.
Early techniques developed by Angel (1957) and, Moore and Cole (1965) tried to predict
the volume of air or gas required to adequately clean the air-drilled hole. There were
also several attempts published in the literature to develop a systematic design
procedure for estimating wellbore hydraulics in underbalanced drilling applications.
Currently, underbalanced drilling is the most exciting development in the area of drilling
engineering.
Together with horizontal and multi-lateral drilling techniques, it holds tremendous value
for drilling more cost-effective wells.  
AERATED DRILLING TECHNIQUES
Aerated drilling technique uses fluid densities ranging from near 0 to 7 pounds per
gallon. In fresh-water applications, the density of the circulating fluid can be reduced by
nitrogen gas injection. This reduced density helps to achieve a bottom hole circulating
pressure that is less than that of the formation pressure.
Even conventional liquids can provide aerated conditions with proper density control of
the drilling fluid. On the other hand, it is also possible for a low-density fluid to cause
overbalance due to the frictional pressure drop.
Aerated drilling has proved to be an economical method for drilling in depleted/low
pressure reservoirs. Since it is possible to record production during drilling, operators
can easily and accurately identify inflow mechanisms and pay intervals, and cease
drilling operation as soon as the target zones are identified.
One method of controlling the bottomhole pressure (BHP) is to use a choke at the
surface. BHP is controlled by opening or closing the choke to lower or raise the

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standpipe pressure. Since the speed of a pressure wave through a static fluid column is
equal to the speed of sound in the same medium, a lag time is experienced until the
choking action at the surfaces reaches bottomhole. Estimating the lag time in a single-
phase system is relatively easy, whereas the same calculation in multi-phase systems
can be quite complicated.
Instead of using a choke, the BHP can also be controlled by adjusting the Equivalent
Circulating Density (ECD). This technique essentially creates an increasing fluid density
gradient between the surface and the bottomhole. If the casing is set at a shallower
depth, ECD is preferred over choke pressure control. Since ECD is a function of flow,
aerated conditions should be preserved by controlling the hydrostatic head when flow
stops during connections.
AERATED DRILLING FLUID
Aerated condition is achieved by injecting air into the drilling fluid. However the mud
weight can be reduced by using other medium such as:
o Gaseous (Compressible)
o Two-phase
o Liquid (Incompressible)

The fluid type is dictated by the boundary conditions of the drilling system. Typically, the
boundary conditions are defined by bottomhole flowing pressure, formation fracture
pressure, borehole collapse pressure and formation pore pressure. The density range of
various drilling fluids is summarized in the following diagram.

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Two different measures are used to define the type of fluid system:
o Ratio, the gas-to-liquid volume at standard conditions.
o Quality, the ratio of gas volume to liquid volume at hole conditions.

Gas-to-liquid ratios of various drilling fluid systems are shown in the following figure.

Gaseous Drilling Fluids

The oldest and most basic technique is dry air drilling, which involves pumping air down
the drill string and up through the annulus. A rotating wellhead between the blowout
preventer and rotary table is used to divert the returns. The cuttings are sent away from
the rig via a discharge pipe, and a water spray is used to kill dust at the outlet. A flame is
used to burn any returning hydrocarbons.
Nitrogen is another common drilling fluid. Other inert gases are too expensive to be used
in this process. A typical method to generate N2   is to use membrane type filters that
extract the N2   from the air stream before it is pumped into the wellbore.
Natural gas is also a drilling fluid option, since it is easily available from pipelines. It can
directly be used without the help of compressors. More information on nitrogen and
natural gas drilling is provided under the "Underbalanced Drilling Methods" subtopic.

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Circulating pressure and hole cleanup are dependent on each other. More cuttings in the
wellbore cause higher downhole pressures. Angel’s method provides some guidelines
regarding air flow rates required for hole cleaning. His charts are still widely used.
According to these charts, 3000 ft/min is the minimum velocity for effective cutting
transport.
A combination of all these factors can significantly improve the economics of drilling a
well. Aerated drilling is often preferred if it reduces formation damage and hole
problems, and reduces the cost of stimulation in fractured or moderate/high permeability
formations. Moreover, with good mud logging and drilling records, this can provide
valuable Formation Evaluation data.

Hole Cleaning Considerations

Decreased bottom hole pressure typically causes higher penetration rates. However,
higher penetration rates can increase the circulating bottom hole pressure and bring the
well back to overbalanced conditions. Moreover, due to the annular fluid segregation,
there is an increased risk that the wellbore will pack-off, resulting in stuck pipe. In this
situation, gas tends to rise while the liquid settles to the bottom of the hole. This is a
major cause of increased bottom hole pressures because of the increased fluid density
at the sand face. Large cutting volumes generated by high penetration rates are also
difficult to remove. Therefore, penetration rates should be carefully adjusted to ensure
sufficient hole cleaning and slug removal. Inadequate liquid flow rates can cause sticky-
hole conditions that result in differential sticking
When drilling with foam and mist, hole cleaning efficiency reaches a limit after a certain
level of underbalance, and the drilling rate starts to decrease as illustrated in the
following figure.

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Limiting Technical Factors
Major technical factors that restrict the application of aerated drilling techniques are
listed as follows:
o Reduced wellbore pressure gradients can cause hole stability problems
o Formation of mud rings can block air flow, leading to downhole fires
o Water causes cuttings to accumulate, possibly causing the drill string to
stick. If aerated mud is used rather than air, differential underbalance can
be reduced.
o HC’s and air often mix to achieve a flammable range. With a small spark,
which can be generated by the contact between the drill string and hard
minerals, the risk of fire increases.
o Stable foam condition is not easy to achieve.

Depending on the drilling site location, logistical and economical constraints can be
substantial. Similarly, the need for specialized drilling equipment can also render
underbalanced operations uneconomical.

VOLUMETRIC GAS FLOW RATE REQUIREMENT:-

A major issue in designing aerated drilling is the cutting carrying capacity of the fluid
mixture. For a given liquid injection rate, the gas injection rate should be high enough to
transport generated cuttings of certain sizes from the bottom of the hole to the surface
pit. The required gas flow rate depends upon bottom hole pressure, which itself is a
function of the gas flow rate. Therefore, the gas flow rate is computed implicitly using
numerical algorithms.

CRITERIA:-
The criteria for determining the minimum gas flow rate for gas drilling is from cutting
transport mechanisms. For aerated drilling, however, there is an additional criterion from
the bottom hole pressure required from the bottom hole pressure required in
underbalanced drilling.

Criterion from cutting transport

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In aerated drilling, cuttings are large and they move up the annulus at velocities
significantly lesser than the in situ fluid velocity. The minimum velocity criterion is used to
determine the minimum required gas flow rate at a given mud flow rate.
It is generally believed that the flow of aerated water falls into a turbulent flow regime;
which is safe to assume because of a lower friction factor in the turbulent flow region.
The cutting terminal settling velocity can be estimated in this case using the following
equation:-

Vsl = 5.35 √ (Ds (ρs - ρf) / ρf))

Where,
Vsl=terminal settling velocity (fps)
Ds=equivalent solid particle diameter (ft)
ρs=density of solid particle, lbm/ft³
ρf=foam density, lbm/ft³
Criterion from borehole pressure
Flowing borehole pressure is not only a function of gas flow rate but is a function of a
combination of liquid and gas flow rates for a given well geometry. Infact, the borehole is
a strong function of the liquid volume and a weak function of the gas volume in the hole
due to liquid-gas density contrast. The same flowing borehole pressure can be achieved
using different combinations of liquid and gas flow rates, but these combinations may
provide different cuttings-carrying capacity of mixtures. The optical combination of liquid
and gas flow rates, but these considerations may provide different cuttings carrying
capacity requirements can be determined graphically.

The optimum liquid and gas rates

Determining the optimum combination of mud and air rates is a complex topic. It requires
compliance with borehole stability and geological constraints. The combination of mud
and air flow rate provide different cutting-carrying capacities of fluid mixtures. For a given
air injection rate there exists a critical mud rate that yields the lowest carrying capacity of
the fluid. Therefore this optimal combination can be determined graphically using
pressure graphs and carrying capacity graphs, which can be generated for typical well
geometries at different depths using the mathematical models.

Liquid- gas rate window (LGRW)

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For a given hole geometry and fluid properties, the surface choke pressure, liquid flow
rate, and gas injection rate are three major parameters that affect bottom-hole pressures
during drilling and circulation-breaking conditions.The liquid flow rate and gas injection
rate should be carefully designed to ensure underbalanced drilling and wellbore integrity.

Description of the LGRW

The combination of liquid flow rate and gas injection rate should be carefully designed so
the flowing bottom hole pressure is less than the formation pore pressure under drillings
conditions and the circulation-break bottom-hole pressure is greater than the formation
collapse pressure. Other considerations in designing liquid and gas flow rates include
cutting-carrying capacity of fluid mixture and wellbore washout.

Aerated liquid drilling cases

Four shallow horizontals wells were drilled underbalanced with 8.5-ppg mud and
nitrogen to recover heavy oil in Brazil. The designed flow rates were 240 gpm of 8.5-
lb/gal liquid and 350 scf/min nitrogen. In the field, liquid rates of 150-200 gpm and gas
rates of 500-700 scf/min were used, averaged at 175 gpm of liquid and 600 scf/min. The
aerated condition was achieved successfully using these flow parameters.

APPLICATION OF HUBS IN AERATED DRILLING

Conclusions developed in the discussion are that a comprehensive hydrodynamic model
for underbalanced operations has been developed. Based on this new model, a
computer program named Hydraulic UnderBalanced Simulator, or HUBS, has been
developed to assist in design of underbalanced operations, especially in the process of
optimizing underbalanced circulation rates. The new model is applicable to any drilling
fluid, including gas, mist, foam, gasified (aerated) liquid, and conventional drilling mud.

When designing an underbalanced operation, selection of underbalanced drilling fluids

should be based primarily on formation pore pressure and the desired underbalanced
condition inside the wellbore. Once proper fluids have been selected, the optimum
circulation rate(s) for adequate hole cleaning can be determined using HUBS. Methods
for determining the optimum circulation rate(s) are discussed. Optimum circulation
rate(s) would provide sufficient hole-cleaning capacity while minimizing power and
equipment requirements.

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 BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF AERATED DRILLING

Advantages
Aerated drilling offers a number of important benefits:

o Maintaining wellbore pressure below the reservoir pressure allows

reservoir fluids to enter the wellbore, thus avoiding formation damage.
Since significant formation damage is avoided, the stimulation
requirements during well completion are also reduced, leading to
considerable savings.
o During aerated drilling there is no physical mechanism to force drilling
fluid into the formation drilled. Therefore, lost circulation is kept to a
minimum when fractured or high permeability zones are encountered.
o Drilling aerated can help in detecting potential hydrocarbon zones, even
identifying zones that would have been bypassed with conventional
drilling methods.
o Due to the decreased pressure at the bit head, this operation
demonstrate superior penetration rates compared to conventional drilling
techniques. Along with reduced drilling times, an increase in bit life is
typically reported.
o Since there is no filter cake around the wellbore wall, the chances of
differential sticking are also reduced.

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 o Since conventional drilling fluids are not used in aerated drilling
application, there is no need to worry about disposing potentially
hazardous drilling mud.

A combination of all these factors can significantly improve the economics of drilling a
well. Aerated drilling is often preferred if it reduces formation damage and hole
problems, and reduces the cost of stimulation in fractured or moderate/high permeability
formations. Moreover, with good mud logging and drilling records, this can provide
valuable Formation Evaluation data.

Disadvantages
Aerated drilling also has disadvantages that can prove detrimental to the outcome of the
drilling process:
o There is a higher risk of blowout, fire or explosion.
o Aerated drilling is still an expensive technology. Depending on the drilling
fluid used, the cost can be significant, particularly for extended reach
horizontal wells.
o It is not always possible to maintain a continuously aerated condition.
Since there is not a filter cake around the wellbore, any instantaneous
pulse of overbalance might cause severe damage to the unprotected
formation.
o Aerated has its own unique damage mechanisms, such as surface
damage of the formation due the lack of heat conduction capacity of
aerated drilling fluids.

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