Copyright 1921,

By FREDERICK P. SPALDING

PRESS OF
BRAUNWORTH & CO.
BOOK MANUFACTURERS
BROOKLYN, N. Y.
 PREFACE

THIS book is designed to present, in a brief and systematic man-

ner, the fundamental principles involved in the design and construc-
tion of masonry structures.
The term Masonry has been construed to include concrete, and
the field covered by the title is a very wide one. It has therefore
been necessary to select for discussion those types which seem most
adequately to illustrate the principles, and no attempt has been made
to cover fully the details of all classes of masonry structures. The
purpose has been to provide an introduction to the subject, which may
laterbe followed by intensive study in more detailed works upon the
various branches. This gives a general view of the subject as a whole,
and is the natural method of approach.

The Author has derived much assistance from a number of books

which deal more fully with various portions of the subject. These
are mentioned at the ends of articles or chapters to which they
specially relate. They should be studied by students desiring a
more complete presentation of the subject.
Special acknowledgment is also due to Professors A. Lincoln
Hyde and Guy D. Newton of the University of Missouri for reading
and criticising portions of the manuscript and for assistance in pre-
paring the illustrations.
F. P. SPALDING.
COLUMBIA, MISSOURI,
September, 1920.

436264

iii
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

DEVELOPMENT OF MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

PAGE
ART 1. INTRODUCTION 1

1. Definition; 2. Uses of Masonry.

ART. 2 EARLY HISTORY 3

3. Ancient Masonry; 4. Roman and Medieval.

ART. 3. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 5

5. The Cement Industry; 6. Reinforced Concrete.

CHAPTER II

CEMENTING MATERIALS
ART. 4. LIME 9
7. Classification; 8. Common Lime; 9. Hydraulic Lime; 10. Hydrated
Lime; 11. Specifications.

ART. 5. HYDRAULIC CEMENT 16

12. Setting and Hardening; 13. Portland; 14. Natural; 15. Puzzolan;
16. Sand Cement; 17. Soundness; 18. Chemistry of Cement.

ART. 6. SPECIFICATIONS AND TESTS FOR CEMENT 26

19. Specifications; 20. Purpose of Tests; 21. Compressive Strength;
22. Special Tests.

ART. 7. SAND FOR MORTAR 31

23. Quality; 24. Tests; 25. Mechanical Analysis; 26. Voids; 27.

Specific Gravity; 28. Density; 29. Strength Test; 30. Washing;

31. Specifications.

ART. 8. CEMENT MORTAR 39

32. Proportioning; 33. Mixing; 34. Yield; 35. Mixtures of Lime
with Cement; 36. Strength.

ART. 9. GYPSUM PLASTERS 48

37. Classification; 38. Properties and Uses.
v
vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER III

STONE MASONRY
PAGE
ART. 10. BUILDING STONE 51
39. Qualities; 40. Classification; 41. Strength; 42. Durability.

ART. 11. STONE CUTTING 62

43. Tools; 44. Methods of Finishing; 45. Machinery.

ART. 12. WALLS OF STONE MASONRY 70

46. Classification; 47. Parts of Wall; 48. Stonework; 49. Trimmings;
50. Specifications.

ART. 13. STRENGTH OF STONE MASONRY 78

51. Compressive; 52. Capstones and Templets; 53. Lintels and
Corbels.

ART. 14. MEASUREMENT AND COST 82

54. Measurements; 55. Cost.

CHAPTER IV

BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

ART. 15. BUILDING BRICKS 85
56. Clay and Shale; 57. Sand Lime; 58. Cement; 59. Tests.

ART. 16. BRICK MASONRY 93

60. Joints; 61. Bond; 62. Strength; 63. Efflorescence; 64. Measure-
ment and Cost.

ART. 17. TERRA COTTA CONSTRUCTION 102

65. Structural Tiling; 66. Block Construction; 67. Architectural
Terra Cotta.

ART. 18. GYPSUM AND CEMENT CONCRETE BLOCKS 107

68. Gypsum Wall Blocks; 69. Roof and Floor Blocks; 70. Hollow
Concrete Blocks.

CHAPTER V
PLAIN CONCRETE

ART. 19. AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE 110

71. Materials; 72. Tests for Coarse Aggregates.

ART. 20. PROPORTIONING CONCRETE 116

73. Arbitrary; 74. Voids; 75. Analysis Curves; 76. Trial; 77. Fine-
ness Modulus and Surface Area; 78. Yield.
 CONTENTS vii

PAGE
ART. 21. MIXING CONCRETE .. c 125
79. Preparing Materials; 80. Hand Mixing; 81. Machine.

ART. 22. PLACING CONCRETE 129

82. Transporting; 83. Depositing; 84. Freezing; 85. Contraction

Joints; 86. Finishing Surfaces.

ART. 23. WATERTIGHT CONCRETE 136

87. Permeability; 88. Integral Waterproofing; 89. Exterior Coatings.

ART. 24. DURABILITY OF CONCRETE 140

90. Destructive Agencies; 91. Sea Water; 92. Alkalies; 93. Fire
Resistance.

ART. 25. STRENGTH OF PLAIN CONCRETE 144

94. Compression; 95. Tests; 96. Tension and Transverse.

ART. 26. COST OF CONCRETE WORK 149

97. Materials; 98. Labor; 99. Total Costs.

CHAPTER VI

REINFORCED CONCRETE
ART. 27. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 153
100. Object of Reinforcement; 101. Bond Strength; 102. Reinforcing
Steel; 103. Modulus of Elasticity; 104. Reinforced Concrete in Tension.

ART. 28. RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT 158

105. Flexure Formulas; 106. Tables; 107. Shear; 108. Diagonal
Tension; 109. Bond; 110. Design.
ART. 29. T-BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT 178
111. Flexure Formulas; 112. Shear and Bond; 113. Diagrams.
ART. 30. BEAMS REINFORCED FOR COMPRESSION 186
114. Flexure Formulas; 115. Tables and Examples.
ART. 31. SLAB AND BEAM DESIGN 194
116. Bending Moments and Shears; 117. Loadings; 118. Design.

ART. 32. CONCRETE COLUMNS 206

119. Plain Concrete Columns; 120. Longitudinal Reinforcement;
121. Hooped Reinforcement; 122. Eccentric Loads.

CHAPTER VII

RETAINING WALLS
ART. 33. PRESSURE OF EARTH AGAINST A WALL 214
123. Theories; 124. Computations; 125. Graphical Method.
viii CONTENTS
PAGE
ART. 3*.- SOLID MASONRY WALLS 223
126. Stability; 127. Empirical Design; 128. Design Using Formulas.

ART. 35. REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS 229

129. Types; 130. Cantilever Walls; 131. Counterforted Walls.

ART. 36. CONSTRUCTION OF RETAINING WALLS 244

132. Foundations; 133. Drainage and Back-filling; 134. Gravity Walls.

CHAPTER VIII

MASONRY DAMS
ART. 37. GRAVITY DAMS 247
135. Stability;136. Graphical Analysis; 137. Design of Profile; 138.

Diagonal Compressions; 139. Horizontal Tension; 140. Uplift.

ART. 38. DAMS CURVED IN PLAN 258

141. Curved Gravity Dams; 142. Arch Dams; 143. Multiple Arch
Dams.

ART. 39. REINFORCED CONCRETE DAMS 266

144. Arch Dams; 145. Flat Slab and Buttress Dams.

ART. 40. CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRY DAMS 268

146. Foundations; 147. Masonry; 148. Qxe&ow Dams.

CHAPTER IX
SLAB AND GIRDER BRIDGES

ART. 41. LOADINGS FOR SHORT BRIDGES 271

149. Highway Bridges; 150. Distribution of Concentrated Loads; 151.

Railway Bridges.

ART. 42. DESIGN OF BEAM BRIDGES 273

152. Slab Bridges; 153. T-Beam Bridges; 154. Girder Bridges.

CHAPTER X
MASONRY ARCHES
ART. 43. VOUSSOIR ARCHES 282
155. Definitions; 156. Stability.

ART. 44. LOADS FOR MASONRY ARCHES 286

157. Highway Bridges; 158. Railway Bridges; 159. Dead Loads.
 CONTENTS ix

PAGE
ART. 45. DESIGN OF Voussom ARCHES 289
160. Methods; 161. Thickness of Arch; 162. Stability.

ART. 46. THE ELASTIC ARCH 295

163. Analysis; 164. Temperature; 165. Direct Thrust.

ART. 47. DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH . . . . :

300
166. Selection of Dimensions; 167. Division of Arch Ring; 168.
Analysis; 169. Stresses.

ART. 48. TYPE OF CONCRETE ARCHES 309

170. Arrangement of Spandrels; 171. Methods of Reinforcement;
172. Hinged Arches; 173. Unsymmetrical Arches; 174. Elastic Piers.

ART. 49. OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS 314

175. Influence Lines. 176. Arbitrary Divisions.

CHAPTER XI
CULVERTS AND CONDUITS
ART. 50. CULVERTS 321
177. Types; 178. Area of Waterway; 179. Pipe Culverts; 180. Box
Culverts; 181. Arch Culverts.

ART. 51. CONDUITS 332

182. Types; 183. Gravity Conduits; 184. Pressure.

CHAPTER XII

FOUNDATIONS
ART. 52. FOUNDATION MATERIALS 342
185. Examination of Soil; 186. Bearing Capacity; 187. Tests of Bear-
ing Capacity.

ART. 53. SPREAD FOUNDATIONS 347

188. Distribution of Loads; 189. Masonry Footings; 190. Grillage;
191. Reinforced Concrete.

ART. 54. PILE FOUNDATIONS 358

192. Classification; 193. Pile Drivers; 194. Timber Piles; 195. Bear-
ing Power; 196. Concrete Piles; 197. Sheet piling.

ART. 55. COFFERDAMS 373

198. Types; 199. Sheet Pile; 200. Crib.

ART. 56. Box AND OPEN CAISSONS 376

201. Box
Caissons; 202. Types of Open Caissons; 203. Single-wall
Timber; 204. Cylinder; 205. Dredging through Wells.
X CONTENTS
PAGE
ART. 57. PNEUMATIC CAISSONS. 387
206. Compressed Air; 207. Construction; 208. Sinking; 209. Physio-
logical Effect.

ART. 58. BRIDGE PIERS AND ABUTMENTS 393

210. Locations and Dimensions; 211. Stability; 212. Construction;
213. Types of Abutments.
 MASONRY STRUCTURES
CHAPTER I

DEVELOPMENT OF MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

ART. 1. INTRODUCTION

1. Definition. The term masonry in its original significance

"
means a construction of dressed or fitted stones and mortar."
It is thus properly limited to stone masonry. Custom has, however,
extended the use of the term to cover any construction composed of
pieces of inorganic non-metallic material fitted together into a mono-
lithic block. This includes all structural work in stone, brick, and
tile, as well as concrete construction.
The word brick was formerly used to designate a small block of
burned clay. Similar blocks of other materials have recently come
into use, and we now have several kinds of bricks; as clay brick,
sand-lime brick, cement brick, etc. Glazed and other ornamental
and surfacing tiles are commonly employed, while hollow tiles of

various kinds are rapidly coming into use. formed

All construction
of bricks or tiles cemented together may be classed as brick masonry.
The term stone masonry is used to designate any work in which
stones are fitted and cemented together so as to form a structure.
Stone masonry is further subdivided into rubble masonry, squared-
stone masonry, and ashlar or cut-stone masonry.
Concrete is ordinarily formed by mixing broken stone or gravel
with cement mortar to a mobile condition and placing it in forms in
the position in which it is to be used. It is then left to harden and
forms a monolithic block.
Ordinary concrete cannot be economically employed where tensile
stresses are developed in the structure on account of the low tensile
resistance of the concrete. It is thereforecommon, when it is desired
to use concrete in such situations, to embed steel rods in the con-
2 DEVELOPMENT OF MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

crete to take the tensile stresses, leaving the concrete to carry com-

pression only. This construction is known as reinforced concrete.

2. Uses of Masonry. Masonry in some form is now used in

nearly kinds of engineering and architectural construction. The

all

selection of the type of masonry to be used in any particular structure

is ordinarily largely a matter of cost, the latter factor depending

upon the suitability of the construction to the use to which it is to be

put, and the availability and costs of the necessary materials and
labor. These factors are subject to local variation and need to be
considered in each instance.
Brick masonry is largely used in the construction of buildings,
being usually cheaper than stone, and when of good quality showing
both strength and durability. Very pleasing architectural effects
are readily obtained by proper selection and arrangement of materials
in brickwork. Brick masonry is frequently used in the construction
of large sewers and in the arch ring of small arched bridges, and is
readily adapted to such uses, but is gradually giving way to concrete.
Hollow-tile construction is being quite commonly applied in
building operations, and is replacing ordinary brickwork in many

instances. It sometimes faced with brick in exterior walls, and

is

is used for partitions and in solid floor construction on account of its

lightness and low cost.

Stone masonry is largely used in architectural construction,
where the appearance and permanence of the structure are of special
importance. It is almost universally employed in monumental
construction, being at once the most durable material known to man
and the one capable of producing the most imposing and most beau-
tiful effect.

Many engineering structures such as retaining walls, bridge piers,

and abutments and arch bridges are often constructed of stone

masonry, or are faced with stone. Concrete is, however, gradually

replacing stone masonry for such work on account of lower cost and
facility of construction, except where facing of stone is used for
appearance or durability.
Concrete is almost universally employed in foundations, having
replaced stone masonry for this purpose. In the construction of
tunnels, subways, and other underground work, it is usually the
cheapest and most convenient material. In heavy masonry, such
as retaining walls, dams, piers, and abutments, concrete is com-
monly used, alone or with a facing of stone masonry.
The use of reinforcement makes it possible to apply concrete in

many types of construction to which masonry has heretofore been

 EARLY HISTORY 3

inapplicable. For short-span bridges reinforced concrete is rapidly

replacing wood and steel, and, on account of its durability, is a much
more economical material for such use. Reinforced concrete is

extensively used in fireproof building construction for floors, beams,

and columns, and is frequently used in connection with hollow tile

for this purpose. It is sometimes used for the walls of buildings

but is apt to be more expensive than brick, on account of the forms
necessary in such work.

ART. 2. EARLY HISTORY

3. Ancient Masonry. The art of masonry construction dates

from the earliest records of authentic history. The most fruitful
source from which to obtain a knowledge of the history of the more
ancient peoples is in a study of the remains of their masonry struc-
tures.
The earliest important constructions of which we have any
remains are probably those of Chaldea and Assyria, with which
the great constructions of Egypt may be classed. The dates of few
of them are known with accuracy. The earliest of the Chaldean
remains are supposed to date from about 2500 B.C. Alongside
of these are the remains of the second Babylonian Empire, founded
about 600 B.C. Stone and timber were lacking in Chaldea, and hence
the natural development of their primitive construction was toward
the use of brick. In the earlier and more crude structures, sun-
dried brick of rough form were used; later, hard-burned bricks
were employed. In some of the early buildings both classes were
used, the burned bricks being employed as facing to protect the
sun-dried from the weather.
The burned bricks of the earliest times are still found to be
sound and hard, and many of the sun-dried still keep their shapes.
These bricks were of square, flat form, the burned ones varying
from 11 to 13 inches square and 2J to 3 inches thick; the sun-dried
were somewhat larger.
According to Professor Rawlinson, the cementing material in
some of the early Chaldean structures was either a coarse clay,
sometimes mixed with straw, or a bitumen of good quality which
still unites the bricks so firmly that they can with difficulty be

separated.
In later Babylonian construction the character of the
the
materials shows improvement, and elaborate ornamentation is
introduced. Ornamentation was accomplished by enameling and
4 DEVELOPMENT OF MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

carving the bricks and by the use of colors. Ordinary lime mortar
was used.
Assyria, unlike Chaldea, had plenty of stone. The type of
construction used by the Assyrians, however, was probably derived
from that of the Chaldeans. Brick was the principal material
employed, although frequently stone was used to face the brick
walls, and sculptures were freely used. The great halls of their
palaces were ornamented with sculptures; the entire walls in some
cases to a height of 10 or 12 feet were covered with figures in relief,

representing scenes from life, and usually commemorating the great-

ness of the monarch for whom they were erected.
The arch was used by the Assyrians to a limited extent for nar-
row openings, the arches being of brick, which were made narrower
at one end than the other, in order to fit in the arch.
The art of construction in Egypt was much more advanced than
in Assyriaand Babylonia and was probably of an earlier date. The
ancient Egyptians were very skillful in working stone. Their tem-

ples were built of large blocks of stone, well squared, and laid so that
the joints are scarcely visible. They quarried granite and trans-
ported large blocks for long distances. They also cut and polished
granite.
Thegreat pyramid has a base of 764 feet square and is approxi-
mately 486 feet high, and is built in courses, of great blocks of lime-

stone, from 2 to 5 feet thick and as much as 30 feet in length. The

early Egyptian masonry is remarkable both on account of the great
size of the materials and the exactness with which they are fitted

together, no mortar being employed.

In Greece and Italy remains are found of Cyclopean masonry
built of stones of large size and carefully adjusted joints. The walls
of Mycenae were built of irregular blocks of great size, the spaces
being filled with smaller stones.
Greek Masonry. The masonry of the Greeks was arranged in
courses and the joints carefully fitted and equal to the best Egyptian
workmanship. The carving of artistic forms was here for the first
time developed to a high degree of excellence.
The Egyptians had used the system of the column and entab-
lature in their temples.The Greeks introduced the pediment, and
improved the artistic design of the buildings, bringing the propor-
tioning and ornamentation of such structures to a most wonderful
perfection.
4. Roman and Medieval Construction. In the system of con-
struction developed by the Romans the walls were built of coarse
 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 3

concrete or rough cemented rubble, and were usually faced with

brick or marble. Sometimes, in less important construction, small
blocks of tufa, set irregularly, formed the surface of the walls, which
were stuccoed on their interior surfaces.
The art of building was greatly developed during the Roman
period. The introduction of the arch changed the whole system
of construction. In the Romanesque architecture, the circular arch
was the principal feature, the structures consisting mainly of heavy
walls supporting semicircular arched roofs. Roman arches were
constructed of cut stone, brick, or concrete.
The introduction of the pointed arch, and later of the use of
arched ribs with piers and buttresses to transmit the loads to the
foundations, marks another advance in the art of construction. This
made possible a disposition of the materials of the structures to
better advantage, and led to more economical construction.
During medieval times the use of stone masonry was brought
to a high state of perfection. Random ashlar or rubble was com-
monly used in buildings in preference to coursed ashlar. Beautiful
and imposing effects were attained by the use of materials of rather
small size, and great skill was developed in the cutting of ornamental
forms.
The Romans used lime mortar in their ordinary construction.
They also discovered that if certain materials of volcanic origin
were pulverized and mixed with lime, the resulting mortar possessed
the property of hardening under water. The mortar used by the
Romans in their aqueducts and other hydraulic works was made
from material, obtained from near the foot of Vesuvius.
this
Similar materials were later found and used in Germany and France.

ART. 3. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

5. The Cement Industry. The discovery by the Romans of
the hydraulic properties of volcanic lava, and the location of other
materials possessing the same properties, made possible the con-
struction of subaqueous masonry work. No considerable progress,
however, was made in such work.
About the middle of the eighteenth century Smeaton, a noted
English engineer, discovered that lime made from certain limestones
containing clay possessed hydraulic properties. This discovery
opened new possibilities in under-water work, and these hydraulic
limes were used to a limited extent during the next half century.
In 1796 James Parker, an Englishman, burned limestone con-
6 DEVELOPMENT OF MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

taining a larger proportion of clay and ground the product. He

thus produced the first natural cement, which he called Roman
cement. This process was patented, and the manufacture of natural
cement resulted.
In 1818 Canvas White, an engineer of the Erie Canal, located
rock suitable for making natural cement in Madison County, New
York, and the first cement produced in the United States was made
in the same year. Five years later the manufacture of natural
cement was begun at Rosendale, New York. The production of
cement in this region extended, and cement was thus provided for
most of the hydraulic construction in this country for a considerable
period. Later, as the development of the country proceeded, and
demands for cement increased, deposits of cement rock were found
at many other places. Natural cement plants were established
along the James River in Virginia; in the Lehigh Valley, in Pennsyl-
vania; at Louisville, Kentucky; Utica, Illinois; Milwaukee, Wis-
consin, and a number of other localities.
In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, of Leeds, England, discovered that by
burning a mixture of slaked lime and clay at high temperature,
hydraulic cement was produced. Aspdin named this material
Portland Cement, on account of its resemblance to Portland stone,
then largely used in England. In 1845 the manufacture of Port-
land cement was begun on a commercial scale by J. B. White & Sons,
in Kent.

During the period between 1830 and 1850 Vicat, in France,

made a number of studies which were of great value in extending

knowledge of the new material. Plants were soon established in

France and Germany for the manufacture of Portland cement, and
the industry became an important one throughout Europe. During
the next few years, 1865 to 1880, John Grant made a series of investi-
gations of the properties of Portland cement and methods of using
it in mortars and concrete. His papers before the Institution of
Civil Engineers had a marked influence in shaping the methods of
use of cement.
From 1880 to 1900 the Portland cement industry developed
rapidly in Europe, and numerous studies were made concerning the
composition and properties of the material. LeChatelier, Alex-
andre, Candlot, and Feret, in France, Tetmajer in Switzerland,
Michaelis and Bohme in Germany, Faija in England, and a number
of others, investigated all phases of the subject, greatly improving
the quality of the cement and showing methods of employing it in
construction to secure the best results.
 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 7

In 1875 Mr. D. O. Saylor began the manufacture of cement at

Coplay, Pennsylvania. From this beginning, the American Port-
land cement industry has developed. Great improvements in
methods of manufacture and in the control of the character of the
product have been made in this country. The studies of Newberry,
Richardson, and others have contributed to definite knowledge of
the proper composition of the material, while committees of the
National Engineering Societies and many independent investigators
have perfected methods of testing cement and of using it in con-
struction.
This industry has now reached immense proportions in the
United States, and the use of Portland cement has extended in all
directions, modifying largely the types and methods of construction
used in all classes of structures.
6. Reinforced Concrete. In the early use of concrete, it

was commonly employed as a filler in heavy construction, and was

not possessed of great strength. Walls of concrete were usually
protected by facings of stone or brick masonry. In recent years,
however, the availability of cementing materials of high grade has
made possible the use of concrete in many classes of construction
for which stone or brick masonry was formerly employed. The
facility with which concrete may be applied to many uses makes
it highly desirable material, and since the introduction of Portland
cement its use has rapidly increased. This use has been further
extended in the past few years by the development of reinforced
concrete construction. In 1850 Lambot, in France, constructed
a boat of reinforced concrete, and in 1855 patented his invention
in England. Fra^ois Coignet, in 1861, applied reinforced concrete
to the construction of beams, arches, pipes, etc.
In 1861 Joseph Monier, a gardener of Paris, constructed tubs
and small water tanks of concrete in which a wire frame was
imbedded. In 1867 Monier patented his reinforcement, which
consisted of a mesh formed of wires or rods placed at right angles
to each other. He also exhibited some work at the Paris Exposi-
tion in the same year. Nothing came of this invention for a number
of years, but in 1887 Wayss and Bauschinger published, hi Germany,
the results of an investigation showing the value of the Monier
system, and giving formulas for use in design.
The next few years saw considerable development of this type
of construction in Austria, and Melan, an Austrian engineer, invented
a system of reinforcement for arches in which I-beams were bent
to the form of the arch and enclosed in concrete. Hennebique,
8 DEVELOPMENT OF MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

in France, began making reinforced concrete slabs about 1880, and

patented his system of slab reinforcement in 1892.
The use of reinforced concrete in the United States seems
first

to have been by Ernest L. Ransome, in 1874. The next year W. E.

Ward constructed a building in New York, in which reinforced
concrete walls, roof, and floor beams were used. In 1877 H. P.
Jackson used reinforced concrete in building construction in San
Francisco. About 1884 Ransome began applying reinforced con-
crete to important work in California, and in that year took out
a patent for the first deformed bar.
In 1894 the Melan system of arch-bridge construction was intro-
duced into the United States by Mr. Fr. von Emperger, who built
the first important arch bridges. At about the same time Mr.
Edwin Thacher began the construction of arch bridges using bar
reinforcement.
During the period from 1890 to 1900 the use of reinforced con-
crete steadily increased, while the applications of plain concrete
had been extending rapidly, as the increasing supply of cement
provided material for a better grade of construction.
Since 1900 the use of reinforced concrete has rapidly increased.
The use of massive slab construction for railroad bridges was intro-
duced by the C. B. & Q. Railroad at Chicago. Fireproof building
construction of concrete has become common, and concrete has
become the standard material for short-span highway bridges.
Many investigations have been made concerning the properties of
the materials and the strengths of various structural forms; the
work of Considere, in France, and of Talbot at the University of
Illinois, being specially notable. Principles for rational design have
been established and recognized standards of practice are rapidly
forming.
 CHAPTER II

CEMENTING MATERIALS
ART. 4. LIME

7. Classification. The cementing materials employed in the

construction of masonry and concrete structures include common
lime, hydraulic lime, Portland cement, natural cement, and puzzolan.
These materials are formed by the calcination of limestones, or of
mixtures of limestones with siliceous or argillaceous materials, and
their properties vary with the nature and porportions of the sub-
stances combined in them.
Common Lime. When limestone composed of nearly pure car-
bonate of lime is burned, the resulting clinker, known as quicklime,
possesses the property of breaking up, or slaking, upon being treated
with a sufficient quantity of water. The slaking of lime is due to
its rapid hydration when in contact with water, and the process
is accompanied by a considerable increase in the volume of the mass
of lime and by a rise in temperature. If the quantity of water be

only sufficient to cause the hydration of the lime, the quicklime is

reduced to a dry powder; while if the water be in excess it becomes
a paste.
The slaked lime thus formed possesses the further property,
when mixed to a paste with water and allowed to stand in the air,
of hardening and adhering to any surface with which it may be
in contact. This hardening of common limes will take place only
when exposed to the air and allowed to become dry.
When lime is nearly pure and its activity very great it is known
Sisfat lime.
the lime have mixed or in combination with it considerable
If

impurities of inert character, which act as an adulteration to lessen

the activity of the lime, causing a partial loss of the property of
slaking and diminishing its power to harden, it is known as meager
or poor lime.
Hydraulic Lime. When the limestone contains about 10 to
20 per cent of silica or clay mixed with the carbonate of lime, the
9
10 CEMENTING MATERIALS

material resulting from the burning is known as hydraulic lime.

This clinker will slake when treated with water like common lime,
but with reduced activity. The slaked lime thus obtained pos-
sesses the further property, when mixed with water to a paste,
of hardening under water and without contact with the air.
In hydraulic lime the silica and alumina are combined with a
portion of the lime, forming compounds which harden under water,
while part of the lime is left uncombined. This free lime expands
when hydrated by addition of water, causing the material to
slake.

Hydraulic Cement. When the proportion of siliceous or argil-

laceous materials in limestone, or mixed with it, is sufficient to
combine with all the lime, leaving no lime in a free state, the prod-
uct of burning is known as hydraulic cement. This clinker will
not slake, but must be reduced to powder by grinding. The cement
powder, when mixed with water, has the property of setting and
hardening under water, and of adhering firmly to any surface with
which it may be in contact.
is the name given to hydraulic cement which
Portland Cement
isformed by burning and grinding an intimate mixture of powdered
limestone and argillaceous matter in accurately determined pro-
portions. In making Portland cement, the ingredients are care-
fully proportioned to secure the complete combination of the lime
with the silica and alumina into active material, and it is necessary
to reduce the materials to a very fine state and secure uniform
incorporation of the ingredients before burning.
Natural Cements are made by burning limestones which con-
tain proper proportions of argillaceous materials, and grinding the
resulting clinker to powder. Natural cements are less rich in lime
than Portland cements, complete combination of the argillaceous
materials not being effected. They are burned, like lime, without
the pulverization of the raw materials, and require a much lower
temperature in burning than Portland cement.
The term Puzzolan is commonly applied to a class of materials
which, when made into a mortar with fat lime or feebly hydraulic
lime, impart to the lime hydraulic properties and cause the mortar
to harden under water. It derives its name from Pozzuoli, a city
of Italy near the foot of Mount Vesuvius, where its properties were
first discovered. It was extensively used by the Romans in their

hydraulic constructions, being mixed with slaked lime for the for-
mation of hydraulic mortar. Puzzolan is essentially a silicate of
alumina in which the silica exists in a condition to be attacked
 LIME 11

readily by caustic alkalies, and hence easily combines with the lime
in the mortar.
Puzzolan Cement is formed by mixing slaked lime with puzzolan
and grinding the mixture to a fine powder. Certain materials of
volcanic origin are frequently used for this purpose in Europe,
while considerable quantities of cement of this class have been made
by the use of blast furnace slag,
.
both in Europe and the United
States.
8. Common Lime. Common lime is such as does not possess
hydraulic properties. It is divided into fat or rich lime
and meager
lime, according to the quantity of impurities of an inert character
it may contain. When made into paste and left in air it slowly
hardens. The
process of hardening consists in the gradual forma-
tion of carbonate of lime through the absorption of carbonic acid
from the air, accompanied by the crystallization of the mass of

hydrated lime as it gradually dries out. In common lime the final

hardening takes place very slowly, working inward from the surface,
as it is dependent upon contact of the mortar with the air. When
the lime isnearly pure the resulting carbonate is likely to be some-
what soluble, and consequently to be injured by exposure. Nearly
all limes, however, contain small amounts of silica and alumina,
and these ingredients, even when in quantities too small to render
the lime hydraulic, impart a certain power to set, causing the harden-
ing to take place with greater rapidity and without entire dependence
upon contact with air. It also renders the material less soluble
and more durable in exposed situations.

Nearly pure limes, consisting mainly of calcium oxide, are very

caustic and become hydrated very rapidly when brought into con-
tact with water. This hydration, or slaking, produces a rise in
temperature and increase in volume, which vary in amount accord-

ing to the purity of the lime, the volume being doubled or tripled
for good fat lime. When the lime is derived from a magnesian
limestone, it may contain a considerable proportion of magnesia
mixed with the lime. Limes containing more than about 15 per
cent of magnesia are usually called magnesian limes. The presence
of magnesia has the effect of rendering the lime less active, causing
it to expand less upon slaking. The magnesian limes harden more
slowly, but usually gain a higher ultimate strength than the high-
calcium limes.
The common method of slaking lime consists in covering the

quicklime with water, using two or three times the volume of the
lime. This method is known as drowning. The lime is usually
12 CEMENTING MATERIALS

spread out in a layer perhaps 6 or 8 inches thick, in a mixing box,

the water poured over it and allowed to stand. Sufficient time
must be allowed for all of the lumps to be reduced. When the
lime contains much foreign matter, the operation frequently requires
several days. Too great quantity of water is to be avoided, the
amount being such as will reduce the lime after slaking to a thick

pasty condition. All the water should be added at once, as the

addition of water after the hydration is in progress causes a lower-
ing of temperature and checks the slaking. For the same reason,
the lime should be covered after adding water, and not stirred or
disturbed until the slaking is completed. The covering is often
effectedby spreading a layer of sand over the lime, the sand being
afterward used to mix with it in making mortar.
A second method of slaking is sometimes employed having for
its object the reduction of the slaked lime to powder, and known as
slaking by immersion. This is accomplished in two ways. By the
first method, the lime is suspended in water in baskets for a brief
period to permit the absorption of the necessary water, after which
it is removed and covered until slaking takes place and the lime

falls to powder. By the second method, sprinkling is substituted

for immersion, the lime being placed in heaps and sprinkled with
the necessary quantity of water, then covered with sand and allowed
to stand.
Lime is commonly sold as quicklime, and should be in lumps and
not air slaked. When it is old and has been exposed to the air it

is have absorbed both moisture and carbonic acid, thus

likely to
becoming the portion combined with carbonic acid being
less active,
inert. A simple test of the quality of quicklime is to immerse a
lump for a minute, then place in a dish and observe whether it swells,
cracks, and disintegrates, with a rise of temperature.
Slaking some days in advance of use is desirable in order to
insure the complete reduction of the lime, and it is quite common
to slake lime several weeks before it is to be used.
Common lime is ordinarily used in construction as a mortar,
mixed with sand. The quantity of lime in the mortar should be

just sufficient to the voids in the sand, without leaving any part
fill

formed entirely of lime. Mortar of rich lime shrinks in hardening,

while masses composed entirely of lime on the interior are likely
to remain soft, so that an excess of lime may be an element of weak-
ness. If too little lime be used the mortar may be porous and weak.
The proportions ordinarily required are between one part lime to
two parts sand, and one part lime to three parts sand.
 LIME 13

In mixing lime mortar, sand is spread over the lime paste and
worked into it with a shovel or hoe. The proper proportions of
sand and lime may be judged by observing how the mortar works.
"
If too much sand be used it will be brittle, or short "; while too
much paste will cause it to stick and cake so that it will not flow
from the trowel.
Mortar of common lime should not be employed in heavy masonry
or in damp situations. Where the mass of masonry is large, the
lime mortar will become hardened with great difficulty, and after
a long time. The penetration of the final induration due to the
absorption of carbonic acid is very slow. The observations of
M. Vicat showed that carbonization extended only a few millimeters
the first year and afterward more slowly. The induration of the
lime along the surfaces of contact with a harder material is usually
more rapid than in the interior of the mass of lime, and the strength
of adhesion to stone or brick is often greater than that of cohesion

between the particles of mortar.

9. Hydraulic Lime. Hydraulic lime is obtained by burning
limestone containing silica and alumina in sufficient quantities
to impart the ability to harden under water. The hydraulic elements
are present in such quantities that they combine with a portion
of the lime, forming silicates and aluminates of lime, leaving the
remainder as free lime in an uncombined state.
The hydraulic activity of a lime or cement, that is, its ability
to harden under water, depends primarily upon the relative propor-
tions of the hydraulic ingredients and of lime. Silica and alumina
are considered to be the effective hydraulic ingredients, and it is
common to designate the ratio of the sum of the weights of silica
and alumina to that of lime in the material
its hydraulic index.

The hydraulic index gives, therefore, within certain limits, a measure

of the hydraulicity of the various classes of limes. It is to be remem-

bered, however, that there are other factors to be considered in

judging of the action of lime than this simple proportion. The other
ingredients may by their combinations withdraw portions of the
active elements so as to modify the effective ratio between them,
while the activity of the lime depends largely upon the state of
combination in which the active elements exist. This is not shown
by analysis, and may be greatly modified by the manipulation
given the material during manufacture.
Limes with hydraulic index less than 10/100 possess little if
any hydraulic properties, and are known as common limes. When
the hydraulic index is between 10/100 and 20/100 the lime is feebly
14 CEMENTING MATERIALS

hydraulic, and may require from twelve to twenty days to set under
water. Hydraulic lime proper includes that of index from about
20/100 to 40/100. These may harden in from two to eight or ten
days.
The quantity of free lime in the material is dependent upon
the degree of burning, as well as upon the amount of lime contained
by the stone. If the stone be underburned, the combination of
the hydraulic elements with the lime is not complete, and more
of the lime remains in a free state. For this reason, a stone of
high hydraulic index may, when underburned, yield a lime, but
burned at a high temperature becomes unslakable. The best limes
are usually those which can be burned at a high temperature to
complete the chemical combinations. It is necessary that sufficient
free lime be present to cause the lime to slake properly, but it is
also desirable that the quantity of uncombined lime be as small as

possible, as the setting properties are due to the silicates and alu-
minates, while the hydrated lime remains inert during the initial
hardening of the mortar.
According to Professor LeChatelier, limestone for hydraulic lime
should contain but little alumina, as the aluminates are hydrated
during the slaking of the lime, while the silicates are not affected,
the heat of the slaking preventing their hydration.
Thefollowing is given as an average analysis of the best French
hydraulic lime:

Silica 22
Alumina 2
Oxide of iron 1

Lime ... 63
Magnesia 1.5
Sulphuric acid 0.5
Water. . 10

100

It is important that the slaking be very thorough, as the pres-

ence of unhydrated free lime in the mortar while hardening is an
element of danger to the work. Any lime becoming hydrated after
the setting of the mortar may, by its swelling, cause distortion and
perhaps disintegration of the mortar.
After the lime has been reduced to powder by slaking, it is forced
through sieves which permit the passage of all pulverized particles
but hold those of appreciable size, including the underburned rock
 LIME 15

and the overburned parts which refuse to slake. The residue left
from the sifting of hydraulic lime is known as grappiers. This
material is mainly composed of hard material more rich in silica
and alumina than the other portions of the lime. The grappiers
are frequently ground and sold as cement, and when properly handled
may form cement of fairly good quality.
10. Hydrated Lime. When quicklime is slaked with the quantity
of water necessary completely to hydrate it, and the resulting mate-
rial is bolted to remove all unslaked particles, the result is a very

fine white powder, commercially known as hydrated lime. This

lime is sold on the market in barrels or bags, and it is in convenient

form Lime in this form may be kept for considerable

for use.

periods without deterioration, provided it is protected from con-

tact with moisture.
Hydrated lime ordinarily weighs about 40 pounds per cubic
foot, and contains approximately 75 per cent of quicklime. By
mixing with about an equal weight of water, it may be reduced to
lime paste, or lime putty, as it is commonly called in building oper-
ations. Lime paste occupies a slightly greater volume than the
hydrated lime from which it is prepared.
The use of hydrated lime for mixing with cement mortar in
ordinary masonry construction is rapidly increasing. It is also
frequently used in small proportions in Portland cement concrete
to make the concrete flow more smoothly, and sometimes to decrease
the permeability of the mortar. (See Art. 23.)
11. Specifications for Lime. In ordinary building operations
lime is commonly employed form of quicklime and slaked
in the
where used. Usually the quality of the lime has been judged by
its activity in slaking and no particular tests are specified. Tests
of composition by chemical analysis and of completeness of slaking
by washing through sieves are, however, frequently employed.
Hydrated lime is now largely used for mixing with cement mortar
and for plastering work, and this use is rapidly extending. The
tests employed for hydrated lime include chemical analysis, fine-
ness, and permanence of volume or soundness.
The American Society for Testing Materials has adopted standard
specifications giving methods for making these tests. These speci-
fications are given in the Book of Standards of the Society or may
be obtained in pamphlet form from the Secretary of the Society.
As they are now undergoing revision they are subject to change
and will not be given here.
16 CEMENTING MATERIALS

ART. 6. HYDRAULIC CEMENT

12. Setting and Hardening of Cement. When cement powder

is mixed with water to a plastic condition and allowed to stand,
it gradually combines into a solid mass, taking the water into con-

bination, and soon becomes firm and hard. This process of com-
bination among the particles of the cement is known as the setting
of the cement.
Cements of different character differ very widely in their rate
and manner of setting, some occupying but a few minutes in the

operation, while others require several hours. Some begin setting

immediately and take considerable time to complete the set, while
others stand for considerable time with no apparent action and
then set very quickly.
The points where the set is said to begin and end are necessarily

arbitrarily fixed, and are determined by finding when the mortar

will sustain a needle carrying a specified weight. The initial set
is supposed to be when the stiffening of the mass has become per-
ceptible; the final set, when the cohesion extends through the mass
sufficiently to offersuch resistance to any change of form as to
cause rupture before deformation can take place.
After the completion of the setting of the cement, the mortar
continues to increase in cohesive strength over a considerable period
of time, and subsequent development of strength is called the
this

hardening of the cement.

The process of hardening appears to be quite distinct from,
and independent of, that of setting. A slow-setting cement is apt,
after the first day or two, to gain strength more rapidly than a

quick-setting one; but it does not necessarily do so. The ultimate

strength of the cement is also quite independent of the rate of setting.
A cement imperfectly burned may set more quickly and gain less
ultimate strength than the same cement properly burned, but of
two cements of different composition the quicker-setting may be
the stronger.
There is as wide variation in the rate of hardening of different
cements as in the rate of setting; some gain strength rapidly and
attain their ultimate strengths in a few weeks, while others harden
much more slowly at first and continue to gain in strength for several

years. The rate of early hardening gives but little indication of

the ultimate action of the cement, as the final strength of the mortar
may be the same however rapidly the strength is attained.
The rate at which cement sets seems to depend upon the pres-
 HYDRAULIC CEMENT 17

ence of certain aluminates of lime, the rapidity of set increasing

with the percentage of alumina in the material. The final harden-
ing is attributed mainly to the silicates of lime, which are the impor-
tant elements in giving strength and durability to the mortar. The
formation of these active elements in the cement depends upon
the manipulation of the material in manufacture, as well as upon
the composition of the raw materials. In an underburned cement,
the relative proportions of aluminates to silicates is large and the
set is rapid.
Calcium Sulphate. The addition of a small amount of sulphate
of lime to cement has the effect of slackening the rate of set. Such
addition is frequently made by manufacturers to reduce the activity
of fresh cement, by grinding a small amount of gypsum with the
cement.
Effect of Sand. Cement is ordinarily employed in mortar formed
by mixing it with sand, and the action of the mortar is necessarily
largely affected by the nature and quantity of sand used.
When the cement is finely ground and the sand of good quality,
a mortar composed of equal parts of each, as a general thing, finally
attains a strength as high as, or higher than, that of neat cement.
Cements of different characters, however, vary considerably in their
" "
power to take sand without loss of strength; some of the weaker
ones may not be able to take more than half their weight of standard
sand, while others can be mixed with considerably more than their
own weight without loss of strength at end of six months or one
year after mixing. All have a certain limit within which they may
be made stronger by an admixture of good sand than they would
be if mixed neat.
Clean and sharp sand usually gives higher strength in mortar
than that containing admixtures of clay or earth, or that composed
of rounded grains, coarse sand usually giving greater strength than
that which is very fine. It is often difficult, however, to judge of
the quality of sand without experimenting with it. In some cases
a small amount of fine clay appears to increase the strength of mor-
tar, while a judicious mixture in the sand of grains of various sizes
may be of value in reducing the volume of interstices. Mortar
composed of sand and cement usually possesses greater ability to
adhere to other surfaces when coarse sand is used that when the
sand is fine.
Effect of Water. The quantity of water used in mixing mortar
is one of the most important elements; the less the quantity, pro-

vided there be sufficient to thoroughly dampen the mass of cement,

18 CEMENTING MATERIALS

the quicker the set. With some Portland sements, changing the
quantity of water used in mixing from 20 to 25 per cent of the weight
doubles or even triples the time required for the mortar to set.
When the quantity of water used in mixing is sufficient to reduce
the mortar to a soft condition, the hardening as well as the setting
becomes slow, and the strength during the early period is less than
when a less quantity of water is used. This difference disappears
to a considerable extent with time, and the mortar mixed wet may
eventually gain as much strength as though mixed with less water.
Cement mortar kept under water hardens more rapidly in the
early period than that exposed to the ah*. Nearly any cement
mortar will harden more rapidly and gain greater strength if kept
moist during the operation of setting and the first period of harden-
ing than if it be exposed at that time to dry air. Sudden drying
out about the time of completing setting causes a considerable loss
of strength in cement mortar, and frequently the mortar so treated
is filled with drying cracks. This result is usually more marked
when the mortar has been mixed quite wet.
Effect of Temperature. The temperature of the water used in
mixing and that of the air in which the mortar is placed during

setting has an important bearing upon the time required for setting;
the higher the temperature, within certain limits, the more rapid
the set. Some cements which require several hours to set when
mixed with water at temperature of 40 F. will set in a few minutes
if the temperature of the water be increased to 80 F. Below a
certain inferior limit, ordinarily from 30 to 40 F., the mortar sets,
with extreme slowness or not at all, while at a certain upper limit,
in some cements between 100 and 140 F., a change suddenly
occurs from very rapid to very slow rate of set, which then decreases
as the temperature increases until the cement ceases to set.
The temperature of the air or water in which the mortar is
immersed while hardening has a very important effect upon the gain
in strength. Heat accelerates the action, while at temperatures
near the freezing-point of water the gain in strength is very slow.
13. Portland Cement. The term Portland cement is used to
Designate material formed by burning to incipient fusion a finely
ground mixture of definite proportions of limestone and argillaceous
materials, and grinding the clinker so formed to fine powder. Several
classes of materials are used for this purpose. Hard limestone or
chalk, consisting of nearly pure carbonate of lime, is frequently
employed, mixed with clay or shale to furnish the hydraulic ingredi-
ents. In the Lehigh District in Pennsylvania cement rock, con-
 HYDRAULIC CEMENT 19

sisting of limestone containing silica and alumina in sufficient quanti-

ties to make natural cement when burned
alone, mixed with nearly
is

pure limestone to obtain the proper Portland cement composition.

In the Michigan district marl and clay excavated in soft and wet
condition are used. In a few instances limestone is mixed with
blast-furnace slag for the production of Portland cement. This
is quite distinct from the manufacture of slag cement (so called)
in which the materials are not burned together.
To make good Portland cement it is always necessary that the
ingredients be very carefully proportioned and that the mixture
be very homogeneous. This requires the pulverization of the mate-
rials and their uniform incorporation into the mixture before burning.

The burning of Portland cement requires high heat to insure

complete combination of the lime with the silica and alumina. In
underburned cement, a part of the lime may be left as caustic lime,
uncombined with the clay. This is apt to produce unsound cement,
which may swell and crack after being used.
The action of Portland cement seems to depend upon the for-
mation, during burning, of certain silicates and aluminates of lime
which constitute the active elements of the cement, the other ingre-
dients being considered impurities. The ideal cement would be
that in which the proportion of lime is just sufficient to combine
with all the silica and alumina in the formation of active material.
If there be a surplus of clay beyond this point, it forms inert material.
Any surplus of lime remains in the cement as free lime and consti-
tutes one of the chief dangers in the use of cement, as, although
it may not prevent the proper action of the cement when used, it

may cause the mortar to swell afterward and become cracked and
distorted as the lime slakes.
As perfect homogeneity is not attainable in practice, it is always
necessary that the clay be somewhat in excess in order that free
lime be not formed. The amount of excess of clay necessary depends
upon the thoroughness of the burning and the evenness which may
be reached in the mixture of the raw materials.
The normal composition of Portland cement is usually within
the following limits:
Silica 20 to 25 per cent
Alumina 5 to 9 per cent
Iron oxide 2 to 5 per cent
Lime 59 to 65 per cent
Magnesia 0.5 to 3 per cent
Sulphuric acid . . . 0.25 to 2 per cent
20 CEMENTING MATERIALS

After the cement clinker resulting from the burning is sufficiently

cooled, it is put through grinders and reduced to a fine powder.
The degree of fineness to which the cement is ground is always
very important in its effect upon the strength of mortar made from
the cement. The valuable part of the cement is that which is ground
extremely fine to an impalpable powder. The coarse parts are
not altogether inert, but are more or less active, depending upon
the size of the grains of which they are composed.
Cement when used is commonly mixed with sand and the attain-
ment of strength in sand mortar, rather than paste of neat cement,
is of importance. The more finely ground the cement, the greater
its resistance when mixed with sand, both in the earlier and later

stages of hardening, and also the sooner will it reach its ultimate
strength. The effect of fine grinding is much
greater when the
proportion of sand to cement is large, as the power of the cement
" "
to take sand without diminution of strength is thereby greatly
increased. The coarser particles of the cement may be considered
as practically inert material, which acts as sand rather than as cement
in the mortar. The ability of the cement to harden and develop
"strength in sand mortar is thus dependent upon the amount of fine
material contained in it.
Portland cement made from materials containing very small
percentages of iron oxide are very light in color or white. These
cements usually contain high percentages of alumina, and are con-
sequently quick setting. They are lower in strength than normal
Portlands.
14. Natural Cement. The term natural cement is used to desig-
nate a large number of widely varying products formed by burning
rock without pulverization or the admixture of other materials.
These cements contain larger proportions of argillaceous materials,
with less lime, than Portland cement, and are burned at a lower
temperature.
The term Roman Cement is used in Europe to designate a class

of quick-setting cements formed by burning, at a comparatively

low temperature, limestone containing a high percentage of clay.
The proportion of alumina in these materials is large and possibly
accounts for the quick set. Materials of this character become
inert when the temperature of burning is increased to the point
where the chemical reactions would become complete.
A class of materials intermediate between the Roman cements
and the Portland cements is called in Europe Natural Portland
Cement. In composition they are similar to Portland cement, but
 HYDRAULIC CEMENT 21

contain less lime. They are burned at a higher temperature than

Roman cements, and are usually slower setting. Natural cements
made in the Lehigh region are of this character. These materials
may be made into Portland cement by addition of a limestone con-
sisting ofmore nearly pure carbonate of lime.
Magnesian Natural Cements are formed by burning Magnesian
limestones. The composition of these cements varies from that
of the Roman cements to that in which the proportion of magnesia
is as great as that of lime. The action of cements of this class is
somewhat similar to that of the Roman cements. They may be
and gain strength rather slowly, reach-
either slow or quick setting,
ing a much less ultimate strength than Portland cement. Mag-
nesian cements are but little used in Europe, but in the United
States they constitute the larger part of the natural cements in use,
and many of them have been found by experience to be very useful
and reliable materials.
The rock from which natural cements are made differs greatly

in character in the same locality, and in different strata in the same

quarry. In some of the mills the nature of the product is regulated
by mixing, in proper proportions, the clinker obtained by burning
rock from different strata. Each portion of the rock must be burned
in such degree as is suited to its composition, and hence, as the
material not pulverized before burning, it must be burned sepa-
is

rately and mixed afterward. To produce uniformly good cement,

therefore, requires close and careful attention; for this reason there
is often considerable difference in the quality of cement made by
works in the same locality and from very similar materials.
Mixed Cements. In localities where both Portland and natural
cements are made by the same works, mixtures of the lower grades
of Portland with natural cements are sometimes made. These are
usually sold as natural cements under the name Improved Cements.
The effect of the mixture is to make the setting slower, and to
somewhat increase the strength of the natural cement.
15. Puzzolan Cement. Puzzolan cement is formed by mixing and
grinding together definite proportions of slaked lime and puzzolan.
In Germany puzzolan cement is made by the use of a natural puz-
zolan called trass, consisting of a volcanic earth. In the United
States cement of this character is made by the use of specially pre-

pared blast-furnace slag. This cement sometimes called slag

is

cement. Basic slag, containing lime in excess of the silica and with
a high alumina content, is used for this purpose. It is made granular
by quenching in cooling.
22 CEMENTING MATERIALS

It is very important, in making slag cements, that the slag be

ground very fine, and be very intimately mixed with the lime. The
lime is slaked and bolted and then ground mechanically with the
slag so as to insure thorough incorporation into the mixture. In
some of the European plants the slag is finely ground and bolted
through fine sieves before being mixed with the lime, but more com-
mon practice is to slake and bolt the lime and mix with the granular
slag before grinding, or to do the pulverizing of the slag in two
stages and make the mixture between the first and second
grinding.
Puzzolan cement is usually very finely ground, and is slow in
setting. It is sometimes treated with soda to quicken the set.
When allowed to harden in dry air, it is likely to shrink and crack.
When used for under-water work, mortar of puzzolan cement fre-
quently gives nearly the same strength as good Portland cement.
It is essentially a hydraulic material, and it is specially important
that it be kept damp during the early period of hardening, in order

that the water necessary to proper hardening may not evaporate.

The composition of slag cement usually differs from that of
Portland cement in having a less quantity of lime, more silica and
alumina and more alumina in proportion to silica.
16. Sand Cement. Sand cement is the name given to material
formed by grinding together Portland cement and silica sand to
extremely fine powder and a very intimate mixture. It is claimed
that a considerable amount of sand may be thus mixed with the
cement without materially reducing the strength of mortar made
by mixing the resulting cement with the usual proportions of sand.
The additional grinding reduces all of the cement to impalpable
powder, thus increasing the amount of active material.
Sand cement as ordinarily made contains equal proportions of
Portland cement and silica sand. Cement of this character has
recently been made by grinding volcanic rock, or tufa,
in California
with Portland cement. The
tufa used is a puzzolan, and it is claimed
that it reacts with the lime of the cement. The results of tests
indicate that mortar made from this cement is equal in strength
to that of the original Portland. Cement of this kind is now being
made by the U. Reclamation Service in some of the Western
S.
States to reduce the cost of concrete work where Portland cement
is expensive and difficult to get.

Similar methods are employed in Germany where a puzzolan

called trass is used, and in Italy where volcanic lava is ground with
the cement. These cements are used for work in sea water to les-
 HYDRAULIC CEMENT 23

sen the action of the sea salts upon the lime salts of the Portland
cement.
Sand cement has frequently been used for the purpose of secur-
ing impermeable mortar where waterproof work is needed. It is
useful for this purpose on account of its extreme fineness.
17. Soundness Cement. The permanence of any structure
of
erected by the use cement is dependent upon the ability of the
of

cement, after the setting and hardening processes are complete,

to retain its strength and form unimpaired for an indefinite period.
Experiment has shown that mortars made from cement of good
quality frequently continue to gain strength and hardness through
a period of several years, or at least that there is no material diminu-
tion in strength with time; and that changes of temperature, or
in the degree of moisture surrounding it, produce no injurious effects

upon the material. This durability in use is commonly known as

the permanence of volume or soundness of the cement.
When mortar which has been immersed in water is transferred
to dry air, a slight contraction may take place in volume, together
with an increase in strength; while a transfer the other way may
produce the opposite result; but" no distortion of form or disinte-
gration of the mortar will take place in either case if the cement
be of good quality.
Sometimes cement when made into mortar sets and hardens
properly, and later, when exposed to the action of the atmosphere
or water, becomes distorted and cracked or even entirely disinte-
grated. If the composition deviates but slightly from the normal,
this process of disintegration may not show itself for a considerable
time and proceeds very slowly. It thus becomes an element of
considerable danger, as it is liable to escape detection in testing
the cement.
The presence of small quantities of free lime in cement is doubt-
less one of the most common causes of disintegration in cement
mortar. distributed through the cement in small
The lime being
particles is hydrated very slowly after the cement has set, causing,
through its swelling during slaking, strong expansive forces on the
interior of the mortar, and producing an increase of volume, loss
of strength,and perhaps final disintegration.
Free magnesia in cement is supposed to act very much like free
lime. The action of magnesia, however, is much slower than that
of lime, and for this reason is a more serious defect. Specifications
for Portland cement frequently limit the amount of magnesia that

may be present in the cement.

24 CEMENTING MATERIALS

Most Portland cements probably contain small amounts of the

expansive elements, which when in very small quantity act with
extreme slowness and perhaps produce no visible effect for several
months after the use of the cement; then occurs a decrease of

strength, which disappears with time. Cements which gain strength

rapidly are quite apt to act in this manner, a depression in the
strength curve occurring at from six months to one year after the
mortar is made.
Cements for use in sea water should contain very little alumina.
Some of the salts in the sea water attack these alumina compounds,
causing disintegration of the cement and giving rise to expansive
action which cracks and breaks up the work.
The presence of expansive elements in Portland cement is prob-
ably due to incomplete burning or lack of uniformity in the incor-
poration of the ingredients rather than to defective composition.
The fineness of the cement modifies the action of the free lime,
as finely divided material will slake more quickly than coarse grains,
and the lime is more apt to become hydrated before setting; or,
if the cement be exposed before use, the lime in a fine state will

sooner become air slaked.

18. Chemistry of Cement. Professor LeChatelier was the first

to explain the composition of Portland cement. He studied sec-

tions of clinker under the microscope, and examined the properties
of the various compounds formed by the principal ingredients. He
l
concluded silicate, 3CaO, SiO2, is the only
that the tricalcium
silicate that is and that it is the essential active
really hydraulic,
element in cement. In Portland cement he finds it to be the princi-
pal component, occurring in cubical crystals. It is formed by
combination of silica and lime in presence of fusible compounds
formed by alumina and iron.
"
The dicalcium silicate, 2CaO, SiC>2, possesses the singular
property of spontaneously pulverizing in the furnace upon cooling.
This silicate does not possess hydraulic properties and will not
harden under water.
"
There are various aluminates of lime, all of which set rapidly
in contact with water. The most important is the tricalcium alu-
minate, 3CaO, A1 2 O3 ."
Professor LeChatelier gives two limits within which the quantity
of lime in Portland cement should always be found. These are,
that the proportion of lime should always be greater than that
represented by the formula
1
Annales des Mines, September, 1893.
 HYDRAULIC CEMENT 25

i
CaO+MgO ~~~~ ^~ o%

and that it should never exceed that given by the formula,

CaO+MgO 3.

The symbols in these formulas represent the number of equivalents

of the substances present, not the weights.
Messrs S. B. and W. B. Newberry from a study of the compounds
of silica and alumina with lime reached the following conclusions 1 :

(1) Lime may be combined with silica in proportion of three molecules to

one and still give a product of practically constant volume and good hardening
properties, though hardening very slowly. With 3| molecules of lime to one
of silica the product is not sound and cracks in water.
(2) Lime may be combined with alumina in the proportion of two molecules
to one, giving a product which sets quickly but shows good hardening proper-
ties. With 2 1 molecules of lime to one of alumina the product is unsound.
Assuming that the tricalcic silicate and the dicalcic aluminate are the most
basic compounds which can exist in good cement we arrive at the following
formula:
,
SiO 2 ) + F(2CaO, A12 O3 ),

in X and Y are variable quantities depending upon relative proportions

which
and alumina in materials employed.
of silica
3CaO, SiO 2 corresponds to 2.8 parts of lime by weight to 1 of silica, while
2CaO, A12 O 3 corresponds to 1.1 parts of lime to one of alumina.

Per cent lime = Per cent silicaX2.8+Per cent aluminaXl.l.

Mr. G. A. Rankin, in an extended study of the composition of

Portland cement 2 finds the essential constituents to be the trical-
cium silicate, 3CaO, SiO 2 ;
the dicalcium silicate, 2CaO, SiO 2 ;
and
the tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO, A1 2 C>3. He finds that in burning
Portland cement, after the carbon dioxide has been driven off, the
lime combines with silica and alumina, forming first a fusible alu-

minate, 5CaO, A1 2 03, and the dicalcium silicate. At higher tem-

peratures these compounds unite with additional lime, forming the
tricalcium aluminate and silicate. When the material is not
thoroughly burned, and complete equilibrium is not reached, the
clinker will contain free lime, CaO, and the aluminate, 5CaO, A12 C>3.

Magnesia and iron oxide have little influence on the final main
1
Journal Society of Chemical Industry, Nov. 30, 1897.
2
Journal Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, June, 1915.
26 CEMENTING MATERIALS

constituents of the cement, but act as fluxes and lower the temper-
ature at which the reactions take place.
Too high proportion of lime causes cement to be unsound through
the presence of free lime. The same results are caused by under-
burning or by irregular incorporation of the raw materials into the
mixture. As perfect uniformity in the mixture of the ingredients
is not attainable in the manufacture of cement, it is necessary that

the amount of lime be somewhat less than the theoretic maximum

to avoid unsoundness in the cement. The desirable proportion
of lime seems to be that which change the dicalcium silicate
will
to tricalcium silicate as completely as possible without producing
unsoundness.
The ratio of silica to the sum of alumina and iron in cement
materials is known as the silica ratio. It is desirable that the silica
ratio be at least 2.5 or possibly 3 in Portland cement.

Very little is definitely known concerning the chemical reactions

which take place in the setting and hardening of cement mortars.
Studies are in progress which it is hoped may throw light upon the
subject and tend to more accurate knowledge of the requirements
for such materials.

ART. 6. SPECIFICATIONS AND TESTS FOR CEMENT

19. Standard Specifications. The specifications of the American
Society for Testing Materials are now commonly recognized as
standard and used in the purchase of cement in the United States.
These specifications were adopted in 1904 and revised in 1908,
1909, and 1916. In specifications for construction of masonry and
concrete it is usual to require that the cement meet the requirements
of the American Society for Testing Materials, although in ordinary
work it is not common to actually apply all the tests. The tests
of chemical analysis and specific gravity are used only when special
reasons exist for their application in the character of the work to
which the cement is to be applied or doubt as to the material offered.
It is frequently necessary, on important work, to modify the
specifications to suit the peculiarities of the particular construction,
This is particularly the case in work to be subjected to the action
of sea water, or unusual conditions of service.
The general specifications adopted in 1909 were modified in 1916
as to Portland cement only, those for natural cement being left
unchanged. The Committee, however, expressed the intention of
proceeding with the modification of the requirements for natural
 SPECIFICATIONS AND TESTS FOR CEMENT 27

cement as soon as possible, and changes may be expected in these

at an early date. The methods of making the tests for Portland
are to be also applied to natural cement.
The 1916 specifications make some important changes from those
previously used. The No. 100 sieve is dropped from the test for
fineness and the requirements somewhat increased for the No. 200
sieve. The Gillmore needles are introduced as an alternate method
Tensile tests of cement paste are
in the test for rate of setting.

dropped and dependence placed on the 1 to 3 mortar test,

sole

requirements for which are somewhat increased. The normal test

for soundness which had previously been the final test is dropped
and the steam test is made the standard.
The
specifications have been gradually developed through experi-
ence with a number of different methods of testing which have been
changed from time to time as knowledge of the material has increased
and manufacturers have improved the quality of the material they
are able to produce. The reliability of the cement on the market
has markedly improved within a few years past and the likelihood
of finding poor cement and consequently the necessity for tests
under ordinary circumstances has greatly diminished. The applica-
and upon all important work is, however,
tion of tests where feasible
-
desirable. !

The specifications for Portland cement adopted in 1916 are the

result of several years' work of a Joint Committee of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, the U. S. Government Engineers, and
the American Society for Testing Materials. They are published
in the Book of Standards of the Society for Testing Materials, and
are also reprinted for distribution to those interested in cement
testing by the Portland Cement Association.
20. Purpose of Standard Tests. The tests imposed by the
standard specifications are chemical analysis, specific gravity, fine-
ness, normal consistency, time of setting, tensile strength, and
soundness. Specifications covering all of these are usually employed
for cement to be used in important work. The making of the tests
for chemical analysis and specific gravity are often omitted when
the cement proves satisfactory upon the other tests.
The chemical analyses employed for Portland cement are intended
to determine whether the cement has been adulterated with inert
material, such as slag or ground limestone, and whether magnesia
or sulphuric anhydride are present in too large amounts.
The test for specific gravity when used for Portland cement is
intended mainly to detect adulteration with materials of lower
28 CEMENTING MATERIALS

specific gravity. It may also aid in determining the true character

of the material and whether the cement is well burned. The specific
gravity of Portland cement is usually between 3.10 and 3.20, that
of a natural cement 2.75 to 3.10, and puzzolan cement 2.7 to 2.9.
Good Portland cement may be lowered in specific gravity by long
exposure to the air without serious injury to the cement. For this
reason, the specifications allow a second test upon an ignited sample
of cement failing upon a first test.
The normal consistency is made to determine the proper
test for

quantity of water to be used in the paste or mortar for tests of time

of setting or strength. In the preparation of paste or mortar for
these tests, variations in the quantity of water used, or in the methods
of mixing and molding the specimens, may produce considerable
differences in results. A
standard method is therefore prescribed.
The
time of setting is tested for the purpose of determining whether
the cement is suitable for a given use, rather than as a measure of
the quality of the cement. Testing for time of setting consists in
arbitrarily fixing two points in the process of solidification called
the initial set and the final
set. This is accomplished by noting
the penetration of a standard needle carrying a given weight into
the mass of cement.
The test for fineness is to determine whether the cement is

properly ground. Only the extremely fine powder is of value as

cement. The coarse parts, while having some cementing value,
are practically inert when used
sand mortar.
in
The cement pastes and mortars is made
test for tensile strength of
for the purpose of demonstrating that the cement contains the active
elements necessary to cause it to set and harden properly. Cement
is not usually subjected to tensile stresses in use, but the tensile

test has commonly been employed because it offers the easiest way
to determine strength, and seems to give a satisfactory means of
judging the desired qualities.
The proper conduct of any test for strength is a matter requiring
care and experience. There are a number of points connected with
the conditions and manipulation of the tests which have important
effects upon the results. These are the form of the briquette,
the method of mixing and molding, the amount of water used in
tempering the mortar, the surroundings in which the mortar is kept
during hardening, the rate and manner of applying the stress, the
temperatures at which all the operations are performed. In order
to secure uniform results, it is essential that the tests be standard-
ized in all these particulars.
 SPECIFICATIONS AND TESTS FOR CEMENT 29

Soundness the most important quality of a cement, as it means

is

the power of the cement to resist the disintegrating influences of

the atmosphere or water in which it may be placed. Unsoundness
in cement vary greatly in degree, and show itself quite dif-
may
ferently in different material. Cement in which unsoundness is
very pronounced is apt to become distorted and cracked after a few
days, when small cakes are placed in water. Those in which the
disintegrating action is slower may not show any change of form,
but after weeks or months gradually lose coherence and soften until
entirely disintegrated.
The object in the tests is to accelerate the actions which tend
to destroy the strength and durability of the cement. As the tests
must be made in a short time, it is necessary to handle the cement
in such manner as to cause these qualities to show quickly.
Normal Test. The method which has been commonly employed
is to make small cakes, or pats, of cement paste about 3 inches in
diameter and \ inch thick at the center, with thin edges, upon a
plate of glass about 4 inches square. These pats are kept twenty-
four hours in moist air and then allowed to stand for twenty-eight
days in water, or in the air. The pat during this period should show
no signs of cracking, checking, distortion, or disintegration. This
is known as the normal test, and has been relied upon as the final

test for soundness. This test is defective in requiring too much

time and also, in some instances, fails to discover defective material
in which the action is very slow.
Accelerated Tests. Numerous tests have been proposed for the
purpose of hastening the hardening of the cement and causing
unsoundness to show more quickly. In most of these tests, heat
is employed to accelerate the changes taking place in the cement,
and they are known as accelerated tests.
These tests have usually been made by subjecting small pats
of the cement to the action of hot water or steam and observing
whether cracking or disintegration takes place. Sometimes small
bars of cement are used and the increase in length of the bar meas-
ured after exposure to the hot water or steam. The expansion of
unsound cement should be much greater than that of sound cement.
The tensile strengths of briquettes of cement which have been exposed
to hot water or steam are sometimes measured and compared with
the strengths of similar briquettes kept at normal temperatures.
The heat should cause a considerable increase in strength of sound
cement.
The standard steam test consists in observing the effect of steam
30 CEMENTING MATERIALS

at about 100 C. upon small pats of the cement. This test was
recommended by a committee of the American Society of Civil

Engineers in 1904. It has since been included in the specifications

of the American Society for Testing Materials in conjunction with
the normal pat test, which was the deciding test. In the modified
specifications for Portland cement adopted in 1916, the normal
test is discontinued and the steam test becomes the standard.
The methods for making the standard tests are described in

detail, with the specifications, in the Book of Standards of the

American Society for Testing Materials, and in the reprint pub-
lished by the Portland Cement Association.
21. Tests of Compressive Strength. Tests of compressive
strength are seldom used in specifications for cement, on account
of the greater ease of making the tensile test and the lighter machines
that may be employed for the purpose. These tests have frequently
been made for purposes of comparison or to determine special qualities
of the material. The standard test piece has usually been a 2-inch
same manner as the tension specimens. This
cube, prepared in the
was recommended by a committee of the American Society of Civil
Engineers in 1909.
As cement mortar is usually employed in compression, some

engineers prefer to use the compression test in their specifications.

A new tentative specification with methods of testing was recom-
mended by a committee of the American Society for Testing Materi-
als in 1916. This has not been adopted by the society as a standard,
and may be further modified before such adoption. It is probable
that such a standard will be adopted, to be used in conjunction
with or to replace the tension test. This proposed specification
with the method of making the test is given in Volume I of the
Transactions of the Society for 1909. Reprints may be had from
the Secretary of the Society.
22. Special Tests. The tests ordinarily employed in determin-
ing the quality of cement are enumerated in the preceding sections.
Other tests are frequently made to determine special qualities or
for the purpose of investigating properties of cements and mortars.
Transverse Strength. Tests of the strength of cement mortar
under transverse loading are seldom employed as a measure of the
quality of the material, but are frequently made with a view to
determining the action of the material in service. Propositions
have often been made to substitute the transverse for the tensile
test in the reception of material. These suggestions have usually
been based upon the simplicity of the test and of the apparatus
 SAND FOR MORTAR 31

with which it may The specimen usually employed

be carried out.
for this purpose is 1 inch and 6 inches long. It is tested
inch by 1

by placing upon knife edges 5 inches apart and bringing the load
upon the middle section. Professor Durand-Claye, from a large
number of comparative tests, found the unit fiber stress under
transverse load to average about 1.9 times the unit stress for tension.
Adhesive Strength. The ability of cement mortar to adhere
firmly to a surface with which it may be placed in contact is one
of its most valuable properties and quite as important as the develop-
ment of cohesive strength. Tests for adhesive strength are not
employed as a measure of quality, because of the uncertain char-
.

and the difficulty of so conducting it as to make

acter of the test
it a reliable indication of value. The adhesive properties of the
cement are to a certain extent called into play in tests of sand mor-
tar, and may be inferred from comparison of neat and sand tests.
Experiments upon the adhesion of mortars to various substances
are sometimes made, both for the purpose of comparing the cements
or methods of use, and to study the relative adhesions to various
kinds of surfaces. Such experiments are quite desirable with a
view to the extension of knowledge of this very important quality.
The common method of making this test is to prepare briquettes
of which one half the briquette cement paste or mortar and the
is of
other half a block of stone, glass, or other material to be used. The
cement half is made in the ordinary form for tensile specimens.
The other half is made to fit the cement mold at the middle and
arranged at the end to be held by a clip in the testing machine.

ART. 7. SAND FOR MORTAR

23. Quality of Sand. As hydraulic cement is commonly mixed

with certain proportions of sand, when used in construction, the
nature and quality of sand used, and the method of manipulating
the materials in forming the mortar have quite as important an
effect upon the final strength of the work as the quality of the cement
itself.

In testing cement a standard sand is employed. This sand may

be obtained quite uniform in quality. In the execution of work,
however, local sand must generally be used; this varies widely in
character, and should always be carefully considered upon any
work where the development of strength and lasting qualities are
of importance.
Size of Sand Grains. It is usual to class as sand all material
32 CEMENTING MATERIALS

less than J-inch diameter; pieces larger than this being classed as
gravel. Coarse sand is superior to fine sand for use in cement
mortar. Coarse sand presents less surface to be coated with cement
and the interstices are more easily filled with cement paste. Fine
sand requires more water in mixing to the same consistency, and
gives usually weaker and more porous mortar than coarse sand.
The use of a mixture of grains of different sizes is usually desir-
able, giving less voids to be filled by the cement; and it is frequently
found, when the cement is not in considerable excess, that .the
strength obtained by such a mixture is much greater than is given
by either the large or small grains alone. Sand of mixed sizes,
giving a minimum of voids, requires less cement to make a mortar
of maximum density and strength than that of more uniform sizes.

Shape of Grains. Sand with angular grains usually gives better

results in mortar than that with rounded grains, and specifications

frequently call for sharp sand. This difference is, however, much
less important than that of proper gradation of sizes, and should
not be given undue weight in the selection of sand for use in mortar.
Stone Screenings. The screenings from crushed stone are fre-
quently used in place of natural sand. Ordinarily screenings from
stone of good quality give mortar of rather better strength than
natural sand. This, however, depends in most instances upon the
gradation of sizes in the two materials. The sharpness of grain
is favorable to the screenings, and the presence of a certain amount

of very fine stone dust in the screenings seems to be of value in the

mortar. When the screenings are derived from soft rock, the dust
may be present in too large amount and need to be screened out
before the screenings can be successfully used.
Chemical Composition. Sands as commonly used for mortar are
composed mainly of silica. In most cases, sand which has a proper
granulometric composition is satisfactory for use. The failure of
concrete work has, however, in a number of instances been found
to be due to the use of sand low in silica. Sand containing less than
95 per cent silica needs to be carefully tested before being used,
although some sands as low as 75 per cent silica have given good
results. The composition of sands have not been sufficiently studied
to determine the differences of composition which cause failure in
one case and success in another.
The presence of mica in sand or screenings is supposed to injuri-
ously affect the strength of mortar in which the material is used.
The results of experiments upon the effect of mica are not conclusive,
although they seem to indicate that mica may sometimes be injuri-
 SAND FOR MORTAR 33

ous. Sand containing mica should be carefully tested before being

used.
Effect of Impurities. Sand for use in mortar should be clean, and
as free from loam, mud, or organic matter as possible. In general
the presence of any foreign matter is to be avoided, though a small
amount of fine clay distributed through sand has sometimes been
found to increase the strength of cement mortar, and also helps to
make the mortar work more smoothly, sometimes decreasing its
permeability. The effect of the clay depends upon the character
of the sand and upon the richness of the mortar. Fine clay may
help to fill the voids in an otherwise porous mortar with good effect,
but may be deleterious in a rich mortar, or when it is not finely divided
and uniformly distributed through the sand. In a particular instance,
the effect of such an adulteration can be judged only by testing it.
Impurities of an organic nature are always objectionable in sand
for use in mortar. When it is necessary to use sand containing
such impurities, should be carefully washed and tested. A very
it

small amount of vegetable matter in sand has sometimes caused

the failure of mortar to harden properly.
Selection of Sand. Sands differ so greatly in their qualities that
it is difficult by mere inspection of the materials to judge of their

relative values for use in mortar. In choosing sand for use in impor-
tant work, it desirable not only to determine fully the physical
is

characteristics of the available materials, but also to make actual

tests of mortar by their use.
24. Tests for Sand. Tests intended to determine the mortar-
making qualities of may be made in three ways:
sand
1. Mechanical analysis of the sand, with determination of voids
in the sand.
2. Density tests of mortars made from the sand with the cement
to be used in the work.
3. Strength tests of mortars made from the sand in question with
the cement to be used hi the work.
The value of sand depends mainly upon its granulometric com-
position. The sand which, mixed with a given proportion of cement,
gives the most dense mortar yields the strongest mortar. The sand
which requires the least cement to make a mortar of maximum
density is the most economical sand, when the mortar is properly
proportioned.
The purpose in testing the sand should be to determine the pro-

portions of cement to sand necessary as well as to choose the best

sand.
34 CEMENTING MATERIALS

Mechanical Analysis. To determine the relative sizes of grains

25.

composing sand, the material is screened through a series of sieves

of varying degrees of fineness. The sieves are made of standard
size, 8 inches in diameter by 2J inches high, those with openings
smaller than ^
inch being made of woven brass wire, while the larger
sizes are preferably drilled circular openings in sheet brass. These
sieves are designatedby numbers corresponding to the number of
meshes to the linear inch, the size of opening depending upon the
diameter of wire used. The size openings usually employed for
sand analysis are approximately as follows :

No. of Sieve 4 10 20 30 40 50 80 100 200

Size Opening, in. .. 0.25 .073 .0335 .0195 .015 .011 .0067 .0055 .00265

For ordinary examination of sand, when comparing or selecting

sand for use, it is unnecessary to separate into so many sizes, and
sieves Nos. 4, 10, 20, 50, and 100 are commonly employed. The
sieves are made to fit together in nests with a cover and tight bottom
to catch the residue from the finest sieves. The sifting may be done
by hand, by shaking and jarring the sieves, or mechanical shakers
may be used. These may be obtained to work by hand or with
small electric motors attached.
In making the tests, a sample weighing 50 g. is dried to constant
weight at temperature not more than 110 C. (230 F.) and is then
sifted through the sieves, so as to separate the grains into various
sizes and determine the percentage
of each by weight. The material
properly classed as sand is that which passes through the No. 4
sieve and is retained on the No. 100 sieve. Sand retained by the
No. 10 or No. 20 sieve may be classed as coarse sand; that caught
between the No. 20 and No. 50 sieves is medium sand; that which
passes the No. 50 sieve is fine sand. Material passing the No. 100
sieve is called dust.

Analysis Curves. Comparisons of the granulometric composi-

tions of sands are readily made by plotting the results of the sieve
analysis as curves. It is usual to plot the sizes of openings as abscissae
and percentages passing each size as ordinates. The reciprocals
of the numbers of the sieves may be used for size without impairing
the value of the results, and probably represent more nearly the
actual sizes of grains passing the sieves than does the computed
width of opening. Table II gives the results of analyses of sands
in common use for mortar, showing something of the variations
which may frequently occur.
These results are plotted in Fig. 1. Sand No. 1 is a coarse bank
 SAND FOR MORTAR 35

sand containing a small amount of clay. No. 2 is a medium river

sand of good quality. No. 3 is a fine sand. No. 4 is screenings
from broken limestone, containing rather high percentage of dust.

TABLE II. ANALYSES OF SANDS

36 CEMENTING MATERIALS

26. Determination of Voids. The method most commonly used

for void determination is known
as the wet method, which consists
in filling a measure with the sand to be tested and pouring in water
until the voids are completely filled. The volume of water required
to fill the voids divided by the volume of sand and multiplied by
100 the percentage of voids; or the weight of water poured into
is

the sand divided by the weight of water required to fill the measure
and multiplied by 100 is the percentage of voids. It is very dif-
ficult to eliminate completely the air from the sand in making this
test. The test is therefore liable to considerable error unless great
care be used in manipulating it.
Dry Method. A more accurate method of determining voids
is to compare the weight of a measured volume of the sand with
the weight of an equal volume of the solid material of which the
sand is composed. In measuring the volume of sand, it is necessary
to use care to secure the proper degree of compactness. For ordi-
nary comparisons the sand should be well compacted by shaking
and The weight of the solid rock is obtained
jarring the measure.
by multiplying the weight of an equal volume of water by the specific
gravity of the sand. The difference between the weight of the
rock and that of the* sand divided by the weight of the rock and
multiplied by 100 is the percentage of voids.
If R
the weight of the solid rock and S, the weight of the sand,
is

percentage of voids is

This test supposes the sand to be dry. When it is desired to

obtain the voids in moist sand, a weighed sample of the sand should
be dried at 212 F. and the loss of weight determined. The weight
of moisture in themeasure of sand to be used in the test may then
be computed. This weight is then to be subtracted from the total
weight of the moist sand to find the weight of solid material in the
sand.
If m
the weight of moisture in the volume of sand under test,
is

percentage of voids is
R-(S-m).100.
R
27. Specific Gravity. The specific gravity of siliceous sand is
quite uniformly 2.65, or the weight per cubic foot of the solid rock
is 165 pounds. To assume these values in determining the voids
 SAND FOR MORTAR 37

in such sand involves slight error in any case. Sands not

strictly siliceous may vary in specific gravity from about 2.6
to 2.7.
The determination of specific gravity is made by immersing a
sample of the material in water at 68 F. and dividing the weight
of the sand by the weight of water displaced. This is most con-
veniently done by sifting the sand into the water in a graduated
glass tube, and reading the increase of volume of the liquid in the
tube. Care must be used to introduce the sand slowly so as to
eliminate all air bubbles.
28. Density Test. Comparative tests of sands may be made
by determining the volume of mortar produced by definite weights
of cement and dry sand. The sand that for a given weight of materi-
als, when mixed with the same proportionof cement to the required

consistency, produces the smallest volume of mortar gives the most

dense mortar. In making this test, molds in which the height is
large in comparison with the section are convenient, the relative
heights to which the mold is filled giving the proportionate volumes.
The volume of mortar after setting is what is required, but the

measurement before setting, unless the mortar is quite wet, will give
practically the same result.
Determinationof Density. The term density, as commonly
applied to mortar, means the ratio of the volume of solid materials
contained in the mortar to the whole volume of mortar. The density
is obtained by weighing the ingredients before mixing and calculating
volumes from these weights and their specific gravities.
their solid
The weight and volume of the resulting mortar are then measured.
The weight of mortar should equal the sum of the weights of the
several ingredients. The density equals the sum of the solid vol-
umes of sand and cement divided by the measured volume of the
mortar. The density of mortars made from the sands shown in
Fig. 1, one part cement to three parts sand by volume, are as
follows :
38 CEMENTING MATERIALS

The method of computation is as follows:

Taking specific gravity of cement as 3.1 and specific gravity

of sand as 2.65,
358 1026
3.1 2 65.
_
Density of No. 1 is
670

29. Strength Tests. Tests of the strength of mortars made

from sands are the most conclusive evidence of the mortar-making

properties of the sands. These tests to be of real value should

extend over a period of at least twenty-eight days. They are made
in the same manner as the mortar tests for judging cement, and

comparisons are sometimes made with the results of tests with

standard sand. Table III gives comparative results of tests of the
sands shown in Fig. 1.

TABLE III. RESULTS OF SAND TESTS

Sand No.
 CEMENT MORTAR 39

31. Specifications for Sand. Tests have seldom been used as

means of judging sand for use in masonry construction. The require-
ments have usually been that the sand be coarse, clean, and sharp;
the requirement of sharpness is now commonly omitted.
Mechanical analysis and void tests are frequently made for the

purpose of judging the qualities of available sands on important

work, and to aid in properly proportioning mortar, but such tests
are not usual in specifications.
The Joint Committee of the Engineering Societies on Concrete
and Reinforced Concrete has suggested the following as requirements
for sand to be used as fine aggregate in concrete work:

(a) Fine Aggregate. This should consist of sand, crushed stone or gravel
screenings, graded from fine to coarse, and passing when dry a screen having
holes i inch in diameter. It is preferable that it be of siliceous material, and
should be clean, coarse, free from dust, soft particles, vegetable loam, or other
deleterious matter; and not more than 6 per cent should pass a sieve having
100 mashes per linear inch. Fine aggregates should always be tested.
Fine aggregates should be of such quality that mortar composed of one part
Portland cement and three parts fine aggr gates by weight, when made into
briquettes, will show a tensile strength at least equal to the strength of 1 to 3
mortar of the same consistency made with the same cement and standard Ottawa
sand. If the aggregate be of poorer quality, the proportion of cement should
be increased to secure the desired strength.
If the strength developed by the aggregate in the 1 to 3 mortar is less than
70 per cent of the strength of the Ottawa sand mortar, the material should be
rejected. To avoid the removal of any coating on the grains, which may effect
the strength, bank sand should not be dried before being made into mortar,
but should contain natural moisture. The percentage of moisture may be
determined on a separate sample for correcting weight. From 10 to 40 per cent
more water may be required in mixing bank or artificial sands than for standard
Ottawa sand to produce the same consistency.

ART. 8. CEMENT MORTAR

32. Proportioning Mortar. In specifying the proportions of

ingredients for cement mortar to be used in construction, it is usual

to give the ratio of parts of cement to those of sand by volume
The relative proportions of sand and cement to be used in any
instance depend upon the nature of the work and the necessity for
mortrr. The pro-
developing strength or water-tightness in the
portions commonly used in ordinary work are: for natural cement,
one part cement to one part or two parts sand; for Portland cement,
one part cement to two parts or three parts of sand. In common
practice these ratios are chosen without reference to the particular
materials used and the resulting mortars vary widely in character.
40 CEMENTING MATERIALS

Good sand in a i to 3 mortar frequently shows greater strength

than a poorer one mixed 1 to 2, and gives equally good results in
use.
The methods of measuring materials also vary, and the relative

quantities ofcement and sand in the mortar differ correspondingly.

Measuring Cement. Cement should always be measured by
weight, on account of the variation in volume of the same quantity
of cement with different degrees of compactness. In specifying
proportions by volume, therefore, it is always desirable to state
the weight of cement to be taken as unit volume.
Portland cement is usually packed in wooden barrels or in canvas
bags. A barrel of cement contains 376 pounds of cement, while
a bag contains 94 pounds, or one-quarter barrel. Natural cement
is ordinarily packed in barrels of 282 pounds, or bags of 94 pounds

(one-third barrel) each.

Portland cement as packed in barrels weighs a little more than
100 pounds per cubic foot. A
cubic foot of cement paste requires
from 95 to 110 pounds of cement. It is common to consider a cubic
foot of Portland cement to weigh 94 pounds in porportioning mortar.
A bag of cement is then mixed with 2 cubic feet of sand to form
1 to 2 mortar, or with 3 cubic feet of sand to form 1 to 3 mortar.

This assumes the volume of a barrel of cement to be 4 cubic feet.

This is the recommendation of the Joint Committee of the Engineer-
ing Societies. Some engineers use 3.8 cubic feet as the volume of
a barrel, or 100 pounds as the weight of a cubic foot.
In the same way, 70 pounds is frequently used as the weight of
a cubic foot of natural cement. This makes the volume of a sack
of natural cement 1J cubic feet. A barrel of natural cement would
then have the same nominal volume as a barrel of Portland, 4 cubic
feet. The actual volume-weight of natural cement varies con-
siderably for different brands.
Measuring Sand. It is usual to measure sand by volume. The
method of measuring to be used in any particular instance depends

upon the method of mixing and handling the mortar. Very com-
monly the measuring is done in the barrow or bucket in which the
sand is carried to the mixer or platform. Measuring boxes with-
out bottoms are often employed to set on the mixing platform, and
after filling are removed, leaving the measure of sand. Whatever
method of handling the sand is employed, it is important that care-
ful attention be given to securing the correct proportion of sand
for the mortar.

Effect of Moisture. In proportioning mortar by volume, the

 CEMENT MORTAR 41

moisture content of the sand may be a matter of importance. Damp

sand weighs less per unit volume than dry sand. When sand is
moistened with a small quantity of water, the grains of sand are
coated with a thin film of water, which separates the grains, causing
the sand to occupy more space than when dry. When the amount
of water becomes sufficient to coat all the grains of sand (about
4 to 7 per cent with ordinary sands), a maximum effect is reached,
and an increase in amount of water beyond that point causes a reduc-
tion of volume. At saturation (10 to 20 per cent of water), it becomes
slightly less in volume than when dry.
The solid content in a given volume of moist sand is less than
that of the same volume of dry sand, and a mortar mixed with the
moist sand will be richer in cement than that mixed with the same
sand when dry. This effect is greater with fine then with coarse
sand. A given volume of sand measured dry may contain 10 per
cent to 15 per cent more solid material than the same volume of
the same sand measured in a moist condition.
The extent to which differences in moisture condition may effect
the volume of the sand depends upon the position in which the sand
is placed and the way it is handled in measuring. If dry sand in
a bin, or a pile, be moistened with a small quantity of water, the
sand will not appreciably swell in the pile, as the particles are held
by the weight of the mass above they are not free to move and the
water fails to separate them. If the sand be loosened in moving
to a new position, it will be found to have increased in volume and
will not return to its former dimensions until it has become dry,
or wet to saturation.
Proportioning by Weight. In Germany it has been quite common
to measure the material for mortar by weight. This has been applied
in some instances in the United States, and reduces largely the vari-
ations in the proportions due to moisture. On important work it
may frequently be possible to arrange for weight measurement
without materially increasing the cost of handling the material.
The ratio of cement to sand is commonly arbitrarily fixed with
reference to the particular use to which the mortar is to be put,
without considering the character of the sand to be used. For
ordinary masonry, or massive concrete, Portland cement is usually
employed in 1 to 3 mixtures. When high strength is needed, as
in reinforced concrete work, the mixture is 1 to 2. Under specially
trying conditions, or sometimes when cement grout is being used,
a 1 to 1 mixture may be employed. With natural cement, the mix-
tures are 1 to 2 for ordinary work and 1 to 1 where greater strength
42 CEMENTING MATERIALS

is needed.Natural cement is not used for reinforced concrete work.

The choice of ratios has usually been well on the side of safety, and
good results have been obtained in practice by this method, although
equally good work at less cost might in many instances have been
obtained by more careful study of the materials in proportioning
the ingredients of the mortar.
In comparing the mortar-making qualities of various sands,
it is found that the amount of cement necessary to make mortar

of the same strength from different sands depends mainly upon

the fineness and density of the sands. The office of the cement
paste in mortar is to coat the grains of sand and fill the voids between
them. In fine sand the surface to be coated with cement is greater
than incoarse sand. Dense sand, with grains of varying sizes,
presents less voids to be filled than more uniform sand.
It is desirable that careful study be given to the sands to be used
in any important work before finally deciding upon the proportions
of the materials, and that final judgment be based upon actual tests
of the mortar itself.

Frequently a mixture of a fine with a coarse sand, or of crusher

dust with sand may be so proportioned as to give economical results
in the saving of cement, while at the same time improving the mortar.
33. Mixing Mortar. In mixing mortar by hand a water-tight
box or platform is used. The required quantity of sand is spread
over the floor of the box and the cement distributed evenly over
the sand. The cement and sand are then mixed together with a
hoe or shovel until the cement is uniformly distributed through
the sand, as shown by the even color of the mixture diy. It is
important that the dry materials be very thoroughly mixed before
water is added. A uniform mixture will not otherwise be obtained.
When the mixing of dry materials is complete, water is added and
the mass worked into a stiff paste. The quality of the mortar
is materially affected by the vigor with which it is worked in bring-
ing it to the proper consistency. After the water has been absorbed
by the cement, vigorous working will make the mass more plastic,
and working should continue until a permanent condition is reached.
Quantity of Water. The quantity of water to be used in mixing
mortar can be determined only by experiment in each instance
it depending upon the nature of the cement and sand, and the pro-

portion of cement to sand. The quantity of water used should be

the least consistent with reducing the mortar to the required condi-
tion of plasticity by vigorous working. Additional water should
not be used to save labor in working.
 CEMENT MORTAR 43

Mixing should be quickly and energetically done, only such

quantity being mixed at once as can be used before initial set takes
place. A considerable quantity is sometimes mixed dry and left
to stand until needed before adding water. If this is done with

damp sand, the cement may be acted upon by the moisture in the
sand to the injury of the mortar. Quick-setting cements are par-
ticularly liable to injury from this cause.
Retempering. Masons frequently mix mortar in considerable
quantities, the mass becomes stiffened before being used,
and if

add more water and work again to plastic condition. After the
second tempering the cement is much less active than at first, and
remains a longer time in a workable condition. This practice is
not approved by engineers and is not permitted in good engineering
construction, although there is some dispute as to the extent of the

injurious effects.
Cement when retempered becomes very slow in action, both
in setting and hardening. The quicker-setting cements are usually
more affected than the slow setting. The strength during the earlier
periods of hardening is lessened, although the final strength may
not be impaired. Portland cement may ordinarily be used for
two, or sometimes three hours after mixing without appreciably
affecting its action. When retempered after a longer period it will
usually become slower in action, but may in some cases gain as
much strength in thirty to sixty days.
Continuous working materially improves the strength of mortar,
and when allowed to stand after mixing it should be frequently
worked.
Grout. Mortar when made thin, so that it can be poured into
cracks or small openings, is known as grout. Mixtures of cement
and sand used in this manner are difficult to handle without sepa-
ration of the materials. They should be used only under excep-
tional circumstances and when stiffer mortar cannot be applied.
34. Yield of Mortar. The volume of mortar formed by mixing
the den-
given quantities of cement and sand depends mainly upon
sities of the materials. It is affected by the method of preparing
the mortar, the uniformity of the mixture, and the degree of com-
pactness. The net volume of materials entering into the com-
position of mortar is readily found from their weights and densities,
volume. An
but represents only approximately the resulting
it

of mixture is to be
accurate knowledge of the yield any particular
obtained only by experimenting upon the materials to be employed.
The amount of cement paste made by a given weight of cement
44 CEMENTING MATERIALS

powder varies with the specific gravity of thecement and the amount
of water necessary in gaging. The lighter cements require more
water and yield paste for
less a given volume of cement than the
heavier ones. To form
a cubic foot of plastic paste requires usually
from 80 to 95 pounds of natural cement, while from 95 to 101 pounds
of Portland cement are necessary.
Table IV gives approximate quantities of materials ordinarily
required for 1 cubic. yard of compact plastic mortar. A barrel of
cement is taken as 4 cubic feet, corresponding to a weight of 94
pounds per cubic foot for Portland cement and 70 pounds for natural
cement. The sand is dry and measured loose.

TABLE IV. MATERIALS FOR 1 CUBIC YARD OF MORTAR

PROPORTIONS.
 CEMENT MORTAR 45

cement mortar, or by mixing dry hydrated lime with cement before

mixing the mortar. Lime must always be thoroughly slaked before
mixing with cement, as unhydrated lime in cement mortar is always
a detriment. It is also essential that the mixture be very uniform,
and that the mortar be worked to an even color. For this reason,
the use of dry hydrated lime is to be preferred over lime paste.
In proportioning lime to cement, the method of measurement
isimportant. Hydrated lime from nearly pure limestone contains
about 75 per cent of quicklime and ordinary lime paste contains
about 40 per cent of lime by weight. About 25 pounds of quick-
lime are required to make a cubic foot of lime paste.
Experiments upon mixtures of lime and cement show that 10
to 15 per cent of lime (measured as unslaked lime) may be substi-
tuted for an equal weight of cement in a 1 to 3 cement mortar with-
out sensibly decreasing the strength of the mortar. In some instances
when not more than 10 per cent of lime is used the strength is
increased and the mortar made more dense. As the proportion
of lime increased the strength of the mortar is lessened. For
is

mortars leaner than 1 to 3 of Portland cement the use of a small

amount of lime is usually an advantage.
With some natural cements, lime may be used to replace cement
to the extent of 25 to 30 per cent of the weight of the cement with-
out appreciable loss of strength in the mortar. Cement so treated
becomes slower in action and is longer in gaining strength than when
used without lime. Mixtures of this kind with either Portland or
natural cement are frequently used in mortar for ordinary building
operations. Hydrated lime is sometimes added to cement for the
purpose of rendering the mortar less permeable where water-tight
work is needed, and is also sometimes added to Portland cement
concrete in small quantity to make the concrete flow more readily
in filling the forms.
Cement Mortar. The strength of cement mortar
36. Strength of
isdependent upon the quality and proportions of cement and sand;
the quantity of water used in gaging; the method of mixing and
thoroughness of working; the temperature and moisture conditions
under which it is kept during hardening; the age of the mortar.
The effect upon tensile strength of varying proportions of cement
and sand is shown in Fig. 2, which gives the relative strengths for
an average Portland cement, or cement paste, and mortars with
standard sand, for a period of one year after mixing. Individual
cements may vary quite widely from the curves shown. Some
gain strength more slowly at first and continue to gain for a longer
46 CEMENTING MATERIALS

period. Others have greater early strength and show more loss
of strength during the period of retrogression.

Nearly all Portland cements after gaining strength rapidly for

a time reach a maximum and then lose strength for a period. This
loss of strength is usually regained later. It seldom occurs in less

than three months or more than one year after the mortar is mixed.
Cement which gains strength very rapidly and has high early
strength is apt to suffer greater loss of strength later than cements

1000

I a 3 A- 5 <o 7 6 3 10 II 12

TIME-MONTHS
FIG. 2. Strength of Portland Cement Mortar.

of more moderate action, and less likely to regain fully the losses.
Mortars usually show less of the effects of retrogression than cement
paste, and frequently continue to gain strength for much longer
periods.
Fig. 3shows average values for good grades of natural cement.
These cements vary more widely than Portlands. They gain
strength much more slowly arid continue to gain for a longer period.
Character of Sand. Coarse, well-graded sand usually gives
higher strength -in cement mortar than standard Ottawa sand while
fine or poorly graded sand may fall below the strength shown by
standard sand. Sands showing less than 75 per cent of the strength
 CEMENT MORTAR 47

given by standard sand are poor materials and are sometimes rejected
by specifications for masonry materials.
Fineness of Cement. The fineness of the cement has an important
influence upon the strength of mortar. Table V shows the results

500

345675$
MONTHS
TIME -
to ii

FIG. 3. Strength of Natural Cement Mortars.

of a series of tests made upon Portland cement by Mr. Richard K.

Meade. 1
In making these tests a bag of cement was selected and
divided into five parts, and each of these ground to a different degree
of fineness.

TABLE V. STRENGTH OF THE SAME CEMENT GROUND TO

VARIOUS DEGREES OF FINENESS
Tensile strength in pound per square inch.

Age, Days.
48 CEMENTING MATERIALS

In the table it is shown that the strength of 1 to 4 mortar with

cement 90 per cent fine is stronger than' 1 to 3 mortar with cement
80 per cent fine.

The desirability of fine grinding depends upon the relative costs

of cement ground to different degrees of fineness. Fine grinding
increases the rapidity of setting very rapidly, and many Portland
cements if ground so that 95 per cent passes the No. 200 sieve become
so quick setting that they could not be used for ordinary work.
In order to secure greater fineness, the methods of manufacture
would need considerable modification.
upon Strength. The amount of water used
Effect of Consistency
in mixing mortar necessarily depends upon the requirements of the
use to be made of the mortar. The mortar used in concrete is
usually much softer than that employed in masonry construction,
or than the consistency used in testing.
For well-compacted mortar, strength decreases as the quantity
of water used in mixing increases. The extent of this effect varies
with the character of the sand, being less for coarse than for fine
sand. This difference is very considerable in short time tests, but
disappears to considerable extent as the age of the mortar increases.
When tested after seven and twenty-eight days, mortar of standard
consistency may have nearly double the strength of that mixed with
50 per cent more water.
Cement mortar hardens more rapidly and attains greater strength
if kept moist during setting and the first period of hardening than

if it be exposed at that time to dry air,

ART. 9. GYPSUM PLASTERS

37. Classification. Pure gypsum is a hydrous lime sulphate
(CaSO4-f2H20). It occurs in nature as a massive rock, or some-
times as gypsum sand Native gypsum usually contains
or earth.
small amounts of alumina, iron oxide, and calcium carbonate.
silica,
Alabaster is a massive rock of nearly pure white gypsum.
Native gypsum is ground and used as a dressing for certain soils.
It is also used quite extensively as an adulterant in the manufacture
of Portland cement. (See Section 12.)
Gypsum plasters are made by
calcining gypsum sufficiently to
drive off part or all of the water of combination. When this dehydra-
tion is accomplished at a temperature below 190 C., three-fourths
of the water driven off and the resultant product is called plaster
is

of paris (CaSO4 2 O).+iH

At a temperature above 190 C. all of
 GYPSUM PLASTERS 49

the water is driven off and the product is known as flooring plaster
(CaSO 4 ). These products are modified by adding certain substances
to the gypsum before calcining, or
by the use of impure gypsum.
The following classification of
gypsum plasters is given by
"
E. C. Eckel in his Cements, Limes and Plasters ":

CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTERS

(a) Produced by the incomplete dehydration of gypsum, the calcination

being carried on at a temperature not exceeding 190 C.
(1) Plaster of paris, produced by the calcination of a pure gypsum, no
foreign materials being added either during or after calcination.
(2) Cement plaster (often called patent or hard wall plaster) produced
by
the calcination of a
gypsum containing certain natural impurities,
or by the addition to a calcined pure gypsum of certain materials
which serve to retard the set or render more plastic the product.
(&) Produced by the complete dehydration of gypsum, the calcination being
carried on at ternperatures exceeding 190 C.
(3) Flooring plaster, produced by the calcination of a pure gypsum.
(4) Hard finish plaster, produced by the calcination at a red heat or over,
of gypsum to which certain substances (usually alum or borax) have
been added,

and cement plaster are usually burned at tem-

Plaster of paris
peratures from 140 to 180 C., the difference between them being
due to the substances added to the gypsum in making the cement
plaster. Flooring plaster and hard-finish plaster are burned at
400 to 500 C. for three or four hours. If the heat be too high or
too prolonged, the plaster may be injured, becoming very slow in
action, and is called dead-burnt plaster.
Keene's Cement is a well-known hard-finish plaster made by the
double calcination of gypsum, alum being added between the two
heatings.
Cement plaster, after being calcined, requires the addition of
some material as a retarder to decrease the rapidity of set. This
isusually a very small quantity (0.1 to 0.2 per cent) of organic
matter such as blood or glue. Hydrated lime or clay is usually
added to gypsum wall plasters to increase their plasticity and make
them work better. With plasters made from gypsum earth contain-
ing clay this is unnecessary.
38. Properties and Uses. Gypsum plasters when mixed with
water set and harden through the combination of the water with
the plaster to again form gypsum. The setting of plaster of paris
is rapid, requiring from about five to fifteen minutes. Cement
50 CEMENTING MATERIALS

plaster sets more slowly, requiring from one to three hours. Floor
plaster and hard-finish plaster are slow setting,
Very few data are available concerning the strength of gypsum
plasters, which usually gain strength rapidly for a few days, reach-
ing a maximum in three or four weeks, and then suffer retrogression
in strength for a time. A series of tests made by Professor Marston
of Iowa State College on hard wall plasters indicate a strength for
2
neat plaster of 300 to 500 lbs./in. one month after mixing. About
80 per cent as much for 1 to 1 mortar and 50 per cent as much for
1 to 2 mortar with sand. These strengths would not be reached
under the conditions of ordinary use. The strength is much less
when the mortar is kept damp during the period of hardening.

Plaster of paris sets too rapidly for use in construction, although

it is used to some extent combined with other materials, as in hard

finish, composed of plaster of paris, lime putty, and marble dust.

It is commonly employed for casting plaster, where quick set is
desired.
Cement and hard wall plasters are used for making various wall
plasters, being usually mixed with hair, asbestos, or wood fiber, and
clay or hydrated lime. They are received upon the work ready for
use and do not require the time or space for preparation needed for
lime plaster, but are not so plastic and smooth to work.
Hard-finish plasters are used in a number of ways in making
solid or hollow blocks and tiles for use in construction of partitions
and in finishing floors and ceilings. Mixed with sawdust, blocks
are formed which may be nailed into place. Blocks reinforced with
steel are now being made for use in supporting roofs. (See Art. 18.)
 CHAPTER III

STONE MASONRY
ART. 10. BUILDING STONE

39. Qualities for Building Stone. The choice of stone for use
in important structures always a matter of moment, and frequently
is

involves considerable difficulty, on account of the wide variation

in the characteristics of the stonescommonly used. Stones belong-
ing to the same classes frequently differ greatly in their physical
properties and much care needs to be exercised in securing materials
of proper strength and endurance.
The qualities which are of importance in the selection of stone
for structural uses are strength, durability, appearance, and cost.
The relative importance of these in any particular structure depends
upon the location of the structure and the purpose for which it is
intended. For ordinary masonry, the most important quality of
the stone is usually its durability. The element of strength is
commonly of minor consequence, except in portions of a structure
where the conditions are such as to bring severe stresses upon the
masonry. A pleasing appearance is always desirable, but any stone
possessing proper structural qualities may usually be so employed
as to produce a good effect, where the purpose of the structure is
not distinctly artistic. In architectural and monumental work,
the appearance of the stone may be of first importance, while the
strength of the stone, or its cost, is of less consequence. Stone for
such uses, when in exposed situations, must possess durability in
order to preserve the beauty of the structure and prevent disfigure-
ment or discoloration of its surfaces.
The cost of the stone is always a matter of importance, commonly
limiting the choice, and frequently being the determining factor in
selection of stone. The cost of stone depends mainly upon the
ease with which it may be quarried and worked, and the distance
and means of transportation to the place where it is to be used.
The equipment of a quarry for handling and working stone often
determines its availability for a particular use. The kind of finish
51
52 STONE MASONRY

to be given the surfaces, and the suitability of the material to the

proposed treatment are also important in their effects upon cost.
A good building stone should be dense and uniform in structure,
and should have no seams or crow-foots filled with material which
may disintegrate and form cracks upon exposure. The fracture
should be clean and sharp, and the surface free from earthy appear-
ance.
Hardness and toughness are important properties in a stone
which is to be subjected to wear or abrasion of any kind. Stones
lacking in toughness and easily abraded have sometimes been seri-
ously defaced by dust and sand particles carried by strong winds.
The hardness of the stone depends both upon the hardness of the
minerals of which it is composed and upon the firmness with which
they are bound together. Toughness depends upon the resistance
to separation of the mineral grains. Rocks of hard material may
be lacking in toughness and easily worked when weakly cemented.
40. Classification of Building Stones. All rocks are aggregations
of various mineral constituents, more or less firmly held together.
Geologically, as to their mode of occurrence, they are divided into
three groups, as follows:
Igneous Rocks. Those which have been forced up in a molten
(1)
condition from unknown depths and subsequently cooled. When
the molten rock has cooled and solidified below the surface of the
ground it is known
as plutonic, when above ground as volcanic.
(2) Sedimentary or Stratified Rocks. Rocks formed by being
deposited as sediment in layers, and consequently showing bedding
lines and stratifications. Limestones and sandstones belong in this
class.

(3) Metamorphic Rocks, formed by subjecting igneous or strati-

fied rocks to greatheat or pressure or to both.
Building stones may also be classified according to their chemical
and physical properties into three groups:
Crystalline, siliceous rocks, including granites, gneisses, traps, etc.
Calcareous rocks, including limestones and marbles.
Fragmental rocks, including sandstones and slates.
Granite isa crystalline siliceous rock of igneous origin. It con-
sists essentially of quartz, with some feldspar and usually mica.
It is readily quarried into blocks of regular shape, but is very hard
and tough and is expensive to cut for ornamental work. It is the
strongest and most durable of our building stones in common use,
and is very, generally employed in important work where these
qualities are of special importance. Heavy foundations, base courses,
 BUILDING STONE 53

water tables, and columns in important buildings are very commonly

of granite.
The color of granite is usually gray, but pink, red, and black
granites are found. It is largely used in monumental work and in
architecture for exterior work where the most beautiful and durable
results are desired. The use of machinery for working the stone
has made this use economically feasible.

Syenite is a rock similar to granite, but composed mainly of feld-

spar instead of quartz. It has much the same qualities as
granite
and is usually classed as granite when used.
Diorite and Gabbro are rock of the same general character as
granite but differing in mineral composition. They are usually
classed commercially as granites.
Gneissis a metamorphic rock of the same
composition as granite.
It ismetamorphosed granite or syenite, and usually classed as granite,
being often called stratified or bastard granite. Gneiss differs from
granite in having a somewhat laminated structure which causes it
to split in parallel layers. It is often used for flagging and paving
blocks on this account.
Granites are found quite widely distributed in the mountain
regions of the United States. The main supply comes from the New
England States, where large quarries are in operation and have
gained wide reputation. Commercial granites of good quality are
found in the South Atlantic States, in Wisconsin and Missouri,
while Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, California, and Washington
are plentifully supplied with granite which is comparatively unde-
veloped.
Limestones are sedimentary calcareous rocks, consisting mainly
of the mineral calcite, which is composed of calcium carbonate

(CaCOs). They also usually contain small amounts of iron oxide,

silica, and clay. Magnesia is also commonly present in the pure
limestones in very small amounts, and varying through the mag-
nesian limestones, in which 10 per cent or more of magnesia is pres-
ent to dolomite, which consists mainly of the mineral dolomite
(CaMg)C03 .

Limestone varies from stone soft enough to cut with a saw to

hard material which works with difficulty. Some of the soft stones
harden on exposure and are durable in use, the Topeka stone used
in Kansas being of this character. Many of the fine-grained, light-
colored limestones form excellent building material; they are hard
and tough and show good durability in use, although inferior in this
respect to the best sandstone and granite. Some of them are used
54 STONE MASONRY

in ornamental work and take good polish. Stone containing pyrite

is apt to show poor weathering qualities, while spots of flint found
in many of these stones are objectionable on account of weathering

unevenly and sometimes causing the stone to split under frost action.
The following analysis of typical limestones are given by Ries
l

to show the range of chemical composition:

 BUILDING STONE 55

isvery hard and difficult to work, while some stones containing less
cement work easily and remain gritty under wear.
Sandstone in which the cement is iron oxide is usually of a red
or brown color. These stones usually work easily, and are often
durable in use as building stones. When the cementing material
is carbonate of lime, the stone usually possesses fair strength, but

is not often so durable as that with silica or iron oxide. These stones
are usually light colored, soft and easy to work. Clay as a cement
in sandstone is usually less desirable than the others; the stone
containing it is not so strong; it absorbs water and may be liable
to injury from frost. When present in small amount and uniformly
distributed through the stone, clay may make the stone easier to
work without otherwise injuring it.
"
Sandstones, as a rule, show good durability. Some of the
softer ones may disintegrate under frost action. Those with clay
seams are liable to split with continued freezing. Mica scales, if
abundant along the bedding planes, are also likely to cause trouble,
and this is aggravated if the stone is set on edge instead of on bed. A
striking example of this is the Connecticut brown stone so extensively
used in former years for fronts in many of the Eastern cities. In
order to get a smooth surface it was rubbed parallel with the bedding,
and the stone set in the building on edge. The result is that hundreds
of buildings put up more than fifteen or twenty years ago are scaling
1
badly, and in many cases the entire front has been redressed."
Sandstones are of sedimentary origin and are more or less in
layers. They should always be laid on their natural beds, and are apt
to scale off if placed on edge. They vary in texture from grains of
powdery fineness to those in which the grains are of course sand.
The fine-grained stones are usually the strongest and most durable.
Sandstone is quite widely distributed over the United States,

and is one of the most desirable and most extensively used building
stones. quarries are in use throughout the country for local
Many
purposes, while a few quarries supply stone for wider distribution.
The Berea stone of Ohio is frequently shipped to considerable dis-
tances. The Brownstone of Connecticut, Medina sandstone of
western New York, Kettle River sandstone of Minnesota are examples
of well-known stones in common use.
Slate is a metamorphic rock produced from clay or shale. It
is characterized by a tendency to split into thin sheets with smooth
surfaces. The direction of this cleavage is not parallel to the bedding
and has probably been caused by heavy lateral pressure. These
Building Stones and Clay Products, p. 165.
1
Ries,
56 STONE MASONRY

sheets of slate are strong under transverse loading and quite imper-
vious to water. They therefore make good roof covering, or may
be used as flags for spanning openings. They are also commonly
used for blackboards, school slates, etc. The color of slate is com-
monly dark blue, gray, or black, although green and red slates are
also common.
Good slate should be dense and tough and not corrodible by
atmospheric gases. When loaded transversely, it should bend
appreciably before breaking, and should show a modulus of rupture
2
from 7000 to 10000 lbs./in.
Most of the slate now comes from the New England and
hi use
Middle Atlantic States, notably from Vermont and eastern Pennsyl-
vania. Important quarries have also been opened in Arkansas
and California.
41. Strength of Building Stone. The loads brought upon
masonry structures are rarely sufficient to tax the strength of the
stone in compression. The' strength of masonry is not directly
dependent upon that of the stone used in its construction. The
strength of the mortar, thickness of joints, and the care and accuracy
used in bedding the stones have important effects upon the strength
of the masonry. It is desirable that building stone should be strong
and capable of heavy loads, and
resisting tests of the strength
of the stone may show whether the stone is of good quality and fit

for use.
When stone to be used to span openings and carry transverse
is

loads, its strength is important and care should be taken in its selec-
tion. The ability of stone to resist cross-bending stresses is mainly
dependent upon its tensile strength. Tests of transverse strength
may serve to detect brittleness and lack of toughness or uniformity
in the texture of the stone.
Tests for Compressive Strength. The compressive strength of
stone determined by measuring the loads necessary to crush small
is

blocks cut from the stone. The results of such tests vary with the
sizes and shapes of the blocks tested and the methods of placing
them in the testing machine. It is necessary in comparing the
strengths of different stones to use a standard form and size of speci-
men and standard method of testing. It is usual to use small cubes,
2 inches on the edge. The size does not seem to very greatly affect
the resistance per unit area, but it is desirable to use blocks of the
same size in making comparative tests.
The shape of the block is highly important in its effect upon
the results of such tests. When subjected to compression, materials
 BUILDING STONE 57

of this kind break by shearing on planes making angles of about

30 with the direction of the compressing force. The ratio of the
height of the specimen to its lateral dimensions is therefore important.
The strength of the flat slab is much greater than that of a cube,
while a prism whose height is greater than its breadth will show
lessstrength on the test.
The
test of small specimens gives no indication of the actual

strength of the stone in large masses, and tests of this kind can be
of value only as indicating the quality of the material, through

comparison with the results of similar tests applied to other

stones.
The method may be quite important
of preparing the specimen
in the results of a test. When
the dressing is done with hand tools,
the shocks frequently have the effect of weakening the internal
structure of the stone. This effect with small specimens may amount
to a decrease of 30 or 40 per cent as compared with the strength
of sawed blocks. The use of sawed test pieces is desirable in such
work.
The manner specimen in the testing machine is
of placing the
also important. It is essential that
the test piece be accurately
centered in the machine, and that it be evenly in contact with the
pressing surfaces, in order to distribute uniformly the compressing
force over the area of the block. If the surfaces of the test piece

be carefully ground to parallel planes, and the piece carefully centered

in the machine in exact contact with the metal surfaces, the best
results will be obtained. This method, however, involves con-
siderable labor in preparation of the specimen, and is expensive.
The more common method is to set the specimen in a thin bedding
of plaster of paris between the plates of the machine and leave it
under light pressure for a few minutes, to allow the plaster of paris
to set, before applying the load. This method, if carefully handled,
gives uniform results, although the strength shown is somewhat
less than that obtained by using ground surfaces.
A block of stone may have much less strength in one direction
than in another. Most rocks have planes of cleavage in one direc-
tion in which they split more easily than in other directions. These
planes are usually parallel to the natural bed of the rock and are
known as the rift of the rock. Care should be taken to place the
test specimen on its natural bed, or in such position that the com-

pression is applied in a direction normal to the rift.

Compressive Strength. The results of tests upon building stones
show a wide variation in compressive strengths of different samples
58 STONE MASONRY

of the same classification, as well as between different classes of

stone.
Hard limestones usually show crushing strengths of 8000 to
2
12,000 lbs./in. , although softer stones of good quality may run
2
from 3000 to 6000 lb./in.
Sandstones used in building vary in compressive strength from
about 4000 to 15,000 lb./in.2 The better grades of stone usually
reach 9000 to 12,000 lb./in.2
Granites of good quality should show a crushing strength of
2
10,000 to 20,000 lb./in.
Transverse Strength. Tests of transverse strength are usually
made on a small bar of stone, 1 inch square in section, and the method
of preparing the specimen is important in its effect upon the results
of the test. Comparatively little data exist concerning the strengths
of stone under transverse loadings. The following table gives
approximate values which have been obtained for ordinary stone
used in building.

MODULUS OF RUPTURE, LB./iN.

2

Granite from 1400 to 2500

Limestone from 500 to 3000
Sandstone from 600 to 2000

In selecting stone for use as lintels, or where it is to carry trans-

verse loads, it is desirable that the stone be tested in blocks of size

comparable to those in which it is to be used. The results of tests

upon small specimens is not of much value for this purpose.

The table on p. 59, by Herbert F. Moore, is taken from Merri-
man's " American Civil Engineer's Pocket Book."
42. Durability of Building Stone. That stone should be durable
under the conditions of use is evidently one of the most important
points to be considered in the selection of material for use in con-
struction. The situation in which the stone is to be placed and the
climatic or other conditions which may affect the durability should
therefore be carefully considered. Local conditions have frequently
been overlooked in selecting stone, with disastrous results. The
White House at Washington is of sandstone which requires frequent
painting. The obelisk, in perfect condition after long exposure in
Egypt, began to disintegrate almost immediately when set up in
New York City. The Parliament House, built of stone selected
with the greatest care, is not able to resist the disintegrating in-
fluences of the London atmosphere.
 BUILDING STONE 59

DATA FOR BUILDING STONES OF GOOD QUALITY

VALUES BASED MAINLY ON TEST DATA FROM THE WATERTOWN ARSENAL

Kind of Stone.
60 STONE MASONRY

where expansions are very unequal, and may cause the scaling of
the surface layers. Surfaces exposed to the direct rays of the sun
are most affected from this cause. In a number of instances, scal-
ing of the surfaces on the south side of buildings has been observed,
when the less exposed sides were free from it.
Frost Action. When stone saturated with water is frozen, the
expansion of the liquid in freezing causes a heavy internal pressure,
which may be greater than the tenacity of the stone. In the climate
of the Northern United States this is commonly one of the most
active causes of disintegration of building stones, and the ability
to resist frost action is of chief importance. The results of the action
of frost on a stone depend upon the porosity of the stone and upon
the texture and toughness of the material.
Granite usually absorbs not more than 1 per cent of water, and
is not often appreciably affected by frost. Sandstones and lime-
stones may absorb from about 2 to 12 or even 15 per cent. Ordi-
narily,a good stone that does not absorb more than 4 or 5 per cent
of water may be expected to stand frost well. Some more porous
stones have alsoshown well in use. A porous stone of coarse texture
ismore apt to resist frost action than one of fine texture. Moisture
escapes more readily and the stone is less likely to be saturated
when frozen.
Fire Resistance. Any building stone may be injured if subjected
to high heat as in the case of serious fires. This injury is intensified
by contact of water when so heated. Unequal expansions and sud-
den surface contractions are likely to cause internal stresses beyond
the strength of the stone.
Granites are apt to split and spall badly on the surface and
usually show poor fire-resisting qualities. Limestones usually resist
fire better than granite until the heat becomes sufficient to drive

off the carbonic acid. At high heats they are destroyed. When
suddenly cooled by water, limestone is likely to spall badly. Sand-
stones usually withstand fires better than other building stones,
sometimes coming through severe fires without serious injury. They
are, however, likely to spall and crack under the combined action
of a hot fire and water.
Chemical Agencies. Rock to be durable in use as building stone
must be capable of resisting changes due to the presence of water
and gases in the atmosphere.
Certain ingredients in the rock may be soluble in water carrying
acids in solution; limestones commonly weather in this way, the
carbonate of lime being somewhat soluble in water containing car-
 BUILDING STONE 61

bonic or sulphurous acid, hence these stones are usually liable to

surface deterioration in cities. The extent of such deterioration
is greater for the more absorbent stones.

Building stone may sometimes be discolored by the oxidation

of pyrite or other iron compounds in its surface. This may or may
not be an injury to the appearance of the structure. Pyrite is apt
to cause rusty blotches which are objectionable, although when,
evenly and finely distributed through sandstone the result is some-
times enhances its appearance. Sandstones in which iron oxide is
the cementing medium are often changed in -color by oxidation.
Siliceous sandstones are not affected in this manner.

Seasoning of Stone. All stone is improved by being allowed

to stand and dry out before being used in construction, the evapo-
ration of the quarry water being accompanied by hardening of the
stone, and the formation of a crust upon the In most cases
surface.
this indurating effect is
comparatively small, but some soft lime-
stones and sandstones, which are easily cut and weak when first
quarried, soon acquire considerable hardness and strength, the sup-
position being that the quarry water contains a small amount of
cementing material which is deposited in the pores of the stone upon
the evaporation of the water. For this reason the cutting of the
stone should be done before the seasoning has taken place, in order
that the surface skin may not be broken. This is particularly the
case where elaborate dressing or carving is to be done.
Tests for Durability. Observations of the stone where it has
been used in construction or where it has been long exposed in the
quarry is the best means of determining the probable durability of
a stone. Stone frequently varies considerably in character in dif-
ferent parts of the same quarry, and this must be taken into account
in the selection.
There are no standard tests for durability. A number of tests
have been proposed and sometimes applied for comparisons of stones,
but there is no standard to which they may be referred.
Absorption Tests. Tests to determine the amount of water
absorbed by stone are sometimes made. A stone absorbing little
water is less likely to be injured by frost or atmospheric gases than
one absorbing water freely; in making this test, it is usual to dry
the stone at 100 C. until it ceases to lose weight, then soak the stone
for twenty-four hours in water and weigh again.
Weight of water absorbed X 100
=
The percentage of absorption
Weight of dry stone
The method recommended for brick (see Section 59) may also
62 STONE MASONRY

be employed for stone, although there is no standard for comparison

of the results.
Tests of the effect upon a stone sample of repeatedly
Frost Tests.
freezing and thawing it, while saturated, have sometimes been
made. About twenty repetitions are usual, and the loss of weight
or the loss in compressive strength of samples is measured. This
test requires considerable time and a means of producing low tem-
peratures. The differences obtained are usually very small, and
not easy to evaluate.
Another test intended to simulate the effects of freezing is known
as the Brard test, which consists in boiling the specimen in a con-
centrated solution of sulphate of soda, then exposing it to the air,
and observing the effects as the salt crystallizes in the pores of the
stone. This is much more severe than the ordinary freezing test,
and may be partly due to chemical action.
Add Test. Samples of the stone are sometimes immersed in
weak solutions of hydrochloric and sulphuric acid, to determine the
presence of soluble material, by noting the loss of weight after several
days. Exposure to an atmosphere of carbonic acid, or oxygen, is
sometimes employed and changes of color observed. None of these
testshas been definitely formulated and standardized.

BOOKS ON BUILDING STONE

Complete descriptions of the various building stones of the United States,
with their properties and uses may be found in the following books:
Merrill's "Stones for Building and Decoration."
Ries' "Building Stones and Clay Products."

ART. 11. STONE CUTTING

43. Tools for Stone Cutting. The kinds of finish used in dressing
stone are usually defined by mentioning the tool with which the
dressing is done. The following definitions were recommended by
a committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1877,
and have since been commonly employed.

FIG. 4. Double-face Hammer.

"
The Double-face Hammer (Fig. 4) is a heavy tool weighing
from 20 to 30 pounds, used for roughly shaping stones as they come
 STONE CUTTING 63

from the quarry, and knocking off projections. This is used only
for the roughest work.
"
The Face Hammer (Fig. 5) has one blunt and one cutting end,
and is used for the same purpose as the double-face hammer where
less weight is required. The cutting end is used for roughly squaring
stones, preparatory to the use of finer tools.

FIG. 5. Face Hammer.

" and one pyramidal end, and

The cavil (Fig. 6) has one blunt

weighs from 15 to 20 pounds. It is used in quarries for roughly

shaping stones for transportation.

FIG. 6. Cavil.

"
The Pick(Fig. 7) somewhat resembles the pick used in digging,
and used for rough dressing, mostly on sandstone and limestone.
is

Its length varies from 15 to 24 inches, the thickness at the eye being
about two inches.

FIG. 7. Pick.

" The Axe or Pean Hammer (Fig. 8) has two opposite cutting

edges. It is used for making drafts around the arris, or edge of

64 STONE MASONRY

stones, and in reducing faces, and sometimes joints to a level. Its

length is about 10 inches, and the cutting edges about 4 inches.

It is used after the point and before the patent hammer.

FIG. 8. Axe or Pean Hammer.

"
Tooth Axe (Fig. 9) is like the axe, except that its cutting edges
are divided into teeth, the number of which varies with the kind
of work required. This tool is not used on granite and gneiss cut-
ting.

FIG. 9. Tooth Axe.

"
The Bush Hammer (Fig. 10) is a square prism of steel whose
ends are cut into a number of pyramidal points. The length of the
hammer is from 4 to 8 inches, and the cutting face from 2 to 4 inches
square. The points vary in number with the size of the work to
be done.

FIG. 10. Bush Hammer.

"
The Patent Hammer (Fig. 11) is a double-headed tool so formed
as to hold at each end a set of wide thin chisels. The tool is in two

FIG. 11 Patent Hammer.

 STONE CUTTING 65

parts which are held together by the bolts which hold the chisels.
Lateral motion is prevented by four guards on one of the pieces.
The tool without teeth is 5JX2JX1J inches. The teeth are 2f
inches wide. Their thickness varies from TV to J inch. This tool
is used for giving a finish to the surface of stones.
"
The Crandall (Fig. 12) is a malleable iron bar about 2 feet long,
slightly flattened at one end. In this end is a slot 3 inches long and
f inch wide. Through this slot are passed ten double-headed points
of J-inch squared steel, 9 inches which are held in place by a key.
long,

FIG. 12. Crandall.

"The Hand Hammer, weighing from 2 to 5 pounds, is used in drill-

ing holes, and in pointing and chiseling the harder rocks.

"
The Mallet is used where the softer limestones and sandstones
are to be cut.
"
The Pitching Chisel (Fig. 13a) is usually of IJ-inch octagonal
steel, spread on the cutting edge to a rectangle of 1 by 2J inches.
It is used to make a well-defined edge to the face of the stone, a line

being marked on the joint surface to which the chisel is applied, and
the portion of the stone outside of the line broken off by a blow with
the hand hammer on the head of the chisel.

V V
bed
FIG. 13.
V L

Chisels and
CJ V

Points.

" made round or octagonal rods of

The Point (Fig. 136) is of steel

from | to 1 inch in diameter. It is made about 12 inches long, with

66 STONE MASONRY

one end brought to a point. It is used until its length is reduced

to about 5 inches. It is employed for dressing off the irregular sur-
faces of stones, either for a permanent finish or preparatory to the
use of the axe. According to the hardness of the stone, either the
hand hammer or the mallet is used with it.
"
The Chisel (Fig. 13c) of round steel J to f inch in diameter and
about 10 inches long, with one end brought to a cutting edge from
J to 2 inches wide, is used for cutting drafts or margins on the faces
of stones.
"
The Tooth Chisel (Fig. 13d) is the same as the chisel except
that the cutting edge is divided into teeth. It is used only on mar-
bles and sandstones.
"The Splitting Chisel (Fig. 13c) is used chiefly on the softer
stratifiedstones, and sometimes on fine architec-
tural carvings in granite.
"
The Plug, a truncated wedge of steel, and
the Feathers, of half-rounded malleable iron (Fig.
used in splitting unstratified stone. A row
14), are
of holesis made with the drill (Fig. 15) on the line

on which fracture is to be made; in each of these

FIG. 15. Drills.

holes two feathers are inserted and the plugs are driven in between
them. The plugs are then gradually driven home by light blows of
the hand hammer on each, in succession until the stone splits."
44. Methods of Finishing the Surfaces. "All stones used in

building are divided into three classes, according to the finish of the
surface, viz. :

"
1. Rough stones that are used as they come from the quarry.
"
2. Stones roughly squared and dressed.
"
3. Stones accurately squared and finely dressed.
" In
practice the line of separation between them is not very
distinctly marked, but one class merges into the next.
"
Unsquared Stones. This class covers all stones which are used
as they come from the quarry, without other preparation than the
removal of very acute angles and excessive projections from the
figure. The term backing, which is often applied to this class of
 STONE CUTTING 67

stone, is inappropriate, as it properly designates material used in a

certain relative position in the wall, whereas stones of this kind

may be used in any position.

"
Squared Stones. This class covers all stones that are roughly
squared and roughly dressed on beds and joints. The dressing is
usually done with the face hammer or axe, or, in soft stones, with the
tooth hammer. In gneiss, it may sometimes be
necessary to use
the point. The distinction between this class and the third lies in
the degree of closeness of joints. Where the dressing on the
joints
is such that the distance between the general
planes of the surfaces
of adjoining stones is J inch or more the stones
properly belong to
this class.
"
Three subdivisions of this class may be made, depending on
the character of the face of the stones.
"(a) Quarry-faced stones are those whose faces are left untouched
as they come from the quarry.
"(b) Pitch-faced stones are those on which the arris is clearly
defined by a line beyond which the rock is cut
away by the pitching
chisel, so as to give edges that are approximately true (Fig. 16).

FIG. 16. Pitch-faced Squared Stone. FIG. 17. Drafted Stone.

"
Drafted Stones are those on which the face is surrounded by a
chisel draft, the space within the draft being left rough (Fig. 17).
Ordinarily, however, this is done only on stones in which the cutting
of the joints is such as to exclude them from this class.
"
In ordering stones of this class, the specifications should always
state the width of the bed and end joints which are expected, and
also how may project beyond the plane
far the surface of the face
of the edge. In practice, the proportion varies from 1 to 6 inches.
It should also be specified whether or not the faces are to be drafted.
"
Cut Stones. This class covers all squared stones with smoothly
dressed beds and joints. As a rule, all the edges of cut stones are
drafted, and between the drafts the stone is smoothly dressed. The
face, however, is often left rough where the construction is massive.
"
In architecture, there are a great many ways in which the faces
68 STONE MASONRY

of cut stone may be dressed, but the following are those which will

usually be met with in engineering work.

"
Rough-pointed. When it is necessary to remove an inch or
more from the face of a stone, it is done by the pick or heavy point
until the projections vary from J inch to 1 inch. The stone is then
said to be rough-pointed. (Fig. 18.)

FIG. 18. Rough-pointed. FIG. 19. Fine-pointed.

" If a smoother finish is desired, rough-pointing

Fine-pointed.
is followed by fine-pointing, which is done with a fine point. Fine-
pointing is used only where the finish made by it is to be final, and
never as a preparation for a final finish by another tool.
"
Crandalled. This is only a speedy method of pointing, the
effect being the same as fine-pointing, except that the dots on the
stone are more regular. The variations of level are about J inch,
and the rows are made parallel. When other rows at right angles
to the first are introduced, the stone is said to be cross-crandalled.

FIG. 20. Crandalled. PIG. 21. Axed or Pean-Hammered.

" Axed or
Pean-Hammered and Patent- Hammered. These two
vary only in the degree of smoothness of the surface which is pro-
duced. The number of blades in a patent hammer varies from six
to twelve to the inch; and in precise specifications, the number of
cuts to the inch must be stated, such as 6-cut, 8-cut, 10-cut, 12-cut.
The effect of axing to cover the surface with chisel marks, which
is

are made parallel as far as practicable. Axing is a fine finish.

(Fig. 21.)
"
Tooth-axed. The tooth-axe is practically a number of points,

and leaves the surface of the stone in the same condition as fine-
pointing. It is usually, however, only a preparation for bush-
hammering, and the work is done without regard to effect, as long

as the surface of the stone is sufficiently leveled.

 STONE CUTTING 69
"
Bush-hammered The roughness of the stone is pounded off
by the bush hammer, and the stone is then said to be bushed.
(Fig.
22.) This kind of finish is dangerous on sandstone, as experience
has shown that sandstone thus treated is very apt to scale. In
dressing limestone which is to have a bush-hammered finish, the
usual sequence of operations is: (1) rough-pointing, tooth-
(2)
axing, (3) Bush-hammering.

FIG. 22. Bush-Hammered. FIG. 23. Diamond Panel.

"
Rubbed. In dressing sandstone and marble, it is very common
to give the stone a plane surface at once by the use of the stone saw.
Any left by the saw are removed by
roughnesses rubbing with grit
or sandstone. Such stones therefore have no margins, They are
frequently used in architecture for string courses, lintels, door-jams,
etc., and they are also well adapted for use in facing the walls of
lock-chambers and in other locations where a stone surface is liable
to be rubbed by vessels or other moving bodies.
"Diamond Panels. Sometimes the space between the margins
is sunk immediately adjoining them, and then rises gradually until
the four planes form an apex at the middle of the panel. In general,
such panels are called diamond panels, and the one just described
(Fig. 23) is called a sunk diamond panel. When the surface of the
stone rises gradually from the inner lines of the margins to the middle
of the panel, it is called a raised diamond panel. Both kinds of finish
are common on bridge-quoins and similar work. -The details of
this method should be given in the specifications."
The following classification of the surface finish for stone used
in masonry is given by the American Railway Engineering Associ-
1
ation:

Dressing. The finish given to the surface of stones or concrete.

Smooth. Having surface the variations of which do not exceed YQ inch from
from the pitch line.
Fine-Pointed. Having irregular surface, the variations of which do not
exceed \ inch from the pitch line.

Rough Pointed. Having irregular surface, the variations of which do not

exceed J inch from the pitch line.

Manual, American Railway Engineering Association, 1915.

1
70 STONE MASONRY

Scribbled. Having irregular surface, the variations of which do not exceed

f inch from the pitch line.

Rock-Faced. Presenting irregular -projecting face, without indications of

tool mark.

45. Cutting by Machinery. In large yards and large building

operations much of the shaping and dressing of stone is done by
machinery. Portable machines using pneumatic tools are frequently
employed, such as pneumatic hammers, drills, and chisels, which
dress the stone in much the same manner as hand tools. The
machines commonly employed also include saws adapted to all
classes of stone cutters for rough surfacing, planers for more accu-
rate surfacing, and rubbing machines for grinding and polishing.
The details of these machines and the character of the tools used
with them vary with the nature of the stone to be worked.
In dimension stone and trimming work, drawings and dimen-
sions for shaping the stones are provided, and the stones are usually
cut at the yard and shipped to the point of use ready to place.

ART. 12. WALLS OF STONE MASONRY

46. Classification of Masonry. Stone work is commonly divided
into two general classes; ashlar and rubble, depending upon the
degree of care exercised in cutting the stone and the closeness of the
joints.
Ashlar masonry is that in which the joints are not more than
\ inch thick. The term ashlar is also sometimes extended to include
masonry of squared stones in which the joints are not so accurately
dressed, but this is not usual.
Ashlar masonry may be divided according to the arrangement
of the stones into :

Coursed ashlar, sometimes called Range masonry (Fig. 24),

arranged in courses of uniform thickness.

J L

B
FIG. 24. Coursed Ashlar. FIG. 25. Broken Ashlar.

Broken ashlar, or Random ashlar, in which the stones are not

arranged in courses (Fig. 25).
 WALLS OF STONE MASONRY 71

Broken-coursed or Random-coursed ashlar, in which broken ashlar

work is arranged in more or less continuous courses, or
masonry
laid in parallel but not continous courses.
In the best cut-stone work, as used by architects for public
buildings in the cities, the joints may not be more than J inch thick,
while in first-class masonry in important engineering construction
joints from J to J inch are usually allowed. When the thickness
of courses and length of stones in ashlar masonry are specified, the
work is known as dimension stone masonry.

The exposed surfaces of ashlar masonry may be finished by any

of the methods in the preceding section, and the masonry is fre-

quently classified as pitch-faced ashlar, drafted-stone ashlar, or cut

stone masonry, which includes all of the more accurate methods of
dressing; pointing, bush-hammering, axing, etc. Pitch-faced 'and
drafted-stone work is often called rock-faced ashlar.
Rubble masonry is that which is not dressed or laid with sufficient
accuracy to be classed as ashlar, and may include stones roughly
squared or those of irregular shapes.
Rubble masonry is usually uncoursed, but sometimes is leveled
off into courses at specified heights, and is then known as coursed
rubble. Fig. 26 shows the face of a wall of ordinary uncoursed rubble.

FIG. 26. Uncoursed Rubble. FIG. 27. Random Rubble.

Fig. 27 shows a type of rubble work sometimes used in building con-

struction, in which hammer-dressed joints are more accurately fitted
on the face of the wall. Joints i to J inch may be used in such work.
" "
This is sometimes called Russian Bond and is usually rock faced
work.
Dry Masonry. Masonryrough stone without the use of
of
mortar is sometimes employed and is known as dry masonry. Such
walls are frequently used for railway culverts and similar purposes.
When roughly placed about the bases of piers or abutments,
stone is

or on the banks of streams to prevent erosion, it is commonly called

riprap.
72 STONE MASONRY

Squared-Stone Masonry is a term frequently used to indicate a

class ofmasonry between ashlar and rubble. When this classi-

fication is used, it commonly includes masonry of squared stones,
with joints from \ to 1 inch thick, and the term rubble is limited
to the use of irregular and unsquared material.
Trimmings. In architectural work, an additional classification
is sometimes employed to designate stone used for special purposes,

such as moldings, sills, caps, etc. These usually require cutting to

specified dimensions and close joints.
47. Parts of a Masonry Wall. The exposed surface of a masonry
wall is called its face, while the interior surface is known as the
back of the wall.
Batter is the slope of the surface of a wall, stated as a ratio of
horizontal to vertical dimension. The walls of buildings usually
have no batter. Retaining walls, bridge piers, and other heavy
structures for carrying loads, arecommonly given a batter on the
face. This gives an appearance of strength and stability to the wall.
Coping is a course of stone on top of the wall to protect it and
give a finished appearance. The coping usually projects a few
inches over the surface of the wall.
Courses.A horizontal layer of stones in the wall is called a
course, the arrangement of courses in a wall being determined by
the character of the material and the appearance desired. When
the stone may be readily obtained in blocks of uniform thickness
an arrangement in courses, with the thickest courses at the bottom,
gives an appearance of stability, and is common practice in engineer-
ing structures. In architectural work, the arrangement of courses
may be made to accord with other features of the design of the struc-
ture.

Facing and Backing. The stones which form the face of the
wall are called facing, while those forming the back of the wall are
called backing. In the construction of walls, the facing and backing
are commonly of different classes of masonry. An ashlar facing
isfrequently joined to a rubble or concrete backing.
In heavy walls the masonry of the interior of the walls, between
the facing and backing, is known as filling, and this may sometimes
be different from either the facing or backing. In constructing
walls, the facing and backing should always be well bonded, so that
the whole acts together in supporting loads or resisting pressures.
Headers and Stretchers. A stone whose greatest dimension lies
perpendicular to the face of the wall is called a header; one whose
greatest dimension is parallel to the face of the wall is a stretcher.
 WALLS OF STONE MASONRY 73

The bond of the masonry in the wall is secured by proper arrange-

ment of headers and stretchers. The vertical joints in adjoining
courses should not be too nearly in the same plane. A stone in any
course should break joints with the stones in the course below by
a distance at least equal to the depth of the course. The strongest
bond is obtained by using an equal number of headers and stretchers
in the face of the wall, a header being placed over the middle of
each stretcher as shown in Fig. 24.
In the use of coursed ashlar facing, the rubble filling and back-
ing isusually also coursed at the same height as the ashlar. Some-
times in massive work the filling may be constructed of irregular
uncoursed rubble. Usually, however, concrete would be used in
such work instead of rubble.
In the walls of buildings with ashlar facings, the rubble backing
is laid in courses with the ashlar and occasional headers are run

through the wall as shown in Fig. 28. Brick backing is commonly

used for such work and is usually preferable to rubble. (Fig, 29.)

H-i

FIG. 28. FIG. 29.

In building work, thin ashlar, 2 to 4 inches thick, is sometimes

employed as a veneer on the exterior of a wall of rubble or brick;
this is frequently done in marble buildings. The veener is tied to
the backing by iron clamps, and occasional belt courses of wider
stones, extending 6 or 8 inches, into the filling give support to the
ashlar.
Dowels and Cramps. For the purpose of strengthening the bond
where great resistance is required, dowels or cramps are often em-
ployed. A dowel is a straight bar of iron which enters a hole in the
upper side of one stone and also a hole in the lower side of the stone
above. A cramp is a bar of iron with ends bent at right angles to
the length of the bar, the ends entering holes in the tops of adjacent
stones.
48. Setting Stonework. The layers of mortar between stones
74 STONE MASONRY

are called joints. The horizontal joints are commonly called beds
or bed joints.
The kind mortar used in stonework depends upon the character
of
of the work. In engineering structures,
1 to 2 or 1 to 3, Portland

cement mortar is usually employed. Cement mortar stains many

stones and care must be used in architectural work to prevent injury
to appearance of the stone surface from this cause. This may
often be effected by keeping the bed and joint mortar back from
the face and using non-staining mortar for pointing. The bed
joint of ashlar stones should be carefully dressed to a plane surface
in order that the stone may bear evenly upon the bed. These joints
are sometimes cut slightly concave to make them easier to set with
close joints at the surface, which brings the loads upon the edges
of the stone with danger of chipping the edges.
The vertical joints in ashlar facing shouldbe carefully dressed
to a depth of several inches from the face of the wall, but do not
need to be accurately dressed the full depth of the stone. The
backs of the ashlar stones may be laid as rubble without cutting.
The arrangement of headers and stretchers in the rubble backing
should be the same as in the ashlar facing to secure good bond through-
out the wall.
Placing Stone. All stones should be set in a full bed of mortar.
The mortar bed should be prepared and the stone lowered upon it
without disturbing stones already set. The stone must not be slid
upon the bed so as to scrape away the mortar. Stones too large
to be handled by one man are placed with a derrick, and are settled
in place with light blows from a hammer. No cutting or trimming
of stone after placing is allowable; the stone must be fitted to its

place before spreading the mortar.

In the construction of rubble masonry, less care may be taken
in the exact placing of the stones, but it is highly important that
all the joints be completely filled. The strength of the masonry
depends upon the stone having full bearing on the mortar at all
points. The interstices between large stones in rough rubble are
filled by driving stone chips into the mortar.
Stratified stones shouldalways be set upon their natural beds,
and not on edge.
set
Dimensions of Stones. A rule frequently used is that the width
of a stone shall not be less than its height. The length of the stone,
to avoid danger from cross-breaking, in well-laid masonry, may be
about three times the thickness for the weaker stones, and about
five times the thickness for the stronger ones.
 WALLS OF STONE MASONRY 75

Pointing. In laying masonry it is not feasible to make well-

filled, smooth joints at the face of the wall. It is usual, therefore,
after the masonry has been laid, to clear out the joint to a depth of
about an inch and with special mortar. This is called pointing
refill

the masonry. If, in placing the masonry, the mortar in the joints
isnot brought quite to the face of the wall, the labor of pointing
may be somewhat lessened.
Thejoint is cleared and brushed out to a depth of at least an
inch and well moistened before applying the pointing. The mortar
is then applied with a small trowel, squeezed in, and smoothed

with a special tool called a jointer, which is provided with an edge

to form the kind of finish desired. There are a number of ways of
finishing joints, of which the most common are shown in Fig. 30.

'//x ^ r

pa \"^:.-:^::''\':-f\
Jtelfe-v
^V>'v"S* -\*
krf&^
FIG. 30. Methods of Finishing Joints.

The best pointing mortar is usually composed of Portland cement

and sand, 1 to 1. Coloring matter is added when needed. The
mortar is used quite dry, like damp earth. When the face of the
stone would be stained by Portland cement, a putty made of lime,
plaster of paris, and white lead is sometimes employed. Various
non-staining cements are also available.
49. Trimmings. In the erection of masonry structures, certain
special parts are ordinarily required to be of cut stone, which must
be of definite form and dimension. These trimmings have to do
with the ornamentation of the structure, finishing about openings,
or joining different types of construction.
Water-tables with sloping surfaces are used at the top of founda-
tion walls, where they join the narrower upper walls.
Copings, cornices, window sills, and sometimes belt-courses pro-
ject beyond the surface of the wall; they must have sufficient width
to be firmly held in the wall, and to balance on the wall in laying.
The projections should also have upper surfaces which slope away
from the wall, and a drip (called the wash) underneath to cause
water to drop off at the outer edge, the drip being made by cutting
a groove on the under side of the stone.
When cut-stone trimmings are used for a brick wall, they should
be dimensioned so that they will fit into the brickwork without
splitting the brick.
76 STONE MASONRY

Window sills just the width of the opening and not built into
the wall at the ends are called slip sills, while those extending into
the walls are called lug sills. The ends of lug sills are rectangular,
the sloping surface of the sill being made the width of the opening.
Lug should be bedded only at the ends to prevent cross-bending
sills

stressesdue to the weight of the wall.

When stone lintels are used to span openings, care must be taken
in selecting the stone, and making sure that it has the transverse

strength necessary to carry the load. When necessary an angle

bar or I-beam may be used to support the lintel, a recess being cut
into the back of the stone for this purpose.
50. Specifications for Stone Masonry. The following general
requirements for stone masonry and special requirements for bridge
and retaining wall masonry are recommended by the American
Railway Engineers' Association in their Manual for 1915:

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Stone. Stone shall be of the kinds designated and shall be hard and
3.

durable, of approved quality and shape, free from seams or other imperfections.
Unseasoned stone shall not be used where liable to injury by frost.
Dressing. 4. Dressing shall be the best of the kind specified.

5. Beds and joints or builds shall be square with each other, and dressed

true and out of wind. Hollow beds shall not be permitted.

6. Stone shall be dressed for laying on the natural bed. In all cases the
bed shall not be less than the rise.
7. Marginal drafts shall be neat and accurate.

8. Pitching shall be done to' true lines and exact batter.

Mortar. 9. Mortar shall be mixed in a suitable box, or in a machine mixer,
preferably of the batch type, and shall be kept free from foreign matter. The
size of the batch and the proportions and the consistency shall be as directed

by the engineer. When mixed by hand the sand and cement shall be mixed
dry, the requisite amount of water then added and the mixing continued until
the cement is uniformly distributed and the mass is uniform in color and homo-
geneous.
Laying. 10. The arrangement of courses and bond shall be as indicated
on the drawings, or as directed by the engineer. Stone shall be laid to exact
lines and levels, to give the required bond and thickness of mortar in beds and
joints.
11.Stone shall be cleansed and dampened before laying.
12.Stone shall be well bonded, laid on its natural bed and solidly settled,
into place in a full bed of mortar.
13. Stone shall not be dropped or slid over the wall, but shall be placed
without jarring stone already laid.
14. Heavy hammering shall not be allowed on the wall after a course is laid.
15. Stone becoming loose after the mortar is set shall be relaid with fresh
mortar.
 WALLS OF STONE MASONRY 77

Stone shall not be laid in freezing weather, unless directed by the En-
16.

gineer. If laid, it shall be freed from ice, snow, or frost by warming. The sand
and water used in the mortar shall be heated.
17. With precaution, a brine maybe substituted for the heating of the mor-
tar. The 1 pound of salt to 18 gallons of
brine shall consist of water, when the
temperature 32 F.; for every degree of temperature below 32 F., 1 ounce
is

of salt shall be added.

18. Before the mortar has set in beds and joints, it shall be removed to a

depth of not less than 1 inch. Pointing shall not be done until the wall is com-
plete and mortar set; nor when frost is in the stone.
19. Mortar for pointing shall consist of equal parts of sand, sieved to meet
the requirements, and Portland cement. In pointing, the joints shall be wet,
and filled with mortar, pounded in with a "set-in" or calking tool and finished
with a beading tool the width of the joint, used with a straight-edge.

BRIDGE AND RETAINING WALL MASONRY, ASHLAR STONE

Bridge and Retaining Wall Masonry, Ashlar Stone. 20. The stone shall be
largeand well proportioned. Courses shall not be less than 14 niches or more
than 30 inches thick, thickness of courses to diminish regularly from bottom
to top.
Dressing. 21. Beds and joints or builds of face stone shall be fine-pointed,
so that the mortar layer shall not be more than J inch thick when the stone is
laid.
22. Joints in face stone shall be full to the square for a depth equal to at
least onte-half the height of the course, but in no case less than 12 inches.
Face or Surface. 23. Exposed surfaces of the face stone shall be rock-faced,
with edges pitched to the true lines and exact batter. The face shall not pro-
ject more than 3 inches beyond the pitch lines.
24. Chisel drafts 1 J inches wide shall be cut at exterior corners.
25. Holes for stone hooks shall not be permitted to show in exposed surfaces.
Stone shall be handled with clamps, keys, lewis, or dowels.
Stretchers. 26. Stretchers shall not be less than 4 feet long with at least one
and a quarter times as much bed as thickness of course.
Headers. 27. Headers shall not be
less than 4 feet long; shall occupy one-
fifth of face of wall; shall not be
than 18 inches wide in face; and where
less
the course is more than 18 inches high, width of face shall not be less than height
of course.
28. Headers shall hold in heart of wall the same size shown in face, so arranged
that a header in a superior course shall not be laid over a joint, and a joint shall
not occur over a header; the same disposition shall occur in back of wall.
29. Headers in face and back of wall shall interlock when thickness of wall
will admit.
30. Where the 3 feet thick or less, the face stone shall pass entirely
wall is

through. Backing be permitted

shall not

Backing. 31a. Backing shall be large, well-shaped stone, roughly bedded

and jointed; bed joints shall not exceed 1 inch. At least one-half of the back-
ing stone shall be of the same size and character as the face stone and with parallel
ends. The vertical joints in back of wall shall not exceed 2 inches. The interior
vertical joints shall not exceed 6 inches.
78 STONE MASONRY

Voids shall be throughly filled with concrete, or with spalls, fully bedded
in cement mortar.
316. Backing shall be of concrete, or of headers and stretchers, as specified
in paragraphs 26 and 27, and heart of wall filled with concrete.
Paragraphs 31a and 316 are so arranged that either may be eliminated accord-
ing to requirements.
32. Where the wall will not admit of such arrangement, stone not less than
4 feet long shall be placed transversely in heart of wall to bond the opposite sides.
33. Where stone is backed with two courses, neither course shall be less than
8 inches thick.
Bond. Bond of stone in face, back, and heart of wall shall not be less than
12 inches. Backing shall be laid to break joints with the face stone and with
one another.
Coping. 35. Coping stone shall be full size throughout, of dimensions indi-
cated on the drawings.
36. Beds, joints and top shall be fine-pointed.
37. Location of joints shall be determined by the position of the bed plates
as indicated on the drawings.
Locks. 38. Where required, coping stone, stone in the wings of abutments,
and stone on piers, shall be secured together with iron cramps or dowels, to the
position indicated on the drawings.

BRIDGE AND RETAINING WALL MASONRY, RUBBLE STONE

39. The stone
shall be roughly squared and laid in irregular courses. Beds
shall be roughly dressed, and the stone laid horizontal to the wall. Face
parallel,
joints shall not be more than 1 inch thick. Bottom stone shall be large, selected
flat stone.

40. The wall shall be compactly laid, having at least one-fifth the surface
of back and face headers arranged to interlock, having all voids in the heart of
the wall thoroughly filled with concrete, or with suitable stones and spalls, fully
bedded in cement mortar.

ART. 13. STRENGTH OF STONE MASONRY

51. Strength. Stone masonry varies widely in
Compressive
strength according to the character of the construction. The
accuracy with which the joints are dressed, the strength of the mor-
tar, the bonding of the masonry and size of blocks of stone are more
important than the strength of the stone itself.
No experimental data are available which show the actual strength
of masonry as used. The mortar has usually much less strength
than the stone, and in some experiments on brick piers, the mortar
seemed to squeeze out, causing the failure of the brick in tension.
The loads to which masonry is ordinarily subjected are much less
than its actual strength, but when heavy loads are being carried
by piers or arches, it is frequently necessary to proportion the sec-
tion to the load.
 STRENGTH OF STONE MASONRY 79

When the masonry is of cut stone with thin joints and Portland
cement mortar, the strength of the masonry may be proportioned
to the strength of the stone. For rubble with thick joints, the
strength of the stone has no material effect upon the strength of
the masonry.
The loads used in practice vary quite widely according to the
views of the designers. Building laws of the various cities differ
considerably in the loads allowed. The following may be considered
as conservative values for the limits of safe loading:
Cut Stone. Dressed stone, with joints not more than f inch in
Portland cement mortar:
first class
Tons per
Square Foot.
Granite 50 to 60
Hard limestone or marble 35 to 40
Sandstone 25 to 30

The siliceous sandstones may have larger values, while the soft
limestones should be reduced.
For ashlar of good quality as commonly laid with J-inch joints
in Portland cement:
Tons per
Square Foot.
Granite 40 to 45
Limestone, hard 35 to 40
Sandstone 25 to 30

Rubble. For masonry composed of large blocks of squared stone,

1-inch joints, in Portland cement mortar:
Tons per
Square Foot.
Sandstones or limestones 10 to 20
Granite 20 to 30
Uncoursed rubble:
In cement mortar 5 to 8
In lime mortar 3 to 5

For an ashlar pier whose height exceeds ten times, or a rubble

pier whose height exceeds five times, its least lateral dimension, these
figures should be reduced. Piers of small dimensions carrying

heavy loads should always be of ashlar. Rubble should not be

used for less thicknesses than 20 to 24 inches when it is necessary
to develop the full strength of the masonry.
Failures of masonry most frequently occur through defective
foundation or workmanship. Masonry, to develop its full strength,
80 STONE MASONRY

must always be adequately supported, so that unequal pressures

are not produced through settlement.
Weight of Masonry. In determining loads^ fit is usually necessary
to estimate the weight of masonry. This depends upon the specific
gravity of the stone and the closeness of the joints. The following
table gives approximate weights for the different classes of stone
masonry:
Pounds per
Cubic Foot.

Limestone, ashlar 155 to 165

Limestone, squared rubble 145 to 150
Limestone, rough rubble 135 to 140
Granite, ashlar 165 to 170
Granite, squared rubble 155 to 160
Sandstone, ashlar 135 to 150
Sandstone, rubble 120 to 140

52. Capstones and Templets. When loads are to be transferred

from the ends of beams or columns to masonry walls or piers, bearing
blocks may be necessary properly to distribute the loads over the
surface of the masonry. When used under a column or post, these
blocks are called capstones; when used in walls to carry the ends of
beams, they are templets.
In placing bearing blocks, the loads should always be centered
on the top of the block, if possible, so as to produce uniform pressure
upon the masonry below; in all cases, the center of pressure must
be within the middle third of the base to avoid a tendency to open
the joint between the bearing block and the masonry, In Fig. 31,

..lt 1\P /, _

FIG. 31.

let P=the vertical load at center of pressure;

61 = the pressure at edge nearest the center of pressure;
62 = the pressure at edge farthest from center of pressure ;

I = the length of stone;

x = distance from middle of block to center of pressure;

 STRENGTH OF STONE MASONRY 81

Zi
= distance from nearest edge to center of pressure;
12 = distance from farthest edge to center of pressure ;

b2 = width of block. Then,

Pl+6Px
2 2
bl bl

and
4PZ-6P/2 Pl-
k2 =
2 2
bl bl

When s = 0, h = l/2 and ki=k 2 = P/lb. When x = l/6, Zi

= Z/3,
ki = 2P/lb and &2 = 0. If x becomes greater than 1/6, k^ is negative
and a tension be developed in the joint or it will open.
will
In designing a bearing block, k\ must not be greater than the safe
load for the masonry. The load is commonly brought on top of a
bearing block through an iron plate, which should have such area
that the pressure will not be more than one-tenth to one-twelth of
the crushing strength of the stone. The bearing block must have
sufficient thickness not to break under the transverse load imposed

by the upward pressure of the masonry.

In designing a templet which is to be built into a wall, the weight
of wall resting on the top of the templet must be included in deter-

mining the pressure on its base.

53. Lintels A stone lintel is a beam of stone span-
and Corbels.
ning an opening in a wall. The strength of a lintel is determined
by the ordinary beam formulas. The safe modulus of rupture may
be taken at about one-twelfth to one-tenth of the ultimate modulus
for the stone. Mean values of the safe modulus of rupture are
2
about as follows: granite, 180 lbs./in. marble,
; Limestone, 150;
2
130; sandstone, 120 lbs./in. . There
however, certain tough
are,
sandstones, specially adapted to this use, which may be used with
modulus of 250 to 300 lbs./in. 2
Beams carrying live loads should not rest upon stone lintels.
When the load upon a lintel is a solid masonry wall, it is common
to assume that the masonry may arch over the opening, so that
the actual weight upon the lintel only that of a triangle whose
is

height is about three-quarters of the span. This assumes that

the lintel will yield somewhat, and be relieved of stress before reach-

ing the maximum load. It is quite possible that in well-built

masonry, with cement mortar, the lintel might be removed without

the wall above yielding at all. If, however, there is no yielding
of the lintel, the pressure upon its upper surface may be the same
as at any other point in the same horizontal plane of the wall.
82 STONE MASONRY

A corbel is a block of stone extending beyond the surface of a

wall or pier for the purpose of carrying the end of a beam or an
overhanging wall, see Fig. 32. The overhang of the corbel is a
cantilever beam, which must have
sufficient section at the surface of
the wall to resist the bending moment
Beam
due to the load. The corbel must
extend sufficiently into the wall, to
give a resultant pressure within the
middle third of the base of the corbel
(R = P-{-W) as )
in the case of bearing
blocks.
FIG. 32. Corbels. Double corbels may be used when
necessary, each being separately treated
in determining strength. When weight of wall above (W) is lack-
ing, the corbel must be anchored to the wall below by steel ties.

ART. 14. MEASUREMENT AND COST

54. Methods of Measurement. In engineering work it is usual

to estimate stone in cubic yards of actual masonry.
masonry When
parts of the work are of special character, requiring cut-stone finish,
special prices per cubic yard may be given, or the additional costs
of the cut surfaces are paid for by the square yard.
In architectural work masonry is measured by the cubic yard
or by the perch. A perch may be 16 J, 22, or 25 cubic feet, accord-
ing to the custom of the locality in which the masonry is constructed.
In the use of the perch as a unit, it is advisable to state the number
of cubic feet to be considered a perch.
In building work it is common to take outside measurements
of walls, thus including the corner masonry twice; it is also custom-

ary to measure small openings as solid wall. Commonly openings

lessthan 70 square feet are not deducted. In some cases allow-
ances are made for openings more than 6 feet wide. Customs differ
in different parts of the country, and it is necessary to know the
local usage, unless the method of measurement is stated.
55. Cost of Stone Masonry. So many items are included in
the cost of masonry and these items vary so widely in different
localities that it is not feasible to give any definite values to the
costs of different kinds of work. The items of cost include the price
of the rough stone at the quarry, the transportation to place of use,
 MEASUREMENT AND COST 83

dressing jointsand faces of stone, mortar for joints, setting the

stonework, and pointing the joints.

Rough stones at the quarry are commonly classified into rubble
or small stone and dimension stone. Rubble stone includes the
more irregular stones and blocks suitable for small ashlar. Dimen-
sion stone includes all stone required to be of particular sizes and
blocks of large dimensions and definite thicknesses, as required for
coursed ashlar. These classes vary according to the kinds of stone
in the quarry and the specifications to be met by the stone.
Rubble stone is commonly sold by the ton free on board cars
at point of delivery. Prices for rubble stone delivered have varied
in various localities from $0.50 to $2 per ton, when wages of quarry-
men were about $4.50 per* day and common labor $1.50. The cost
is largely a matter of locality. A ton of rubble stone may lay from
about 16 to 22 cubic feet of masonry.
Dimension stone and ashlar in the rough may cost from $0.50
to $1.25 per cubic foot for limestone or sandstone and $0.75 to $1.50
per cubic foot for granite, according to quality and location.
Cost of Stone Cutting. The cost of cutting ashlar depends upon
the hardness of the stone and the shape in which the blocks are
received. Some stratified stones require almost no dressing on the
bed while other stones need every joint dressed from an
joints,
irregular surface. With wages of stone cutters at $5 per day, the
following may be considered average costs per square foot for cutting
to J-inch joints; granites, 27 to 35 cents; hard sandstones and
limestones, 20 to 30 cents; soft stones, 16 to 22 cents. Costs of
peculiar face cuttings and of trimmings are so special to particular
stones that they are of little value for general use. Sills, lintels,

water-tables, and copings are usually sold by the lineal foot.

The cost of sawing and machine dressing is usually much less
than that for hand dressing, and varies with the way the stone is
handled and the organization of the yard.
'

Mortar Required. The amount of mortar needed in rubble

masonry may vary from about 15 to 35 per cent of the volume of
the masonry. Rubble of squared stones with joints 1 inch thick
will ordinarily require 15 to 20 per cent, according to the sizes of the
stones. For random rubble, stratified stones with flat beds require
less than irregular stones. In the use of irregular rubble stones,
the careful use of spalls in the larger joints reduces the amount of
mortar materially, with saving in cost.
The amount of mortar needed for ashlar work depends upon the
sizes of the stones. Ordinary ashlar with J-inch joints in courses
84 STONE MASONRY

12 to 20 inches thick requires 4 to 7 per cent of mortar; random

ashlar with smaller stones will require more, while with large blocks
and thinner joints less will be required.
Cost of Laying Masonry. The cost of setting stone varies with
the size of the job, the organization of the work, and the skill of the
masons, as well as with the character of the work itself. In ordinary
rubble or squared-stone work, such as cellar walls or light retaining
walls, a mason should lay a cubic yard of masonry in three or four
hours. A
helper to two masons or a helper to each mason, accord-
ing to convenience of work, being required to supply stone and
mortar. With masons at 50 cents an hour and helpers at 20 cents,
this would cost from $1.80 to $2.80 per cubic yard. In large work,
where stone is handled by derricks, and rubble constructed of large
blocks, the cost of placing the stone is frequently reduced to $0.85
to $1.25 per cubic yard. The cost of setting ordinary ashlar varies
from about $3 to $5 per cubic yard for limestone and sandstone,
and from $6 to $9 for granite.
The masonry in place, made up by so many varying
total cost of

items, necessarily varies within wide limits. Ordinary rubble at

prices which have existed within the past few years (previous to the
War), averages in cost from $5 to $7 per cubic yard. Rubble in
heavy construction, usually granite, where the stone was quarried
on the work and handled by machinery, has run from $5 to $11
per cubic yard. Sandstone and limestone bridge masonry, with
ashlar facings and rubble backing and filling, usually varies from
about $8 to $14 per cubic yard.
Gillette's
"
Handbook of Cost Data " gives a number of detailed
statements of costs of stone masonry. Such costs vary in about
the same ratio as the pay of labor employed. The unsettled state
of prices and labor costs since the War make it impracticable to
give costs based upon present prices.
 CHAPTER IV

BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

ART. 15. BUILDING BRICKS

56. Clay and Shale Bricks.The cheapness, ease of construction,

and durable qualities of
good brick masonry make it one of the most
desirable materials for general structural work. It is not as largely
used in engineering work as stone or concrete, but in building con-
struction it is very extensively employed. The qualities of clay
bricks vary widely according to the character of the clay and methods
of manufacture, and care must be taken in selection of material in
order to secure good results.
Composition of Clay Bricks. Clay consists primarily of silicate
of alumina. Common clays also usually contain certain percentages
of iron oxide, magnesia, lime, and alkalies. These are known as
fluxes, having the effect, when in considerable quantities, of making
the clay fusible. Fire clays contain a low percentage of fluxes, and
withstand a high degree of heat without fusing.
Sandy clays contain high proportions of silica in an uncombined
state, a factor which, if not in excess, is of value, tending to give

stability to the form of the brick. Sand is commonly added to

plastic clays for this purpose.
The color of the brick is mainly dependent upon the amount of
iron oxide present in the clay. The color varies from white, through
buff to red as the percentage of iron oxide increases. The presence
of iron oxide is also of value in adding strength and hardness to the
brick.

Lime, when present in appreciable quantities, must be finely

divided and uniformly distributed through the clay. If in lumps,
the slaking of the lime, subsequent to burning, may cause the brick
to become distorted and cracked. When in excess, lime neutralizes
the color effect of the iron oxide, making the bricks lighter in color,
buff or yellow colors being sometimes due to this cause.
Excess of alumina usually makes the clay very plastic and causes
it to shrinkand crack in drying.
85
86 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

Physical Properties. The physical properties of clay are of more

importance than the chemical composition.
Plasticity is one of the important properties of clay for brick
making, as it permits the clay to be worked into a plastic mass, and
to be molded into the desired form. Clay shrinks in drying and
also in burning, very plastic clay shrinking more than that less

plastic. Sand is frequently mixed with clay to reduce excessive

shrinkage. The degree of plasticity is sometimes controlled by
mixing clays which differ in this respect.
When subjected to high heat, clay gradually becomes soft and
fuses together, and as the heat is increased the softening and shrink-

age progresses until the material finally melts sufficiently to lose

its shape. The temperature required for burning varies widely with
different clays, and the degree of burning given to brick depends
upon the kind of product desired and the fusibility of the clay.

Manufacture. There are three methods in use for forming the

brick. They are known as the soft-mud, the stiff-mud, and the dry-
press methods.
The soft-mud process consists in pulverizing the clay or shale
and tempering it with water to the consistency of soft mud. This
paste is then pressed into wooden molds, which are usually sanded
on the surface to prevent the clay sticking, thus giving the brick
five sanded surfaces.
The stiff-mud process consists in mixing the pulverized clay or
shale with sufficient water to form a stiff paste, capable of retaining
its form, which is then forced through a die, resulting in a bar of the
section of the brick. The bar is then cut into bricks by wires.
These bricks may be either side cut or end cut.
Dry-press bricks are made by pressing pulverized clay containing
a small amount of moisture into steel molds, a method used to secure
bricks with smooth faces and sharp edges for face brick.
Repressed bricks are made by putting bricks made by the soft-
mud or stiff-mud methods into presses and subjecting them to high
pressure. The purpose is to give the brick more perfect form and
sometimes to imprint a design upon the surface.
Bricks made by the wet method must be dried before being placed
in the kiln. In some yards this is accomplished by exposing the
molded bricks to the air on floors or racks, while in the larger plants
the drying is done more rapidly in dryers using artificial heat.
The burning is accomplished either in temporary kilns, built

of the brick to be burned, or in permanent kilns arranged usually

with fire boxes on the outside and a downdraft and intended to give
 BUILDING BRICKS 87

uniform heat throughout the kiln. This cannot be fully accomplished

and all of the brick will not be perfectly burned. The degree of
burning received by brick in temporary kilns depends upon the
position in the kiln. They must be sorted after burning into various
shades, varying from the light underburned to the dark arch brick.
Good bricks may be made by any of the methods of manufacture,
provided the material is and the burning properly
carefully handled
regulated. The differences due to method used are mainly those
form and appearance of the brick. Dry-press brick are usually
of the
somewhat softer and weaker than stiff-mud brick of equally good
material.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRICK

Bricks used in structural work may be classified as follows:

Common used for ordinary brickwork, where
bricks are those

appearance is not of special importance. They are burned at

moderate temperatures. The best, well-burned common bricks are
known as hard or cherry bricks, or sometimes as stock bricks. Those
next the fire and heavily burned are known as clinker or arch bricks.
Those from the underburned portion of the kiln are known as salmon,
pale or soft bricks. The relative proportions of each kind in a kiln

vary with the material and the skill used in burning.

Pressed, face or front bricks are those made with greater care,
so as to secure uniformity of form and color. They are used for
facing walls of common brick and where appearance is important,
and are usually dry-pressed or re-pressed brick.
Vitrified bricks are made from a more refractory clay and burned
at a high heat to the point of vitrification, so that considerable
softening and shrinkage occurs, though the brick still hold its shape.
These bricks are commonly made in larger sizes than common bricks,
called paving blocks, and are used in street pavements. They are
also frequently used in building construction, where obtainable at
moderate prices. Blocks too lightly burned for use in pavements
often make good material for building construction.
Fire bricks are made from clay which is lacking in fluxing ingredi-
ents. Theyare usually light in color, on account of the absence of
iron oxide, and are used when high temperatures are to be resisted.
Enameled bricks are made by coating the surface of pressed or
re-pressed bricks before burning with a slip, which will burn to the
proper color, and covering with a glaze. The enamel is usually
applied to a single surface of a brick.
88 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

The following designations are also frequently employed:

Sewer bricks are those common bricks which are so hard burned
as to be practically non-absorbent of moisture, and are commonly
used for lining sewers.
Compass bricks are shorter on one edge than the other, for use
in circular walls.

Feather-edge bricks are made wedge shaped, for use in arches.

Furring bricks are 'those having a surface grooved for plastering.
Ornamental bricks are those having designs stamped in relief
upon their faces, or bricks of special forms intended for use in making
an ornamental surface design.

PROPERTIES OF CLAY AND SHALE BRICK

Good building brick should show a uniform compact structure

without laminations. They should have plane, parallel faces and
sharp edges, and should not show kiln marks on their edges.
The dry-pressed and re-pressed bricks are usually smoother and
more accurate in shape than those made by the soft-mud or stiff-
mud processes, their density and strength being largely dependent
upon the degree of burning and the shrinkage in the kiln. The under-
burned, salmon bricks are porous and weak, and are usually employed
only where strength is not important and in unexposed positions.
The well-burned cherry or hard bricks are the best building brick.
The overburned clinker bricks are more dense and absorb less water,
but may be brittle, and are frequently distorted in shape. The
overburned and distorted bricks ar^ sometimes used by architects
for special exterior designs with very good effect.
Vitrified bricks, as manufactured for use in paving, are superior
in strength and density to common bricks. They frequently show
kiln marks on one side, due to softening in the kiln. A clay for
making vitrified brick must burn at high temperatures and have
considerable range of temperature between the point of incipient
fusion and the point of vitrification. It is difficult to maintain the

temperature uniformly, so as to burn a large portion of the bricks

to the right degree, unless the range of temperature is considerable.
57. Sand-lime Bricks, Bricks made of sand cemented with
lime have been used in a small way for many years. These bricks,
as formerly made, were molded and allowed to harden by standing
in the air, or in an atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide (CO2). Bricks
of this kind are virtually composed of ordinary lime mortar, but
with less lime, and are called mortar bricks. They depend, like
 BUILDING BRICKS 89

lime mortar, upon the formation of carbonate of lime for their harden-
ing, and are weak and of little value as brick, although some struc-
tures of such materials have proven substantial and durable.
In 1881 Dr. Michaelis of Berlin patented a process of hardening
mixtures of lime and sand by the use of steam at high pressure.
He discovered that, in the presence of steam at high temperature,
the lime combines with a portion of the silica of the sand, forming
a silicate of lime, which acts as a cementing medium. This silicate
is formed upon the surfaces of the grains of sand and binds the
sand into a single hard block.
About fifteen years after Michaelis took out his patent, the
manufacture of sand-lime bricks was begun in Germany on a com-
mercial scale, and soon developed into a considerable industry.
In 1901 the first plant was opened in the United States, and the
growth of the industry in this country was also very rapid.
Manufacture. In the manufacture of sand-lime bricks, four
operations are essential:
(1) The lime must be completely slaked.

(2) A very uniform mixture of the lime and sand must be obtained.
(3) The material must be formed into bricks under high pressure.
(4) The bricks must be subjected to the action of steam at high
pressure for several hours.
The methods employed in different plants for performing these
operations vary considerably, depending upon the character and
condition of the materials employed.
Hydrated-lime Process. In this process the lime is first slaked
to a powder, or a putty, and then mixed with the sand and pressed.
The lime may be slaked by any of the methods ordinarily employed
in the manufacture of hydrated lime, or it may be reduced to a paste

by the use of an excess of water. It is easier to obtain a uniform

mixture of the lime and sand when dry hydrated lime and dry sand
are used and the necessary water added afterward. It may, however,
be advantageous sometimes to use wet materials, and good results
may be obtained by either method if the mixing be thorough and the
lime uniformly incorporated in the sand.
Caustic Lime Process. Caustic lime is sometimes pulverized and
mixed with the sand before slaking. Enough water is then added
to slake the lime and reduce the mixture to proper consistency for
pressing. High-calcium lime, which slakes quickly, is necessary
when this method is used, as sufficient time must be given for the
complete slaking to take place before the mixture goes to the press.
In some plants the mixture is placed in a silo and allowed to stand
90 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

for afew hours before pressing, in order to insure that no unslaked

lime in the mixture when the brick is formed.
is left

The caustic lime process is sometimes modified by grinding the

lime with a portion of the sand to a fine powder, which is mixed
with the remainder of the sand, and water added to slake the lime
and wet the mixture. This is then placed in a silo for a sufficient
period to allow the lime to become completely slaked before pressing.
It is claimed that grinding the sand and lime together produces an
intimate mixture and insures the complete combination during the
steaming into silicate which forms the cementing medium of the
brick. Grinding the lime and sand together reduces the lime to
very fine conditionand minimizes the danger from any unslaked
particles of lime left in the mixture, and also fills the voids in the
sand more completely, making a more dense brick.
Molding. The bricks are formed in molds similar to those
used for dry clay bricks, and are subjected to high pressure in
molding.
Hardening. After molding, the bricks are loaded upon cars
and run into the steaming cylinders, where they are subjected to
steam pressure of from 100 to 110 pounds per square inch for a period
of six to ten hours, resulting in the combination of the lime with the
silica into the cementing substance and binding the sand into a
solid block. The brick continue to harden and gain in strength for
a time after their removal from the steaming cylinder, as they
gradually dry out.
Materials. High-calcium lime seems preferable for this use, on
account of this rapid action and the fine subdivision of its particles.
Any good lime may, however, be used for the purpose if care be
taken to insure that it be completely slaked.
The requirements for sand to be used in making sand-lime bricks
are not essentially different from those for sand to be used in cement
mortar. The graduation of sizes to give a dense material is desirable.
The presence of more fine material seems to be needed, however,
in order to secure a smooth and compact mixture, and to lessen the
wear upon the molds, which may become an important item of cost.
Coarse sands seem to give stronger brick, but fine sand produces
brick with smoother surfaces.
Properties of Sand-lime Brick. In strength and durability, sand-
lime bricks do not differ materially from good average clay bricks.
When of good quality they possess sufficient strengths for all the
purposes for which building brick are ordinarily employed, and are
 BUILDING BRICKS 91

usually more dense, and absorb less water than common clay
bricks.
Sand-lime bricks are usually very uniform in size and shape, and
are commonly gray in color, the shade depending upon the sand
used in manufacturing them, unless artificially colored.
58. Cement Bricks. Bricks made of cement mortar or concrete
are used in a number of localities. They are commonly made of
mortar, about one part Portland cement to four parts of sand, or
sometimes of a richer mortar, 1 to 2 J or 1 to 3, mixed with about
an equal quantity of coarser material, varying from J to ^ inch in
diameter.
These bricks are made by pressing in hand or power presses, a
mixture as wet as is feasible to shape well in the press. About two
weeks are required for hardening before the bricks can be used. The
materials need to be carefully selected, and require the same prop-
erties as for mortar for use in masonry or concrete. The strength
may vary considerably with the grading of the aggregate, the com-
pression given to the blocks, and the moisture conditions under which
the bricks are kept during the period of hardening, the greatest
strength will result when they are kept warm and thoroughly
dampened. The compressive strength at twenty-eight days should
2
not be less than 1000 lb./in. ,
and the absorption not more than 15
per cent.
Cement bricks are usually employed as face bricks. The appear-
ance depend upon the texture of the aggregates used and the
will
method of finishing, which may be smooth or roughened by the use
of brushes or acids. Color may be given to the bricks by the use
of various mortar colors.
59. Test for Building Brick. In determining the suitability of
a brick for structural work, examination is commonly made of the
material as to form and texture with reference to the particular
needs of the work in hand. Tests for strength and absorption are
sometimes included in specifications for important work, but there
is no recognized standard to which such tests
conform, and com-
paratively little data upon which to base a reasonable require-
ment.
Form. For neat work, the bricks should be uniform in size
with plane faces and sharp edges. Care in sorting is usually necessary
with clay brick to secure uniformity of color and dimension in par-
ticular work.
Texture. Good bricks should be uniform and compact in struc-
92 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

ture, should be sound and free from cracks, and the broken surfaces
should be free from flaws or lumps. Clay brick should be thoroughly
burned, and when struck with a trowel or another brick should give
a clear ringing sound. Bricks which meet these requirements are
usually suitable for all ordinary work.
In ordinary building work little care is usually given to inspec-
tion of the materials, and defective work frequently results from the
use of poor bricks. Seriously defective bricks are so easily detected
by inspection that there is usually no excuse for their inclusion in
brickwork of good character.
A Committee of the American Society for Testing Materials
has been for some time studying the matter of a standard specifica-
tion and standard tests for building brick. They have suggested
tentative methods for classification of brick and for making tests
for absorption, compressive strength, and transverse strength.
The committee recommends that the standard sizes for building
brick shall be 2J by 3| by 8 inches.
They also recommend the following classification of bricks:

(a) According to the results of the physical tests, the bricks shall be classified
as vitrified, hard, medium, and soft bricks on the basis of the following require-
ments:

Name of Grade.
 BRICK MASONRY 93

condition. tests have been made in various ways, usually

These
by immersing the brick in water, then freezing and thawing it repeat-

edly, commonly twenty repetitions, and determining the loss of

weight or of strength. Very soft, porous bricks may be disinte-
grated by such treatment; those of low absorption and good strength
usually show but slight effect.
The Committee of the American Society for Testing Materials,
in 1913, suggested a method for making this test. They have not,
however, found it of sufficient value to include in their later speci-
fications.
A which the brick is saturated with a solution of sodium
test in

sulphate, which is then allowed to crystallize in the

pores of the
brick, has sometimes been used, the results of this action being
similar to those of freezing, but much more rapid and severe. A
study of this method has been made for the Committee by Pro-
fessor Edward Orton, Jr. 1 and it seems probable that it may become
a standard method of testing brick. It has not yet been definitely
formulated for use in specifications.

ART. 16. BRICK MASONRY

60. Joints in Brickwork. In the construction of brick masonry,

it isnecessary that the joints between the bricks be filled with mor-
tar, the purpose of which is to give a firm and even bearing to the
bricks, so that the pressure upon them will be uniformly distributed.
The mortar should also adhere to the bricks and bind them into a
monolithic mass.
While thick joints usually make weaker masonry than those
that are thin,it is desirable that the joint be as thin as it can
readily
be made. When attempts are made at too thin joints, they are
apt to be imperfectly filled, and thus weaken the masonry. Joints
in wall masonry of common brick, as used in building construction,
are usually from J to f inch thick. It is common to specify the
thickness of joints by stating the thickness for eight courses of brick.
It is frequently required that the thickness of eight courses of brick

masonry shall not exceed the thickness of eight courses of dry bricks
by more than 2 inches. When pressed bricks are used for the face
of a wall, the joints in the face are usually from J to -^ inch thick.

1
Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, 1919, Part 1.
94 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

Pressed bricks, being smoother, may be laid to thinner joints with

good effect. In heavy masonry as sometimes used in engineering
work, the joints usually of cement mortar are often \ inch
thick.
Mortar for Brickwork. Lime mortar is more extensively used
for ordinary brickwork in building construction than any other.
Mixtures of lime and cement mortars in about equal quantities are
coming largely into use. The cement materially increases the
strength of the mortar and its adhesion to the brick, while the

smoothness of the lime mortar is maintained. In important struc-

tures, where considerable strength is needed, it is common to use

cement .mortar with addition of 10 to 15 per cent of hydrated lime

a mixture which retains the strength of the cement but makes the
mortar easier to work, and usually secures better work than would
result from the use of cement alone. In engineering work, cement
mortar is usually employed, but the mixture of hydrated lime with
the cement is rapidly coming into use.
Laying the Brick. In the construction of a brick wall the two
outer courses are first laid, by spreading a bed of mortar where the
brick is to be placed, and against the surface of the last brick laid,
then shoving the brick horizontally into place so as to squeeze the
mortar into the bottom of the vertical joint between the bricks.
A bed of mortar is placed between the outside bricks and the filling
bricks are shoved and pressed into place. Mortar is then slushed
or thrown with some force into the upper part of the vertical joints
to fillthem completely.
Bricks should be thoroughly wet before being laid, in order to
prevent the water being absorbed from the
mortar by the brick. Good adhesion cannot
be had between mortar and dry, porous bricks.
In finishing joints upon the face of the
wall, a flush joint may be made by pressing
back the mortar with the flat edge of the
trowel. This is usually done upon interior
walls. A weather Jjoint may be made, as '
FIG. 33. Weather .
^. 00 , . . ,

Joint
shown in Fig. 33, by using the point of the
trowel held obliquely.
61. Bond of Brickwork. Brickwork is always laid in horizontal
courses, and lateral bond is secured by several different arrange-
ments of the brick in the courses.
Common Bond is the bond most commonly used in the United
 BRICK MASONRY 95

States, for walls of common brick. In this bond, one course of

headers is used to four to six courses of stretchers on the face of the
wall, as shown in Fig. 34.

1 II II II II II
96 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

Hoop-iron Bond. This consists in placing pieces of hoop iron

longitudinally in the joints to strengthen the bond, the ends of the
iron being turned down into vertical joints.
Pressed Brick Facing. In applying a facing of pressed bricks
to a wall of common bricks, it is quite common to lay all of the

face bricks as stretchers. When this is done bond may be obtained

by metal ties or by diagonal bond.

J II I
FIG. 36. English Bond.

Metal Ties are sometimes used as shown in Fig. 37. When the
joints in the face and backing cannot be brought to the same level,
the metal tie may be bent, but this is not desirable, and frequent
level joints should always be possible. These ties may consist of
a thin piece of galvanized iron bent over a wire at the ends, or it
may be a piece of galvanized wire bent into a loop at the ends to
grasp the mortar.

V//////////A mm/m/////,
FIG. 37. Metal Ties for Face Brick.

Diagonal Bond consists in breaking off the back corners of face

bricks and inserting bricks diagonally to bond with the face brick.
These bonds are not very strong, and the face bricks are not con-
sidered as adding to the strength of the wall or carrying any load.
Stronger work is obtained by using occasional courses of headers,
 BRICK MASONRY 97

or courses of alternate headers and stretchers as in the Flemish bond.

This usually possible by using care in regulating the thickness of
is

joints in the backing, even when the bricks are not of the same sizes.
Hollow Brick Walls. For the purpose of providing air space
in a wall to prevent the passing of moisture or changes of temper-
ature through it, hollow construction is sometimes adopted. This
consists in building a double wall with a narrow air space between
the outer and inner portions.
It is necessary for proper strength that the two portions of the
wall be bonded in some way, either by occasional headers which

span the opening or by metal ties. The headers constitute a con-

nection between the masonry of the two walls, and are sometimes
objected to as likely to cause moisture to pass from one wall to the
other. The metal ties may be provided with a drip at the middle
which insures the complete isolation of the walls from each other.
Such walls require more careful work and are more expensive to
construct than solid walls. When loads are to be carried, one of the
walls must be capable of bearing them.
62. Strength of Brick Masonry. In tests which have been made
on the crushing strength of brick piers, failure occurred by the lateral
bulging of the piers. When pressure is applied longitudinally upon
the pier, a lateral expansion normal to the direction of pressure
results.This causes tension upon the brickwork and the pier yields
through breaking the bricks in tension and pulling apart of joints.
The transverse strength of the bricks may also be called into play
when they are not bedded with perfect evenness a fact proven by
a series of tests on brick piers at the Watertown arsenal in 1907,
in which bricks set on edge gave somewhat higher strengths than
when laid flat. Piers in which the joints were broken at every third
or sixth course gave slightly better results than those breaking

joints at every course, as was also observed in piers tested in 1884.

The strength of brickwork depends upon the bond as well as
upon the adhesion of the mortar and the strength of the bricks.
In masonry to be subjected to heavy loads, careful attention should
be given to the bonding of the work and to the complete filling of
the vertical joints in laying the masonry.
The advantageof using strong mortar in such work is demon-
strated by many tests made at Watertown arsenal and reported by
"
the Ordnance Department of the United States Army in Tests of
Metals, etc." That the strength of brick masonry in piers is some-
what proportional to the strength of the bricks is also demonstrated
by these tests.
98 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

A series of tests made by A. N. Talbot and D. A. Abrams at the

University of Illinois Experiment Station in 1908 gives very inter-
esting results. A summary of these results is given in Table VI.

TABLE VI

SUMMARY OF TESTS OF BRICK COLUMN

Average Values
 BRICK MASONRY 99

A committee of engineers and architects recommended to the

City of Chicago in 1908, the following values to be used as safe
working pressures for brick masonry in building construction:

Common Brick of Crushing Strength

Equal to 1800 lb./in. 2
100 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

are dissolved by water when the wall is wet and deposited on the
surface as the water evaporates. Such deposits usually consist of
salts of soda, potash, or magnesia contained in the lime or cement,
or of sulphate of lime or magnesia from the brick.
Efflorescence may be prevented by keeping the wall dry. The
use of impervious materials, and making the masonry itself imperme-
able, render the appearance of efflorescence improbable. When a
wall is in a damp situation, a damp-proof course at the base of the
wall to prevent moisture rising in the masonry is desirable. If the
masonry permeable and is dampened by rain, some waterproof
is

coating may be applied to the surface of the wall. There are various
patented preparations for this purpose, and the Sylvester process
is sometimes successfully used. This consists in applying first a
wash of aluminum sulphate (1 pound to 1 gallon of water), and then
a soap solution (2.2 pounds of hard soap per gallon of water). These
applications are made twenty-four hours apart. The soap solution
isapplied at boiling temperature. The walls must be dry and clean,
and the air temperature should not be below about 50 F. when
the application is made.
Efflorescence usually be removed by scrubbing with a weak
may
solution of hydrochloric acid.
64. Measurement and Cost. Measurement of brickwork is
usually made by estimating the number of thousand bricks. It
is assumed that an 8- or 9-inch wall contains 15 bricks per square
foot of surface; a 13-inch wall, 22 \ bricks; a 17- or 18-inch wall,
30 bricks, etc. These numbers are employed without regard to the
actual size of the bricks, adjustments in price per thousand being
made for various sizes.
The methods of estimating are sometimes rather complicated
and are subject to rules established by custom. The plain wall is
the standard of measurement, openings less than 80 square feet are
usually not deducted; larger openings are measured 2 feet less in
width than they actually are. Hollow walls and chimneys are
measured solid.
A pier is sometimes measured as a wall whose length is the cir-
cumference and whose thickness is the width of the pier. Some-
times one-half the circumference is taken as the length.

Stone trimmings are not deducted from the brickwork measure-

ments. Various rather complicated rules are used in estimating
footings, pilasters, detached chimneys, etc.
Having estimated the work in thousands of brick by these rules,
a price per thousand, suited to the plain wall, is used for the entire
 BRICK MvlASGNBtfi ^ i ; /, 101

job. Whenpressed brick facing is used, the area of such facing is

separately estimated. If an ashlar facing be used, its thickness

is not included in that of the brick wall.

In engineering work, brickwork is usually measured, like stone
masonry, by the cubic yard of actual masonry.
Number of Bricks Required. The actual number of bricks
needed for the construction of masonry varies with the size of the
bricks and the thickness of joints. For ordinary brickwork, with
common bricks of the usual (8iX4X2J inches) size, and joints J to
f inch thick, 1000 bricks will lay about 2 cubic yards of masonry. If
the joints be J to f inch thick, 1000 bricks will lay about 2| cubic
yards.
With common bricks of ordinary size in masonry walls, six bricks
will usuallybe required per square foot of wall surface for each width
of brick in the thickness of the wall. For ordinary pressed-brick
fronts, 6 to6^ bricks are required per square foot of actual wall sur-
face. In average building construction, deductions for openings
will reduce the number by about one-third of those required for
solid wall.
Mortar Required. For ordinary building construction with J to
f-inch joints, 0.5 to 0.6 cubic yard of mortar is required per 1000
bricks. This needs for 1 to 3 portland cement mortar, about 1.5
barrels of cement and 0.6 cubic yard of sand; for lime mortar
about 200 pounds (2J bushels) of lime and 0.6 cubic yard of sand.
In heavy masonry with joints \ to f inch, about 0.35 to 0.40
cubic yard of mortar per cubic yard of masonry, or approximately
one barrel of cement and 0.4 cubic yard of sand for 1 to 3 Portland
cement mortar.
Labor of Laying Bricks. A bricklayer on ordinary work may
lay from about 125 to 175 common bricks per hour, according to
the skill of the workman and the organization of the work. He
should place somewhat less than half as many face bricks. The
number of bricks laid may be somewhat less with cement mortar
than with lime mortar. On thin walls, with careful work, one helper
may be needed for two bricklayers. On common brickwork, in
building construction, one helper may be needed for each mason.
In recent work with masons at 60 to 70 cents per hour, helpers
at 30 to 35 cents per hour, lime at 40 to 50 cents per bushel, the cost
of laying common bricks in the walls of buildings has run from $5
to $8 per 1000 bricks. Costs for scaffolding, for machinery and
labor in erection of brickwork necessarily vary materially with the
conditions under which the work must be done.
102 BRICK; ANfe BLG.CK .MASONRY

At prices which have existed since the World War, these figures
would be largely increased. Costs have varied widely in different
localities and are now very unstable.

ART. 17. TERRA COTTA CONSTRUCTION

65. Structural Tiling. Hollow tiling for use in building con-

struction is made in many different forms. It is employed either
as the main structural material or as fireproof covering for other
materials.
The materials of which the tiles are made are similar to those
used in making bricks, but requiring usually higher grade and more
refractory materials. Shales or semi-fire clays, similar to those used
for paving bricks, are frequently employed for this purpose, or some-
times fire clays are mixed with plastic clays to prevent fluxing at
moderate temperatures. Tiling for use in construction may be
made either dense or porous according to the qualities desired.
Dense Tiling is made from materials which vitrify at high tem-
peratures (above 2000 F.) and is burned to the point of vitrifica-
tion like paving bricks. This material when of good quality pos-
sesses high strength and is practically non-absorbent. It is used
in outer walls of buildings, or for floor and wall construction when
strength is needed.
Hollow blocks as made for ordinary wall construction are not
usually vitrified, but are burned to a less degree than the best dense
tiling. They must be hard burned to be of value. In the rapid
growth of the tile industry, attempts have been made to produce
hollow tiling from inferior materials, and soft tiles lacking in strength
and durability have sometimes been offered. Care must be exercised
make sure of its quality.
in selecting tiling to
Porous Tiling, or Terra Cotta Lumber, is made from refractory
plastic clays by mixing sawdust with the clay in forming the blocks,
and burning at high temperature. The sawdust burning out leaves
the material light in weight and porous. These blocks may be cut
with, a saw, and nails or screws may be driven into them without
difficulty. This tiling does not possess the strength of good dense
tiling, but tough and less brittle, and
is is largely used in fireproofing

and for interior walls and partitions.

Tiling of less porosity but possessing somewhat the character of

th6 terra cotta lumber is sometimes made by mixing ground coal
with the clay before burning. It is claimed that this makes a better
 TERRA COTTA CONSTRUCTION 103

fireproofing than the dense tiling. These blocks are sometimes

known as semi-porous tiling.
The forms and sizes of hollow blocks depend upon the uses to
be made of them. For walls or partitions, the blocks are usually
in 12-inch lengths, and of rectangular or interlocking sections.

Rectangular blocks are made in various sizes 12-inch widths

may be had from 2 inches to 8 inches thick. Widths of 6 and 8
inches are made in thicknesses from 2 to 5 inches. They are divided
by webs into cells, as shown in Fig. 38. In the heavier tiling, intended

Fro. 38. Hollow Rectangular Blocks.

for use where loads are to be carried, and in outside walls, the shells
are at least 1 inch and the webs at least f-inch in thickness, and the
cells not more than 3J or 4 inches in width. In
lighter tiling, used
as filler in concrete work or for light partitions, the webs are f to J
inch, and cell openings may be 5 or 6 inches.
Interlocking blocks are made in various shapes, with the object
of improving the bond of the
wall, and eliminating joints extending
through the wall. These blocks are often used in outside walls to
prevent moisture passing through the wall and provide air spaces
in all parts of the wall.
Fig. 39 shows one of the common forms
of interlocking tile.

Hollow blocks for use in fire protection are made in many shapes
to fit around structural members of other materials. are also
They
made to fit together in round or flat arches to support floors between
steel beams.
104 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

Good tiling must be well burned, true in form and free from checks
or cracks, and should give a ringing sound when struck with metal.
The following requirements for hollow tile are given in the Build-
ing Code of the city of St. Louis for 1917:
All hollow tile used in the construction of walls or partitions shall be hollow
shale or terra cotta, well manufactured and free from checks and cracks, each
piece or block to be molded square and true and to be hard burned so as to give
a good clear ring when struck, and not to absorb more than twelve (12) per cent
of its own weight in moisture. Each of said blocks shall develop an ultimate
crushing strength of not less than three thousand (3000) pounds per square inch
of available section of web area, and shall not be loaded when in the wall more
than eighty (80) pounds per square inch of effective bearing area. Tiles shall

FIG. 39. Interlocking Tile.

have outer shells or walls not less than three-quarters (f) of an inch thick and
shallbe additionally reinforced by continuous interior walls or webs which shall
not be less than one-half (^) inch thick, and so arranged that no void shall exceed
four (4) inches in cross-section at any point. It is further provided that the
building commissioner may require a test to be made of such blocks before allow-
ing the same to be placed in the wall, if, in his judgment, there be any doubt
as to whether such blocks, proposed to be used, meet the requirements above
specified.

66. Block Construction. In the construction of walls of ordi-

nary hollow rectangular blocks, the blocks are usually laid so as to
break joints and extend through the walls. They should be so
placed that the vertical webs in each course are directly above those
in the course below. Such construction is shown in Fig. 38.
In using tile with horizontal cells, jamb blocks and corner blocks
are made with the cells vertical. When very light walls are used,
longitudinal reinforcement, consisting of thin band iron or of special
forms of wire mesh, is placed in the joints. This is necessary for

2-inch partitions or for 3-inch partitions more than 10 feet high.

 TERRA GOTTA CONSTRUCTION 105

Tiles with vertical cell openings are made by some makers. Fig.
40 shows construction with standard tiling of this type.

FIG. 40. Walls of Natco Hollow Blocks.

Portland cement mortar, or mortar of lime and cement, is used

in laying hollow blocks. In walls which are to carry considerable
loads, Portland cement with 10 to 15 per cent of hydrated lime by
volume by weight) should be used in 1 to 3 mortar
(4 to 6 per cent
with well-graded sand. For walls which are not to carry loads, a
larger amount (equal volumes) of lime may be used. The surfaces
of tiles are often grooved to aid the adhesion of the mortar in the

joints. When the finish of the wall is to be plaster or stucco, the

surface of the tile is grooved to hold the plaster. If brick veneer is

to be applied, or if the surface of the tile is to be used for exterior

finish, a smooth finish may be desirable.
Floor Construction. The method of using hollow blocks in flat
arch floor construction is shown in Fig. 41. These arches vary from

FIG. 41. Flat Arch Floor Construction.

about 3 to 6 feet in span and from 6 to 12 inches in depth. The

blocks required consist of the skewback, the fillers and the key-block.
106 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

The skewbacks are usually made of such form as to enclose the

bottom of the I-beam for fire protection.
Such arches are now commonly made by the end-construction
method in which the cell openings run lengthwise of the arch. The
blocks do not break joints, but form a series of independent arches
side by side. A number of different shapes are offered for these
arches by different makers, lighter weight being obtained than with
side-construction arches for the same strength.
Hollow blocks are frequently used as fillers in reinforced con-
crete floors, the blocks filling spaces between the webs of the T-beams
of concrete, as shown in Fig. 42. Blocks 12 inches wide are usually

FIG. 42. Hollow Block Fillers in Concrete Floors.

employed for this purpose, the depth depending upon the span and
loading of the floor.
Strength of Block Masonry. Comparatively few data are avail-
able upon the strength of constructions of terra-cotta blocks. A
very carefully constructed wall of natco tile (see Fig. 40) was tested
by R. W. Hunt & Company. The wall was 36f inches long, 8 inches
thick, and 12 feet 2\ inches high, and was twenty-eight days old
when tested. It failed under a load of 436,000 pounds, giving a
2
compression of 3110 lb./in. on the net section of the web, or about
2
1500 lb./in. of gross area. Tests of a wall of Denison tile (see Fig.
39) faced with brick, forty-two days old, was made at the labo-
ratory of the Bureau of Standards. This wall was 5 feet, 1 inch in
length, 12J inches thick, and 31 feet high. It carried a load of
2
686,000 pounds, or about 900 lb./in. of gross area.
Good dense tiling should have a crushing strength of 3000 to
6000 lb./in. 2 of net section. When laid in masonry the allowable
load is usually not more than one-fifteenth of the ultimate strength
of the block. Carefully laid masonry of good quality hollow blocks
may be allowed to carry a load of 200 lb./in. 2 of net section of block,
or in general about 5 tons per square foot of gross area.
67. Architectural Terra-cotta. Terra-cotta for exterior finish or
ornamental work is
usually made from
a mixture of clays, carefully
selected to secure the desired qualities. The clay is ground, mixed,
tempered, and worked to a proper condition of plasticity. It is
 GYPSUM AND CEMENT CONCRETE BLOCKS 107

then formed into the desired shapes in plaster molds or by hand,

modeled as may be necessary, and dried. After drying, it is given
a surface treatment, by spraying with a liquid upon the surface,
which determines the kind of finish to be given in burning and its
color.
The blocks of terra-cotta may have a length up to 30 inches, and
depth of 6 to 10 inches, with height according to the requirements
of the work. They are constructed as hollow shells with webs about
1J inches thick, and cells 6 inches or less in width. These blocks
are built into the body of the wall by bonding the masonry into and
filling the cells.

Several kinds of surface finish are used for terra-cotta. Standard

terra-cotta that in which no special finish is applied, leaving the
is

block somewhat porous. Vitreous terra-cotta has a spray applied to

the surface which causes the surface material to vitrify during burn-
ing, making the material non-absorbent. Glazed terra-cotta has an
impervious coating of glaze upon the surface. When the glaze is
deadened, it is called mat-glazed. A variety of colors are available
for use with this material, and make its use possible in a wide
range
of artistic designs.
Terra-cotta of good quality is one of the most durable materials
for use in the trimming and ornamentation of masonry structures.
Being practically non-absorbent, not affected by frost, or by
it is

the gases in the atmosphere. The facility with which it may be

worked into desired forms makes it a desirable material for artistic
design.

ART. 18. GYPSUM AND CEMENT BLOCK CONCRETE

68. Gypsum Wall Blocks. Blocks made by mixing gypsum

plaster (see Section 37) with wood fiber or similar materials are used
for partition walls in fireproof building construction. They are made
30 inches long, 12 inches high, and from 3 to 8 inches thick, with
tapering openings through the block.
They are laid in the wall to break joints and cemented with
mortar composed of gypsum cement plaster and sand, usually 1 to
3. They are not used for walls bearing loads, but form very light
partitions, and have good soundproof and fireproof qualities.
The 3-inch blocks are used to a height of wall of about 12 feet,
the 4-inch to 17 feet, and the 6-inch to 24 feet. The material may
be cut with a saw, and plaster is applied directly to their surfaces.
108 BRICK AND BLOCK MASONRY

The weights of walls of hollow gypsum blocks are approximately

as follows :

Thickness of block, inches 3 4 5 6 8

Weight of wall,lb per sq. ft 10 13 16 20 26

Three pounds per square foot is added for plaster upon each side
of the wall.
69. Roofing and Floor Blocks. Blocks of gypsum, similar in
composition to the partition blocks, and reinforced with wire mesh,
are made both in solid and hollow form for use in roof construction.
They are usually 3 or 4 feet in length and are used to span the open-
ings between purlins and form a solid deck upon which the roof
covering may be placed. They are made with beveled edges, and
are set with their lower edges in contact and the triangular openings
between them filled with a grout of cement plaster. Blocks with
heavier reinforcement for openings up to 10 feet in span are also
now offered.
Floor blocks, to be used as fillers in reinforced-concrete floor con-

struction, are now available. These are designed to act as forms

for the concrete, and require support at the ends of the blocks, which
are 2 feet long. A spacer is placed between two adjoining blocks to
hold the concrete for the web of the beam, forming a smooth surface
on the under side upon which plaster may be placed. A section of
floor constructed with these blocks is shown in Fig. 43.

FIG. 43. Pyrobar Gypsum Floor Tile.

70. Concrete Blocks. Hollow building blocks of Portland cement

concrete are frequently employed in building construction in the
same manner as in solid concrete construction, given in Chapter V,
and the concrete is proportioned and mixed in the same manner.
The blocks are usually made to set in the wall with the webs in
a vertical position. Several patented forms are on the market
which make blocks to bond in the wall in different ways and giving
air spaces more or less effective as insulation against moisture and
heat. Such blocks, when well made and properly set, make a sub-
 GYPSUM AND CEMENT CONCRETE BLOCKS 109

stantial and durable building, and may be used in such manner as

to give a pleasing appearance. The color of the blocks may be
regulated by choice of the aggregate used upon their exposed faces.
The use matter in the concrete has not usually been very
of coloring

successful, although there are mineral colors available which may

be used without material injury to the concrete.
Metal molds are commonly employed, and concrete of rather
dry consistency is compressed into them by tamping or by hydraulic
pressure. This yields concrete of greatest strength and also makes
a block which may be quickly removed from the mold. For orna-
mental work, sand molds are frequently employed, a wooden pattern
being used in forming the mold, and the concrete poured in a wet
mixture.
The curing of the blocks is important in its effect upon the
strength and durability of the concrete, which must not dry out
during the period of hardening. After the blocks are removed from
the molds, they are allowed to stand in the air until the cement has
set, when they may be transferred to a steam chamber, where they
are subjected to an atmosphere charged with steam at a temperature
about 110 to 130 F. After two or three days in the steam, they
may be removed to the open air, but should be sprinkled often
enough to keep them continually damp for ten or twelve days. When
a steam chamber is not employed, the blocks are cured in the open
air, but should be kept wet for a longer period to give time for com-

plete hardening. The temperature to which they are subjected

during hardening should never go lower than about 50 F.
 CHAPTER V
PLAIN CONCRETE

ART. 19. AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE

71. Materials Usedfor Aggregates. Concrete as used in con-

struction is essentially a mixture of cement mortar with broken
stone, gravel, or other coarse material. The mortar serves to fill
the voids in the stone and the whole is bound into a solid monolith

by the setting and hardening of the cement.

The materials mixed with the cement in forming concretes are
known as aggregates. The sand or stone chips in the mortar is
called the fine aggregate and the coarser gravel or broken stone is
the coarse aggregate. In the manufacture of good concrete it is
essential that each of the materials be of proper quality, and that
they be properly proportioned and incorporated into the mixture.
Fine Aggregate. Material which will pass a J-inch screen is
usually included under the term fine aggregate, or sand. The
requirements for sand and its use in mortar have been discussed in
Chapter II. Ordinarily, the sand which makes the strongest and
most dense mortar will also give the best results in concrete, though
this maynot always be the case. The grading of the sand should
be such as to reach maximum density when combined in proper
proportions with the coarse aggregate to be used in the concrete.
Coarse Aggregate. This may consist ofany hard mineral sub-
stance broken to proper size usually broken stone or gravel, although
sometimes broken slag, cinders, or broken brick is used.
The value of stone as an aggregate depends upon much the same
qualities as are needed for building stone. For high-class concrete
work, it is important that the stone should possess strength, and
absorb but little water. Stones breaking to cubical shapes give
better results than those of shaly or slaty character, while rounded
pieces pack closer and show less voids than those with sharp corners.
Trap and granite are usually the best of concrete materials.
When the concrete isto be subjected to abrasive wear, trap is a
superior material. For resistance to direct compression, good granite
110
 AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE 111

isto be preferred. Limestones and sandstones vary greatly in their

values as concrete materials, hard limestones and some of the more
compact sandstones being desirable materials, while the softer vari-
eties are not generally suitable for first-class concrete work. Gravel,
when of flint or other hard material, may make excellent concrete.
Sizes for Broken Stone. The sizes to which concrete stone should
be broken depends upon the use to which the concrete isto be put.
In heavy walls or massive work, the upper limit of size may be 2 or
3 inches in diameter. It is desirable to have the stones as large
as can be easily incorporated into the mixture. In reinforced work,
where the concrete must pass between' and under the reinforcing
rods^it may not be feasible to use stone of more than 1 inch diameter.

In stone or gravel for coarse aggregate, as in sand for mortar,

the grading of sizes should be such as to give maximum density.
For a given stone, the strongest concrete will ordinarily be made
by that arrangement of sizes which requires the least mortar to
completely fill the voids in the stone, as a surplus of mortar beyond
that required for completely filling the voids is an element of weak-
ness in the concrete, as well as a waste of the more expensive materials.
Stone as ordinarily used in concrete contains all sizes, from the
largest allowed to the size of the largest sand. All material retained
on a J- or f-inch screen is commonly regarded as coarse aggregate,
and stone is used as it comes from the crusher with all the sizes
included, only the chips being screened out.
Gravel containing sand is sometimes used without screening by
mixing with cement. This is not desirable practice, as the sand is
seldom in proper quantity or uniformly distributed through the
it should be screened out and proportioned
gravel, properly to the
cement and gravel.
In concrete work it is usually necessary to use the materials
available in the locality of the work, but where important work is
to be done, careful attention should be given to the character of
these materials and made from them. The design
of the concrete
of concrete structures shouldbe based upon full information concern-
ing the properties of the concrete to be used, and this is largely a
question of aggregates. Poor concrete work has much more fre-
quently resulted from the use of poor aggregates than from the use
of inferior cement.
In many cases it may be feasible and desirable to use materials
of low grade in concrete work. Cinder concrete is preferred for some
uses on account of its lightness, although it is low in strength. Local
materials may be of poor quality, but usable by taking proper pre-
112 PLAIN CONCRETE

cautions and designing the work in accordance with the character

of the concrete. Failures have sometimes resulted from the use
of low-grade materials without investigation of their qualities.
Many users of concrete have failed to recognize the importance of
the quality of the aggregates and seem to have regarded any stone
broken to proper size as good enough for concrete.
72. Tests for Coarse Aggregates. There are at present no
standard methods of making tests for concrete aggregates, or stand-
ard specifications for such materials. The methods usually
employed in testing sand have been discussed in Art. 7. A com-
mittee of the American Society for Testing Materials is making a
study of concrete aggregates and of the methods of testing them,
and it is hoped that this may result in a standard practice in making
such tests, and in throwing light upon methods of proportioning
and forming the concrete.
Mechanical Analysis. To determine the relative quantities of
various sizes of stone in aggregate, it is common to make a mechan-
ical analysis of the material. This consists in separating the various
sizes by screening, and recording the amount retained upon each
screen. The following has been adopted by the American Society
for Testing Materials, upon recommendation of its Committee on
Road Materials, as a standard method for making a mechanical
analysis of broken stone or broken slag, except for aggregates used in
cement concrete:

The method shall consist of (1) drying at not over 110 C. (230 F.) to a con-
stant weight a sample weighing in pounds six times the diameter in inches of
the largest holes required; (2) passing the sample through such of the following
size screens having circular openings as are required or called for by the specifi-

cations, screens to be used in the order named: 8.89 cm. (3 in.), 7.62 cm. (3 in.),
6.35 cm. (2J in.), 5.08 cm. (2 in.), 3.81 cm. (H in.), 3.18 cm. (1 in.), 2.54 cm.
(1 in.), 1.90 cm. (f in.), 1.27 cm. ( in.), and 0.64 cm. (\ in.); (3) determining
the percentage by weight retained by each screen; and (4) recording the mechan-
ical analysis in the following manner:

Passing . 64 cm. ( J in.) screen

Passing 1.27 cm. ( in.) screen and retained on a 0.64 cm. (\ in.)
screen
Passing 1.90 cm. (f in.) screen and retained on a 1.27 cm. (^ in.)
screen
Passing 2.54 cm. (1 in.) screen and retained on a 1.90 cm. (f in.)
screen..

100.00
 AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE 113

For materials in which sand is combined with the broken stone

or broken slag, the same method
is employed together with the

fine sievesused for sand (see Art. 7) and the results are recorded
in the same manner, beginning with the 200-mesh sieve.

Apparent Specific Gravity. The weight of a given volume of the

solid material of which the aggregate is composed is often of impor-
tance in the determination of voids, or in proportioning concrete,
a result obtained by determining the apparent specific gravity. The
term apparent specific gravity as here used refers to the material
as it exists, and includes the voids in the block of material tested;
it may be somewhat less than the true specific gravity. For this
purpose, the water to which it is referred need not be distilled, and
determinations at ordinary air temperatures are sufficiently accurate.
The following method of determining apparent specific gravity
of coarse aggregates has been adopted as standard by the American
Society for Testing Materials.
The apparent specific gravity shall be determined in the follow-
ing manner:

1. The sample, weighing 1000 g. and composed of pieces approximately

cubical or spherical in shape and retained on a screen having 1.27 cm. ( in.)
circular openings, shall be dried to constant weight at a temperature between
100 and 110 C. (212 and 230 F.), cooled, and weighed to the nearest 0.5 g.
Record this weight as weight A. In the case of homogeneous material, the
smallest particles in the sample may be retained on a screen having 1| in. cir-
cular openings.
2. Immerse the sample in water for twenty-four hours, surface-dry individual
pieces with the aid of a towel or blotting paper, and weigh. Record this weight
as weight B.
3. Place the sample in a wire basket of approximately | in. mesh, and about
12.7 cm. (5 in.) square and 10.3 cm. (4 in.) deep, suspend in water from center
1

of scale pan, and weigh. Record the difference between this weight and the weight
of the empty basket suspended in water as weight C. (Weight of saturated
sample immersed in water.)
4. The apparent specific gravity shall be calculated by dividing the weight

of the dry sample (A) by the difference between the weights of the saturated
sample in air (B) and in water (C), as follows:

Apparent Specific Gravity =

B-C
5. Attention is called to the distinction between apparent specific gravity
and true specific gravity. Apparent specific gravity includes the voids in the
specimen and therefore always less than or equal to, but never greater than
is

the true specific gravity of the material.

i The basket
may be conveniently suspended by means of a fine wire hung from a hook
shaped in the form of a question mark with the top end resting on the center of the scale pan.
114 PLAIN CONCRETE

The specific gravities and weights per cubic foot of materials

commonly used for aggregates are approximately as follows:
 AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE 115

and hold them apart so that the voids to be filled in the larger material
are increased, and cannot be completely filled. This is shown by
the fact that the volume of the mixture is greater than that of the
coarse aggregate even though the volume of fine aggregate used is
much less than the volume of voids in the larger material.
Selection of Aggregates. The Joint Committee of the Engineer-
ing Societies on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete makes the follow-
ing recommendations concerning the selection of aggregates in its
1917 report.

AGGREGATES

Extreme care should be used in selecting the aggregates for mortar and con-
crete,and careful tests made of the materials for the purpose of determining
the quality and grading necessary to secure maximum density or a minimum
percentage of voids. Bank gravel should be separated by screening into fine
and coarse aggregates and then used in the proportions to be determined by

density tests.
Fine aggregate should consist of sand, or the screenings of gravel or crushed
(a)
stone, graded from fine to coarse, and passing when dry a screen having J in.
diameter holes; it preferably should be of siliceous material, and not more than
30 per cent by weight, should pass a sieve having 50 meshes per 1m ear inch; it
should be clean, and free from soft particles, lumps of clay, vegetable loam, or
other organic matter.
Fine aggregate should always be tested for strength. It should be of such
quality that mortar composed of 1 part Portland cement and 3 parts fine aggre-
gate by weight when made into briquettes, prisms or cylinders will show a tensile
or compressive strength, at an age of not less than seven days, at least equal to
the strength of 1 3 mortar of the same consistency made with the same cement
:

and standard Ottawa sand. If the aggregate be of poorer quality, the propor-
tion of cement should be increased to secure the desired strength. If the strength
developed by the aggregate in the 1 3 mortar is less than 70 per cent of the
:

strength of the Ottawa sand mortar, the material should be rejected. In testing
aggregates care should be exercised to avoid the removal of any coaling on the
grains which may affect the strength; bank sands should not be dried before
being made into mortar, but should contain natural moisture. The percentage
of moisture may be determined upon a separate sample for correcting weight.
From 10 to 40 per cent may be required in mixing bank or artificial sands than
for standard Ottawa sand^to produce the same consistency.
Coarse aggregate should consist of gravel or crushed stone which is retained
on a screen having | in. diameter holes, and should be graded from the smallest
to the largest particles; it should be clean, hard, durable, and free from all dele-
terious matter. Aggregates containing dust and soft, flat, or elongated particles
should be excluded. The Committee does not feel waranted in recommending
the use of blast-furnace slag as an aggregate, in the absence of adequate data
as to its value, especially in reinforced concrete construction. No satisfactory
specifications or methods of inspection have been developed that will control its
uniformity and ensure the durability of the concrete in which it is used.
The aggregate must be small enough to produce with the mortar a homo-
116 PLAIN CONCRETE

geneous concrete of sluggish consistency which will readily pass between and
easily surround the reinforcement and fill all parts of the forms. The maximum
size of particles is variously determined for different types of construction from
that which will pass a -in. ring to that which will pass a 1^-in. ring.
For concrete in large masses the size of the coarse aggregate may be increased,
as a larger aggregate produces a stronger concrete than a fine one; however,
it should be noted that the danger of separation from the mortar becomes greater

as the size of the coarse aggregate increases.

Cinder concrete should not be used for reinforced concrete structures except
in floor slabs not exceeding 8-foot span. It also may be used for fire protection

purposes when not required to carry loads. The cinders should be composed
of hard, clean, vitreous clinker, free from sulphides, unburned coal or ashes.

ART. 20. PROPORTIONING CONCRETE

73. Arbitrary Proportions. The common method of propor-

tioning concrete is by assuming ratios between the volumes of cement,
sand, and coarse aggregate. These proportions are varied accord-
ing to the character of the work, and sometimes are adjusted to the
qualities of the materials. A
formula of definite proportions does
not always lead to the same result unless the method of measuring
the materials is the same, as cement measured loose may vary con-
siderably in weight for the same volume. A barrel of cement may
measure from 3.5 to 5 feet, according to its degree of compactness.
It is desirable to follow the recommendation Committee
of the Joint
on Concrete and take one sack (94 pounds) of cement as a cubic
foot, or a barrel as 4 cubic feet in measuring the materials.
Specific fixed proportions have to a certain extent become stand-
ard in ordinary practice for various kinds of work. For reinforced
concrete in building construction and where it is necessary to develop
considerable strength, the porportions of 1 part cement, 2 parts
sand, ancl 4 parts broken stone are commonly employed. For
positions of special importance, as in column con-
where strength is

struction, or work in light superstructures of buildings, the propor-

tions 1 1J 3, or sometimes 1:1:2, are used. In more massive
: :

work and where only compressions are to be carried with ample

sections, the proportions 1:3:6 and sometimes 1 2J 5 are : :

employed.
The common proportions are based upon the requirement that
the volume of fine aggregates shall be one-half that of the coarse
aggregate. For materials commonly used, this gives a quantity
of mortar sufficient to fill compactly the interstices in the coarse
aggregate. The quality of the mortar is varied by changing the
ratio of cement to fine aggregate, and the strength of the concrete
 PROPORTIONING CONCRETE 117

varies accordingly. The ratios between fine and coarse aggregates

are often varied when the coarse aggregates contain more or less
voids than is usual, and 1:2:3, 1:3:5, 1:2:5 or 1:3:7 con-
crete is frequently used.
Good results have been obtained in practice by this method of
proportioning, when proper attention has been given to the quality
of the aggregates. More careful methods of adjusting proportions
would often be more economical, and equally good results might
sometimes be obtained with less cost for materials. Many users
of concrete employ ordinary proportions for all concrete irrespective
of the character of the materials, and a wide variation in the quality
of the concrete is frequently the result.
74. Proportioning by Voids. A method of proportioning some-
times followed is to determine the voids in the aggregates, and use
enough cement to fill the voids in the fine aggregate and enough
mortar to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate. A small excess of
fine materials is used in each case on account of inequalities of mix-

ing. If the fine materials would all lie in the voids of the larger

materials, this method would always give the desired result, and
produce the concrete of maximum density and greatest strength.
In practice, however, the voids cannot be completely filled, the
volumes of the larger materials are increased by the smaller par-
ticles lying between them, and the distribution of fine material

through the mass is not uniform.

Usually a volume of mortar 5 to 10 per cent in excess of the voids
most nearly fills the voids without leaving appreciable excess of
mortar. More mortar than this swells the volume of the concrete
without increasing density, and has the effect of weakening the con-
crete. If, for instance, sand containing 50 per cent voids is used
with stone containing 40 per cent voids, and just fills the voids in
the stone without increasing the volume, the resulting mixture will
have 20 per cent voids. If an excess of sand be used, this excess
will give an increase in volume having 50 per cent voids.
This method of proportioning is an improvement over that of
arbitrary selection of ratios, and usually gives approximately the
most desirable proportions. Variations in the relative sizes of the
materials, however, may change considerably the proportions neces-
sary to give the most dense concrete. A
certain sand may easily
work into the voids of a given broken stone without materially
increasing its volume, while with another stone containing the same
percentage of voids but of different sizes, the same sand may produce
quite different results, and to secure greatest density would need
118 PLAIN CONCRETE

to be differently proportioned. The object should be to get the

greatest density in the final mixture of fine and coarse aggregates.
The inaccuracies involved in proportioning cement to sand by
determining the voids in the sand is explained in Art. 7. When
determining the ratio of fine to coarse aggregates by the method
of voids, it is usual to proportion cement to sand by adopting an

arbitrary ratio between the two, although some users of concrete

have used the void method for this purpose also.
75. Proportioning by Mechanical Analysis Curves. Mr. William
B. Fuller l
has devised a method of proportioning concrete by plot-
ting the curves of mechanical analysis of the aggregates to be used,
then combining them in such proportions as to give a curve which
corresponds as nearly as possible with a certain ideal curve. This
ideal curve is supposed to represent the combination of sizes which
will give maximum
density for the given materials.
Mechanical Analysis Curve. The method of plotting the curves
of mechanical analysis is shown in Fig. 44. The analyses are made

100

.50 .75 LOO |.5 1.5

DIAMETER OF PARTICLES IN INCHES
FIG. 44. Curves of Mechanical Analyses.

by the method outlined in Section 72. In the curves, the ordinates

represent percentages of the samples (by weight) which pass through
1
An explanation of this method of proportioning is given by Mr. Fuller in
Taylor and Thompson's "Concrete, Plain and Reinforced," Third edition,
Chapter X.
 PROPORTIONING CONCRETE 119

openings whose sizes are shown by their distances from the origin.
Fig. 44 shows a sample of stone and one of sand which are to be used
in forming concrete.
'From these curves, others be drawn showing the grading
may
of sizes in various combinations of cement, sand, and stone. Thus
for the 1:3:6 concrete, we will have percentages passing openings
as follows:

Sizes of Openings,
inches.
120 PLAIN CONCRETE

The values of a and b vary for the different materials and are
as follows:

Materials.
 PROPORTIONING CONCRETE 121

the total weight of aggregates. This ratio depends upon the char-
acter of the work and the need for strength in the concrete, and is
determined as mentioned in Section 82. In many instances, on
important work, it is desirable to test the strength of the concrete
as well as the density and modify the proportion of cement to suit
the requirements. With different aggregates the strength may be
quite different when the same proportion of cement is used, and
economy in the use of cement may result from determination of the
actual strength of concrete with varying proportions of cement to
aggregate. (See Section 102.)
More cement is usually required to produce the same strength
when the sizes of the coarse aggregates are small than when larger
aggregates are used. Stone broken to pass a f-inch screen may
require 20 to 25 per cent more cement for the same strength than
the same stone broken to pass a 1.5-inch screen.
77. Fineness Modulus and Surface Area. Several studies of
methods have recently been made, involving
of proportioning concrete
extensive experimental investigations and resulting in suggestions
of new methods. The tests of Mr. D. A. Abrams in the Structural
Materials Laboratory at the Lewis Institute at Chicago led to the
conclusion that, for a given ratio of cement to aggregate, the pro-
portions requiring the least water to produce the required consistency
would give the greatest strength. This would depend primarily
upon the grading of the aggregate in size, and Mr. Abrams evolved
a method by the use of what he calls the " fineness modulus," based
upon the mechanical analysis of the aggregate. The Tyler series
of sieves is used, Nos. 100, 48, 28, 14, 8, 4, etc., each of which has

openings twice the diameter of those of the preceding ones. Mr.

Abrams method is given in Bulletin No. 1 of the Structural Materials

Research Laboratory.
Mr. N. Edwards has proposed 1 a method of proportioning
L.
concrete by means of the surface areas of the particles of aggregate.
A theoretical study of this method of proportioning has been made
by Mr. R. B. Young, 2 in which he claims that the quantity of water
necessary to bring a concrete mixture to a given consistency is de-
pendent upon the surface area of the aggregates.
These and other investigations in progress are throwing much
light upon the subject of proportioning concrete and upon its qualities.
The concrete is affected by a number of elements, ea^h of which
must be considered in determining the best proportions. The ratio

Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, 1918, Part II.

1

Society for Testing Materials, 1919, Part II.

2
Proceedings, American
122 PLAIN CONCRETE

of cement to aggregate, the voids in the aggregates, the surface

areas of the aggregates, the quantity of water used in mixing are
all important, and are all directly concerned with the grading of

sizes of aggregates. Some method based upon mechanical analysis

may finally be standardized for general use, when the relative impor-
tance of the various factors are more fully understood. Any of the
methods proposed may be employed as a guide in selecting propor-
tions, but actual trial of the materials in concrete is necessary to
give certainty in results.
78. Yield of Concrete. The quantities of materials needed for
a cubic yard of concrete vary with the amount of voids in the aggre-
gates and the proportions in which they are combined The sizes
of the aggregates and the quantity of water used in mixing also
influence the yield of concrete.
Concrete is made up of a mixture of cement, fine aggregate,
and coarse aggregate, or it is a mixture of cement mortar with coarse
aggregate. The volume of the concrete is the sum of the volumes
of the mortar, the solid material in the coarse aggregate and the
unfilled voids in the coarse aggregate.

Let C = Volume of cement in cubic feet (bags of 94 pounds each) ;

S = Volume of fine aggregate in cubic feet ;

R = Volume of coarse aggregate in cubic feet ;

F= Volume of voids in coarse aggregate in cubic feet;

s= Ratio of sand to cement = S/C]
r= Ratio of coarse aggregate to cement = R/C;
v = Ratio of voids to total volume of coarse aggregate, V/R.
The quantities of ingredients necessary to produce given volumes
of cement mortars, and the variations for different materials, are
discussed in Section 34, and while these quantities vary considerably
with different materials, the volume of mortar produced by the
mixture of different proportions of cement and sand is fairly well
expressed by the expression :

Volume of mortar = aC+6$,

in which a and b are coefficients depending upon the character of

the sand. The volume of concrete from given quantities of cement,
sand and stone may then be expressed by the formula :

Q = aC+bS+c(R-V),
in which c is a coefficient depending upon the amount of unfilled
voids in the stone. For ordinary fairly coarse sands commonly
 PROPORTIONING CONCRETE 123

used for concrete, a may be taken .67 and b For well compacted,
.77.

plastic concrete of ordinary materials, c is about 1.10. With these

values of the coefficients, the formula becomes:

or
Q = C[.67+.77H-l.lr(l-t;)].

The volume of cement required to make a cubic yard of concrete

is:

The number of barrels of cement = C/4.

Cubic yards of sand = Cs/27,

cubic yard of stone = Cr/27.

Table VI gives approximate quantities of materials required for

1 cubic yard of plastic concrete, using stone with differing percent-
ages of voids. Average crusher run stone, with chips removed, has
about 40 to 45 per cent voids; good natural gravel, screened, may
have 35 to 40 per cent voids; mixed stone and gravel often runs
from 30 to 35 per cent voids, while carefully graded materials may
have voids reduced to from 20 to 30 per cent.
Variations in the characters of the materials used, and in the
methods of handling and placing the concrete may vary considerably
the quantities of materials required. Dry concrete, if thoroughly
compacted by ramming, is more dense and occupies less space than
plastic or wet concrete, but as ordinarily placed is more porous and
occupies more space. Fine sand swells more when mixed with
cement and water, and fills more space in plastic concrete, than
coarse sand. Coarse broken stone compacts in concrete so as to
leave less unfilled voids than smaller stone with the same per cent
of voids. Poor work, such as irregular mixing or imperfect com-
pacting, results in more porous concrete and requires less materials.
Tests of the yield of concrete may easily be made by mixing a
batch in the proportions to be used and measuring the resulting
concrete. In cases where accurate estimates of quantities are impor-
tant and data concerning the particular materials are not at hand,
such tests should be made.
124 PLAIN CONCRETE

00
Q
O
>
 MIXING CONCRETE 125

ART. 21. MIXING CONCRETE

79. Preparation of Materials. In making concrete, the materials

should be properly prepared and conveniently placed for use, as the
labor cost of concrete work is largely a matter of arrangements for
handling materials. The work should be systematized so that it
goes forward smoothly, without loss of time in any of its parts.
Broken stone can usually be obtained within such range of sizes
as may be desired. In preparing crushed stone, the crusher is set
to the maximum size allowed, and the product varies from this size
to dust. This product is then passed through rotary screens inclined
at a small angle to the horizontal, which are made in sections of
different sizes of openings, and admit of screening the stone into
several sizes at one operation. When considerable quantities of
materials are being used, the cost of handling the stone may not be
materially increased by using several sizes and grading the aggregate.
In any case where the aggregates available are badly graded, the
advantage to be gained by grading them should be carefully con-
sidered.
The screened stone usually drops from the screens into bins,
which are arranged so that the contents may be drawn off through
chutes into cars or wagons for transportation to the work. The
sizes and arrangement of the bins depend upon the need for storage
and the kind of transportation. It is usually desirable that the bins
be of sufficient size to equalize variations in the rate of use, or short
delays in the crushing plant, so that work may proceed continuously.
Gravel and sand nearly always need to be screened. When con-
siderable quantities are to be handled, and power for operating the
screen is available, rotary screens are desirable, giving the most
economical handling of the material, and admitting of division into
required sizes.
In small work usual to employ hand screens, which are set
it is

up in an inclined and the material thrown against them

position,
with a shovel, the finer material passing through and the coarser
sliding down to the foot of the screens. Sometimes two or more
inclined screens are placed so that the material which passes one
fallsupon the one below, each being hinged so that its inclination
to the horizontal may be adjusted.
Sand and gravel frequently require washing to remove dirt and
fine material, which is often accomplished by supplying water in
the chutes leading to the screens, the dirt being washed through a
fine screen which retains the aggregate. Sometimes the material
126 PLAIN CONCRETE

iswashed down a sloping trough, with a fine screen set in its bottom
to permit the dirt to pass through. Portable plants for screening
and washing are available hi a number of forms, and often provide
the most economical means of handling work of this kind. Wetting
the material while in a pile, for the purpose of cleaning it, is useless.
Somestorage of materials where the work is to be done is usually
necessary, in order to have a supply which permits work to proceed
continuously. The location of the materials with reference to the
mixer, or mixing platform, should be carefully considered, as their
convenience to the work affects the cost of mixing the concrete.
The amount of storage should be as small as is consistent with assur-
ing a continuous supply to the mixers.
80. HandMixing. Concrete may be mixed by any method
which produce a homogeneous mass of uniform consistency.
will
The arrangement of the work and methods of manipulating the
materials in hand mixing vary greatly with the character of the con-
struction and the ideas of the men in charge. The costs vary as
widely as the methods.
Measuring the Materials. Bottomless boxes are sometimes used
for measuring the aggregates, the box being placed on the mixing
platform, and then removed, leaving the material on the plat-
filled,
form an accurate means of measuring, and desirable when it can
be employed without materially increasing the cost of handling the
aggregates.
Measuring in wheelbarrows is commonly employed, and fre-
quently results in very irregular proportioning, as the barrow may
not always be equally filled, unless special attention be given to the
loading. When this method is employed, it is desirable to have
barrows of such form that they may be evenly filled to level surface.
When ordinary barrows are used, a bottomless box may be placed
in the barrow, filled and removed, before starting with the load.
It is worth while to use a method that will give accurate measure-

ment, even at a small extra cost for labor.

Cement is measured by counting bags.

The mixing of concrete by hand should be done upon a water-

tight platform. The cement and sand should first be mixed dry,
being turned by shovels, or worked by hoes, until the mixture has
uniform color. Water may then be added and the mixture worked
into a rather soft mortar, after which the stone is wheeled or shoveled
on top of the mortar and the whole turned with shovels until
thoroughly mixed. When this method is followed the stone should
be wet, to prevent taking the water from the mortar.
 MIXING CONCRETE 127

After mixing the sand and cement dry, the stone may be immedi-
ately distributed over the top of the mixture, water added, and the
whole mixed by turning with shovels. In mixing concrete the shovels
must be turned completely over and the contents deposited bottom
side up. It is often difficult for workmen who have used shovels in
other work to get the knack of doing this. Until they do, they
accomplish very little.
Water should be poured on from buckets and care used to get
only the quantity needed to properly mix the concrete. The
quantity of water to be used depends upon the character of the work
and manner of placing the concrete. An excess of water beyond
that necessary to give a plastic consistency is always an element of
weakness in the concrete.
Work of this kind always requires close supervision to see that
all of the operations are properly performed and that the concrete
produced is of uniformly good quality. Economy in hand mixing
depends upon the work being so organized that it goes smoothly
in all its parts, every man having his regular duties, and the number
of men at each kind of work being such that one set of men does not
have to stand idle waiting for others.
81. Machine Mixing. Machinery is now used for mixing in

practically all large concrete construction, and it israpidly replacing

hand mixing in much of the smaller work. Portable plants, which
may readily be moved from place to place, are making this economic-

ally feasible. There are a large number of mixers on the market,

differing more or less in their method of mixing the materials or in
their mechanical appliances for handling materials.

Rotating batch mixers are either cubical boxes mounted to rotate

about horizontal axes passing through two opposite corners, or
cylindrical or conical drums rotating about
their geometrical axes.
The interior of the mixer
usually provided with blades, causing
is

the materials to be thrown from one part of the mixer to another

by the rotation. In using these mixers, the materials in proper pro-
portions to form a batch of concrete are put into the hopper of the
machine, and charged into the mixer at one time. The mixer is then
run for a sufficient length of time to mix the ingredients, thoroughly
and the concrete is drawn offthrough the outlet. The amount
of water required should be determined, and measured for each
batch. Automatic appliances for measuring water are provided on
some machines.
The proportions of materials are under perfect control by this
method, and the thoroughness of mixing may be insured by regulat-
128 PLAIN CONCRETE

ing the time of rotation for a batch. Examination of the concrete as

it comes from the mixer will show whether it is thoroughly mixed
and of proper consistency. Some operators try to speed the work
by using more water than necessary and using less time in mixing.

This diminishes the strength of the concrete and should not be

allowed. The more thoroughly the concrete is mixed, the less the
amount of water required to produce a given consistency, and
thoroughly mixed materials flow better and have less tendency to
separate in placing than those made soft by excess of water. In
most cases the run should not be less than one minute properly to
mix a batch. Some machines have devices for automatic control
of the discharge to prevent shortening the time of mix.
Paddle mixers, consisting of a series of paddles mounted on a
horizontal shaft, and working in a trough, are usually employed as
continuous mixers. In these, the materials are fed in at one end,
forced down the trough by the paddles, and discharged at the other
end. These machines have not usually been so satisfactory as the
batch mixers, on account of the lack of uniformity in supplying the
materials. Some automatic feeding appliances have been found to
work fairly well, and when the supply of ingredients can be evenly
regulated these machines may do good work.
Gravity mixers are those in which the materials are mixed by
falling through a vertical or inclined chute, and striking obstructions
in the fall which throw them together. This mixer requires no
power for operation, but the materials must be at a considerable
elevation to provide the necessary fall.
The cost of machine mixing depends largely upon the appliances
used in conveying the materials to and from the mixer and the method
of feeding the mixer. The arrangement of a mixing plant must
depend upon the character and amount of work to be done and the
topography of the site. When the work is large arid concentrated
within a small area, a plant of permanent character may be erected
with derricks or other mechanical appliances for handling the materi-
als. Sometimes a plant of this kind is made semi-portable by erect-
ing on a framework resting upon wheels or rollers, which permit
it

it being moved as the work progresses.

It is very common to have the mixer set so that it may discharge

into barrows or carts on the ground, the materials being supplied

by wheelbarrows from piles on the ground near the mixer. For

this purpose, the rotary mixer, with movable hopper which may be
let down to the ground for filling, is often used, portable plants
mounted on wheels being very commonly of this type. Wheel-
 PLACING CONCRETE 129

barrows with the wheel under the body of the barrow, so that the
barrow may be easily dumped over the wheel, are convenient for
this kind of work.
In building construction, the mixer is commonly at the surface
of the ground and supplied by barrows, the concrete being delivered
at required elevations by bucket hoists.

ART. 22. PLACING CONCRETE

82. Transporting Concrete. The methods of handling concrete

from the mixer to its final location vary with the size of the work
and the consistency of the concrete.
For small work and short distances, wheelbarrows are commonly
used. Ordinary contractors' barrows carry from about 1.8 to 2.0
cubic feet at a load. For longer hauls, two-wheeled barrows, carry-
ing about 6 cubic feet, are more economical. On large work, cars
running on temporary tracks are frequently employed, or when the
work is within a short radius, derricks may be used. In building
operations concrete is frequently raised by a bucket hoist to the
required elevation and distributed by barrows to the various parts
of the work.
These methods of handling, in which a small bulk of the concrete
is held together in transportation and dumped at once into place,
offer little opportunity for the ingredients of the concrete to separate.
Well-mixed concrete of any proper consistency may be transported
to considerable distances without being injured. Concrete that
is so dry as to lack cohesion, or concrete that is so wet that the mor-

tar is soft enough to run away from the stone, shows a tendency to

separation in handling, and these consistencies should not be used.

Transportation in Chutes. The distribution of concrete is some-
times effected by elevating it sufficiently to permit it to flow in a
trough or chute to its destination, and by arranging a system of
movable chutes it is often possible to distribute over considerable
area from a single hoisting tower. When the mixer can be set above
the work, as in foundations or sometimes in dams and similar struc-
tures, the concrete may be transported wholly by gravity.
To flow in chutes, rather soft, mushy concrete is necessary,
unless the chutes are quite steep. When the slope of the chute is
very flat, the concrete must be made very wet, and does not result
in first-class work, while the extra water necessary to make the
concrete flow on a flat slope causes the mortar to separate from
the stone, and frequently washes portions of the cement from the
130 PLAIN CONCRETE

mortar. The
practice of adding water in the chutes to assist the
flow is
always detrimental.
Experience indicates that concrete may be made to flow readily
in chutes on slopes from about 20 to 35 to the horizontal; for
any slope less than about 20, the concrete must be made too wet.
The mass of concrete should slide along the chute as a whole, the
stone and mortar traveling together at common velocity. For
ordinary mushy concrete, as commonly used in reinforced work, a
slope of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical is found most efficient.
Pneumatic Transportation, by forcing the concrete through pipes
by compressed air, has been used in some instances a method avail-
able on congested work, where space is lacking for other means of
1
transport, as in tunnel and subway work.
83. Depositing Concrete. When concrete is mixed dry (the
consistency of damp earth) and placed in mass construction, it is

usually placed in layers about 6 inches deep and each layer tamped
until the mortar flushes to the surface. Concrete so mixed and placed
attains greater strength than if mixed with more water. If dry

concrete is not tamped so as to be thoroughly compacted, it is more

porous and has less strength than wet concrete; the labor required
in properly placing dry concrete is considerable and the work strenu-
ous, so that for ordinary uses dry concrete is not commonly employed.
Poor work has frequently resulted from the use of dry concrete not
properly compacted.
In ordinary practice concrete is mixed either to a rather stiff

plastic condition or to a softer mushy consistency. Plastic con-

crete, when in massive work, should be spread in layers not more

than 10 or 12 inches deep and lightly rammed; the mortar should
readily flush to the surface and the mass quake like jelly under the
ramming. The rammer is usually a flatpiece of iron about 6 inches
square, with a vertical handle, and weighing 15 to 20 pounds.
Smaller tapering rammers are also used for compacting next to the
forms.
Mushy concrete may be deposited in somewhat thicker layers,
being lightly tamped or worked with rammers of small section,
usually about 2x3 inches, for the purpose of eliminating air bubbles
and making sure that there are no open spaces unfilled with mortar.
A flat spade is commonly run down next to the form to bring the

mortar to the surface and prevent voids which often occur where
the stones of the concrete are in contact with the form.
1
See Engineering and Contracting, March 17, 1915, or Engineering News,
March 16, 1916.
 PLACING CONCRETE 131

Laitance. In the use of very soft concrete, when an excess of

water is used, thereis a tendency for certain parts of the cement

to be taken up by the surplus water and deposited on the upper

surface of the concrete as a sort of light-colored slime, which is
known as laitance. Its formation involves a loss of cement in the
concrete and, if left in the body of the concrete, it forms a plane of
weakness in the mass of concrete. Laitance is often found to an
objectionable extent when very wet concrete is chuted to place,
and deposited in masses of considerable vertical thickness. A column
of wet concrete poured through chutes may have a cap of laitance
2 or 3 inches thick which must be removed.
.
Bonding to Old Work. Joints must frequently be made with
work previously placed. In massive work, subjected only to com-
pressive stresses normal to the joints, the surface of the old concrete
must be clean and should be wet before the placing of the new con-
crete. In work where the strength of the bond of the new to the old
work is of special importance, the old work should be cleaned, all
laitance removed, the skin on smooth surfaces broken by scarifying,
and the surface thoroughly wet. A coating of cement paste will
then aid the bond with the new work.
Joints between different days' work should be carefully located
where they will be least injurious to the strength of the structure.
When feasible it is desirable to divide a structure into integral parts,
each of which may be constructed without stopping the work.
Depositing under Water. Concrete work for under-water con-
struction is sometimes done by passing the mixed concrete through
the water to the desired position. It is common to use a tremie for
this purpose. This consists of a tube or closed chute, which is kept
full of concrete so that the water has no chance to wash the concrete

as it passes downward. The bottom of the tremie is moved about

over the surface upon which the concrete is being deposited, so that
the concrete does not fall through the water. Concrete for this
purpose must be quite wet, in order to flow readily to place without
being washed by the water through which it is passing.
Buckets, which are filled with concrete, lowered through the
water, and dumped by opening the bottom when in contact with
the surface upon which the concrete is to be placed, are also some-
times used for under-water work. The method of enclosing the
concrete in bags and placing these in contact with each other has
also been used for this purpose.
84. Placing Concrete in Freezing Weather. The setting and
hardening of concrete are greatly retarded at low temperatures; in
132 PLAIN CONCRETE

cold weather much longer time is needed to gain strength, and forms
must be longer before removal. Accidents have sometimes
left

occurred to concrete structures through premature removal of forms,

on account of failure to consider the influence of temperature upon
the rate of hardening. At 40 F., the time required to gain a given
strength is two or three times as long as at 70 F.; below 40 F..
the required time rapidly increases as the temperature is lowered.
Cement mortar or concrete made and frozen before it has time to
set is uninjured by freezing and sets and hardens properly after it

thaws out. If the mortar is frozen when partially set or soon after
it has set and before any considerable strength has been gained, the

expansion caused by freezing breaks the bond and destroys the

cohesion of the mass, causing it to crumble upon thawing out.
The use of concrete in freezing weather, except in large masses,
should be avoided in so far as possible. When it is necessary to
place concrete at freezing temperature, or when it is likely to be
frozen soon after placing, extreme care should be taken to minimize
the probable effect of freezing upon the concrete. The methods
employed may be intended to hasten the setting and hardening of
the cement, to prevent the concrete from freezing soon after placing,
or both, and for this purpose, materials may be selected that will
act quickly when made into mortar. Quick-setting cements, how-
ever, are sometimes more retarded by low temperatures than others
setting more slowly at normal temperatures. In selecting materials,
it is more important to get those acquiring strength quickly than
those setting quickly.
Heating the Materials, and mixing and placing them warm, has
the effect of hastening the hardening processes, and also prevents
immediate freezing. If the temperature is but little (3 or 4) below
the freezing-point, heating the materials and placing the concrete
warm may be sufficient to prevent injury from freezing. Protec-
tion should also be given the concrete to delay freezing as long as
possible. The materials should not be at a temperature much above
100 or 110 F. at the time of mixing. The use of hot water is
injurious to the cement, and may defeat the object of heating by
preventing the cement setting properly.
Having placed the concrete while warm, if the temperature is

likely tobe more than 3 or 4 below the freezing-point, it is neces-

sary to have some means of keeping the work from freezing on the
surface, which may sometimes be done by enclosing the work in
some way and using small stoves, or steam pipes may be available
for heating small enclosed spaces. In placing work in large masses,
 PLACING CONCRETE 133

the heat of chemical action will prevent freezing in the body of the
work, but exposed surfaces must be protected.
Use of Salt. When the temperature isbut little below the freez-
ing-point, the freezing of concrete may be prevented by dissolving
salt in the water used for mixing. A small addition of salt (3 to
5 per cent of the weight of water) lowers the freezing-point of the
concrete, and prevents injury from freezing at temperatures perhaps
5 or 6 below freezing. The salt also has the effect of somewhat
increasing the rapidity of hardening, which is very slow at such
temperatures.
Salt is sometimes used in larger proportion, 10 to 15 per cent of
the weight of water, to prevent freezing at lower temperatures.
This seems to retard hardening, and is considered by some engineers
to be harmful to the concrete.
85. Contraction Joints. Cement mortar and concrete expand
and contract with changes of temperature in the same manner as
other materials. They also change in dimension with changes in

moisture, expanding when wet and contracting when dry.

Temperature Changes. The coefficient of expansion of concrete
has been found by various investigators to vary from about .0000050
to .0000065 per degree F., the average result being about .0000055

per degree F., or .0000099 per degree C. If the coefficient of elas-

ticity of the concrete is 2,000,000, this would be sufficient to produce
a unit 440 lb./in. 2 for a change of temper-
stress in the concrete of ,

ature of 40 F. if the concrete be restrained from yielding.

Concrete in large masses frequently reaches a high temperature
during the period of early hardening, due to the heat produced by
the chemical changes taking place, temperatures of from 95 F. to
150 F. having been observed. 1 In thin walls this is largely counter-
acted by the radiation into the atmosphere. The influence of changes
of atmospheric temperatures rapidly decreases with the distance
from the surface of the concrete. Daily variations of temperature
are not felt at depths of more than 2 or 3 feet, while seasonal vari-
ations may not reach more than one-third the amount of the change
in the outside air at a depth of 10 feet.

Moisture Changes. Variations in moisture conditions are of

greater importance than those of temperature in causing mortar or

concrete to expand and contract. These changes are of special
importance during the time that the concrete is hardening. Experi-
ments indicate that concrete kept in dry air during the period of
Temperature Changes in Mass Concrete, by Paul and Mayhew, Trans-
1

actions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. LXXIX, 1915, p. 1225.

134 PLAIN CONCRETE

hardening undergoes a progressive shrinkage, while that kept in water

expands during the same period, but to a less extent. The results
obtained by different investigators have varied considerably in the
extent of the changes shown. In general, concrete exposed to dry
air may be expected to contract .04 to .06 per cent of its length in
six months after mixing, while if kept under water it may expand
.01 to .02 per cent. The changes forcement mortar are greater
than for concrete, the extent of the change being greater as the
mortar is richer.
Tests indicate that concrete at any age expands if changed from
dry to wet condition, and contracts if changed from wet to dry.
Concrete subject to changes in moisture conditions, therefore, alter-
nately expands and contracts with such changes, unless restrained
by its position We have no means of estimating
from such motion.
the amount be expected in concrete work, but
of the variations to
under ordinary conditions these effects must be much less than the
progressive variations during hardening.
Available data are not sufficient to determine to what extent
the expansions or contractions taking pla?e during
progressive
1
hardening may be permanent. Indications are that concrete which
has been kept wet during the first month or more and then permitted
to dry for several months, does not shrink to the same extent as that
which kept dry during the whole period. Concrete kept damp
is

during the early period of hardening should not crack when exposed
to the air to the same extent as that continuously dry.
It seems probable that under some conditions progressive changes
in dimension may take place over a long period, though it must
not be inferred that work in which the concrete is restrained from
such changes is subjected to the stresses which would be imposed

by the necessity of resisting them all at once. Concrete restrained,

as in reinforced work, from yielding to the tendency to contract,
probably becomes adjusted to the situation so that it would not
contract if the restraint were removed.

Contraction joints are commonly used to prevent the cracking

of concrete by shrinkage. The compressive strength of concrete
isusually sufficient to take up the stresses due to expansion without
injury to the structure, but tensions due to contraction may be
sufficient to crack the concrete.
1
See, "Expansion and Contraction of Concrete While Hardening," by A.
T. Goldbeck, Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. XI,
"Volume Changes in Portland Cement Mortar and Concrete," by
p. 563, also,
A. H. White, Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. XIV,
p. 203.
 PLACING CONCRETE 135

Thin concrete walls usually need contraction joints 20 to 30 feet

apart; in heavy walls, they may be 50 or 60 feet apart. The use
of light reinforcement in the exposed surfaces between expansion
joints prevent disfiguring surface cracks.
may
may be formed by building the work in
Ordinarily these joints
sections and allowing one section to set before the adjoining one is
placed. This introduces planes of weakness through the work
which when the wall contracts. To bond the ends together,
will yield

grooves may be left in the sections first constructed and filled in

placing the new work. Joints are sometimes made by inserting
strips of roofing paper and placing the new concrete against these,
or where water-tight work is necessary by filling a thin opening in
the concrete with asphalt cement.
86. Finishing Concrete Surfaces. The appearance of a con-
crete structure depends largely upon the way in which the surfaces
are finished. When the forms are removed, the marks of the lumber
of the forms are plainly visible, and lines between successive layers
of concrete are usually seen. When the concrete next the form has
been carefully spaded in placing the concrete, the surface should
be fairly smooth with no vacant spaces which require filling, and
if the forms are smooth, a quite even, uniform appearance
may be
obtained. For certain classes of structures, such as retaining walls
and bridge abutments in certain locations, the appearance may be
satisfactory without further treatment, although the dead color of
the smooth surface skin is not particularly pleasing.
A smooth surface is sometimes obtained by plastering with
cement mortar a method not usually satisfactory, as the mortar
is apt to scale off. A rough appearance is usually more suitable to
the material, and the surface of the concrete itself should be used.
When a smooth mortar surface is desired, it should be obtained by
placing the mortar at the same time as the concrete, which may be
done by using a movable form for the mortar. The form slides
inside the main form and separates the mortar from the concrete,
and is removed as the materials are placed so that they may be
tamped together.
A pleasing appearance may often be made by scrubbing the
surface with a stiff brush and water as soon as it has set sufficiently
to remove the forms, which removes the marks of the forms and
brings the pieces of larger aggregate into view. Scrubbing must
be done before the concrete has hardened too much, usually within
twenty-four hours of placing the concrete, and immediately after
removing the forms, as the surface hardens rapidly after the forms
136 PLAIN CONCRETE

are taken off. In removing forms for this purpose, care must be
used to prevent breaking the corners of the concrete, as, to present
a good appearance, the edges must be straight and sharp. Scrubbing
involves comparatively little labor and is an inexpensive method
of finishing.
After the concrete surface is hard it may be scrubbed, and the
skin removed, by the use of a solution of about one part hydro-
chloric acid to five parts water, though this method is quite laborious
and rather expensive.
Concrete surfaces are sometimes finished by tooling, using the
axe, bush-hammer, or point. The concrete may thus be made to
show a very uniformly roughened surface which is very pleasing.
If neatly done, this is rather slow and expensive, although a roughly

pointed effect may be produced with less work.

The appearance of the finished surface may be controlled by the
choice of aggregates. Ifa uniform appearance is desired, small
aggregates may be used on the surface. If a more rough appearance
is wanted, larger and less uniform material may be employed. Pleas-
ing color effects may often be had by care in the choice of aggregates
to be used on the surface, or mortar colors may be used for the pur-

pose. White Portland cement may also be used where special

effects are desired.

Breaking the continuity of a surface by introducing panels may

frequently improve its appearance. These are made by nailing
boards of proper shape to the inside of the forms. The surface may
be broken by lines indented into the concrete by nailing strips of
triangular section to the inside of the forms.
\

ART. 23. WATERTIGHT CONCRETE

87. Permeability of Concrete. The permeability of a wall of
concrete varies with the size and shape of the aggregates, the density
of the mixture, and the richness of the mortar. For given aggre-
gates, the densest and strongest mixture will usually be the least
permeable, although the least porous concrete is not necessarily the
leastpermeable when different materials are used.
Mortar composed of fine sand is more porous and less permeable
than mortar of coarse sand mixed in the same proportions. Graded
sand, with sufficient fine materials, shows less porosity and less
permeability than either fine or coarse sand alone, but with any sand,
the permeability of mortar decreases as the ratio of cement to sand
increases.
 WATERTIGHT CONCRETE 137

The permeability of mortar decreases with age during the period

of hardening, and mortar subject to the continuous nitration of
water decreases in permeability. Messrs. Fuller and Thompson 1
found that the permeability of concrete decreased as the maximum
size of coarse aggregate increased, and that gravel concrete was less
permeable than that made with broken stone.
The use of sand cement (see Section 16) in place of Portland
cement ordinarily gives a somewhat more impervious concrete, and
is frequently used for the purpose. The extremely fine grinding
to which the cement is subjected in preparing the sand cement is
favorable to making a water-tight mortar.
'Water-proof Concrete. With carefully selected and proportioned
materials and good workmanship, concrete may be made practically
water-tight. To secure this result, rich mortar (at least 1 to 2)
should be used, and the aggregates graded to produce a dense mix-
ture. The concrete should be thoroughly mixed to a plastic or
soft, but not too wet, consistency, and placed carefully, eliminating
joints if possible. When horizontal joints are unavoidable, the
skin on the old surface should be broken and roughened before
.

placing the cement paste to receive the new work. A thickness of

1 foot of well-constructed concrete wall may be expected to be
practically water-tight, under a head of 50 feet. No wall to hold
water pressure should be less than 6 inches thick.
When a lean concrete is used for the body of the work, a thin
surface of rich concrete, or of cement mortar, may be placed upon
the water face; this face must be built up with the main body of
the work and firmly united with it, and contraction joints must be
used where cracks are likely to occur.
Tests for Permeability. The permeability of concrete is tested
by forcing water through a block of concrete under pressure, the
block being so arranged that the water can escape only by passing
through the concrete. In an apparatus used by Mr. Thompson 2
for this purpose the sides of the mold were made by two pieces of

wrought iron bent to a half-circle and bolted together, these rest-

ing on a plank which formed the bottom of the mold until the con-
crete had set. The surfaces of the concrete were chipped to remove
the skin, the blocks turned upside down in making the tests, and
the water measured which passed through the block.
88. Integral Waterproofing. For the purpose of increasing the
water-tightness of concrete, additions of other materials are some-
1
Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. LIX, 1907, p. 67.
2
Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. VIII, p. 506.
138 PLAIN CONCRETE

times made. There are a number of proprietary compounds on the

market to be mixed with the concrete to make it impervious, known
as integral water-proofing compounds. Some of these may be of
value, provided they are not used in lieu of proper proportions or
good work in placing the concrete, but dependence upon making
meager or improperly mixed concrete water-tight by additions of
waterproofing compounds is apt to end in failure.
Hydrated Lime. The addition of hydrated lime to the cement
mortar used in concrete may be useful in assisting in making the
concrete water-tight. As already noted (Section 35), mortar con-
taining lime works easier, and is preferred by masons for brickwork
(Section 60). A
small addition of hydrated lime makes concrete
flow more readily in placing and tends to prevent separation of the
materials in handling, and it is sometimes used for this reason in
concrete which is to be chuted to place.
Hydrated lime may be used in cement mortar to replace a small
per cent by weight of the cement without injury to the strength
of the mortar. It is a -very finely divided material, much more bulky
than the cement, and therefore renders the mortar less permeable.
Where the strength is sufficient, a somewhat leaner concrete may
be used if hydrated lime is added. Experiments by Mr. Thompson 1
show that hydrated lime may be of considerable value in rendering
concrete impervious under considerable heads. Mr. Thompson
recommends the addition of hydrated lime in the following percent-
ages of weight of dry hydrated lime to the weight of Portland cement :

For 1 part Portland cement; 2 parts sand; 4 parts stone,

add 8 per cent hydrated lime.
For 1 part Portland cement; 2f parts sand; 4J parts stone,
add 12 per cent hydrated lime.
For 1 part Portland cement; 3 parts sand; 5 parts stone,
add 16 per cent hydrated lime.

Clay. Finely divided clay in the sand used in making concrete

has been found to lessen the permeability of the concrete. The clay
must be free from vegetable matter and present in small propor-
tion, not more than 5 per cent of the weight of sand. Finely pulver-
ized rock has much the same effect. These materials are of use
when the mortar is lean, though for rich mortars they may be detri-
mental to strength without materially affecting the permeability.
Alum and soap solution has sometimes been used to mix with
the body of concrete and seems to have been fairly efficient as a
Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. VIII, p. 500.
1
 WATERTIGHT CONCRETE 139

water-proofing medium. In applying, it is usually best to mix

powdered alum with the cement and dissolve the hard soap in the
water to be used in mixing. The soap may be about 3 per cent of
the weight of water, and the alum about one-half the weight of the
soap.
Oil-mixed Concrete. has been proposed to use mineral oil
It
as an integral water-proofing. The results of experiments by Mr.
Page indicated that the use of a small amount of asphaltic oil in
1

mixing cement mortar decreased the permeability of the mortar,

without materially decreasing its strength. He found the crushing
strength to be somewhat reduced, when the weight of oil was 10
per cent that of the cement the crushing strength was reduced
about 25 per cent.
The lubricating effect of the oil is such that it cannot be used
for reinforced work with plain steel bars.
The oil recommended by Mr. Page is a fluid petroleum resiauai,
and he suggests the use of 5 per cent of the weight of cement for

water-proofing purposes.
89. Waterproof Coatings. Various methods have been pro-
posed and are sometimes used for the treatment of concrete surfaces
to make them waterproof. For ordinary work, as already stated,
the concrete may itself be made water-tight and nothing is needed
beyond care and in preparing and placing
in the selection of materials
the Under some circumstances, however, as in old
concrete.
work or where joints and cracks cannot be avoided, it may be neces-
sary to provide some means of protecting the surface of concrete
against the penetration of water.
Layers of Waterproof Materials. Probably the most effective
method of protection is that of applying layers of waterproof paper
or felt coated with asphalt or coal-tar pitch. The concrete is first

coated with hot asphalt, layers of paper or felt are then placed, and
each coated with the hot asphalt, the applications being made from
3-ply to 6-ply, depending upon the degree of protection needed a
method frequently employed on subways, and bridge floors with
good results. Objection has been made to this method on account
ofit preventing the radiation of heat in subway work. Careful
workmanship is necessary in placing such a protection; the layers
must break joints properly, and be protected against being punctured
after being placed.
Cement Grout. Washing the surface of concrete with a grout of

Oil-Mixed Portland Cement Concrete, Bulletin No. 46, Office of Public

1

Roads, Washington.
140 PLAIN CONCRETE

neat Portland cement may sometimes be of use on a surface exposed

to water, serving to fill voids and cracks which may exist in the
surface.

Plastering with cement mortar, or other materials mixed with

cement, is sometimes adopted as a means of waterproofing. Usually
such plastering needs protection against possible weather cracks,
and sometimes the plaster does not adhere. On horizontal or inclined
surfaces a troweled mortar finish, similar to that commonly used
on sidewalks, makes a water-tight job, provided care be taken to
guard against cracks, and to insure the bonding of the mortar to
the concrete.
Alum and Soap. A solution of soap and alum is often used to
wash the surface of concrete; it is of the same character as the mix-
ture employed in integral waterproofing, and is also sometimes used
for mixing with cement mortar for plastering the surface.
Bituminous coatings consisting of one or more coatings of asphalt
or tar painted on hot are sometimes employed, such applications
being often used on the outside of the cellar walls of buildings. A
number of proprietary compounds are available for use as surface
washes, some of which seem quite effective, though in many cases
they require renewal from time to time. Some interesting tests
of a number of methods of waterproofing concrete surfaces were
made by Mr. F. M. McCullough, and the results given in Bulletin
No. 336 of the University of Wisconsin, on " Tests of the Permea-
bility of Concrete,"

ART. 24. DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

90. Destructive Agencies. Well-constructed concrete, under the

conditions usually met in ordinary work, is practically an inde-
structible material, butunder special conditions, when subject to
the action of agencies peculiar to particular classes of work, con-
crete may yield like any other material. The cracking of concrete
through contraction, as explained in Section 85, may be of injury
to a structure, but the body of concrete itself is not destroyed
or disintegrated by cracking.
Concrete has sometimes seemed to be injured by the action of
certain chemical agencies, such as oils, salts of sea water, alkalies,
and acids. Destruction by electrolysis and by fire have also some-
times occurred.
Effect of Oils. Mineral oils have no ill effects upon concrete,
and have sometimes been used for the purpose of rendering the
 DURABILITY OF CONCRETE 141

surface less pervious, and to prevent dust upon surfaces subject to

abrasion. Some animal fats and vegetable oils seem to cause dis-
integration in concrete. When such oils at high temperatures come
into contact with concrete, a combination of lime from the cement
with acids contained in the oils produces compounds which expand
when crystallizing in the pores. In manufacturing plants, where
animal or vegetable oil may come into contact with concrete, the
effect of such contact should be carefully investigated.

Effect of Acids. Water containing acids should not come into

contact with concrete before it has well hardened. Hard concrete
may resist the action of such solutions unless they are in rather
concentrated form. The effect of any destructive agency of this
character wih be much greater for porous concrete into which the
1

liquid may readily penetrate than for dense concrete.

Electrolysis. In some instances, injury to concrete containing
steel reinforcement has resulted from the leakage of electric cur-
rents through the mass. The Joint Committee on Concrete in its
1917 report make the following statements concerning electrolysis:

Electrolysis. The experimental data available on this subject seem to show

that while reinforced concrete structures may, under certain conditions, be injured
by the flow of electric current in either direction between the reinforcing material
and the concrete, such injury is generally to be expected only where voltages are
considerably higher than those which usually occur in concrete structures in
practice. If the iron be positive, trouble may manifest itself by corrosion of the
iron accompanied by cracking of the concrete, and, if the iron be negative, there
may be a softening of the concrete near the surface of the iron, resulting in a
destruction of the bond. The former, or anode effect, decreases much more
rapidly than the voltage, and almost if not quite disappears at voltages that are
most likely to be encountered in practice. The cathode effect, on the other hand,
takes place even under very low voltages, and is therefore more important from
a practical standpoint than that of the anode.
Structures containing salt or calcium chloride, even in very small quantities,
are very much more susceptible to the effects of electric currents than normal
concrete, the anode effect progressing much more rapidly in the presence of
chlorine, and the cathode effect being greatly increased by the presence of an
alkali metal.
There is great weight of evidence to show that normal reinforced concrete
structures free from salt are in very little danger under most practical conditions,
while non-reinforced concrete structures are practically immune from electrolysis
troubles.

91. Effect of Sea Water upon Concrete. There have been

numerous instances of failure of concrete subject to the action of
sea water, the causes of which are not fully determined. The results
of experiments seem to indicate that salts contained in sea water
act upon nearly all cements to which the water has free access,
142 PLAIN CONCRETE

producing compounds which expand, disrupting the mass of mortar,

or which soften the mortar and cause disintegration. This action
is probably due to sulphates in the sea water, which are decomposed
in contact with the free lime of the cement, the sulphuric acid com-
bining with the lime. A
considerable deposit of magnesia also

commonly occurs cement mortar when exposed to sea water, 1

in

indicating that the sulphate of magnesia may be the source of the

trouble.
Those cements which contain the most lime are usually most
affected by the action of sea water. Cements containing consider-
able alumina should not be used for work in sea water, siliceous
cements, or those in which alumina is replaced by iron oxide being
preferable. In France a siliceous hydraulic lime known as lime of
teil is extensively used for such work.
The addition of finely ground puzzolanic materials to Portland
cement has been found useful in preventing the disintegrating effects
of sea water. These materials probably combine with and reduce
the amounts of free lime available for combination with the sea
salts. As used, they also render the mortar less permeable.
Mortars of fine sand are found to be more affected by sea water
than those of coarse or graded sands.
The injurious action of sea water is dependent upon the water
having access to the body of the concrete, hence it is important in
such work to use concrete of maximum density, or to protect the
body by a surface of dense mortar or concrete. The
of the concrete
Joint Committee on Concrete in its 1917 report makes the following
reference to work in sea water:

The data available concerning the effect of sea water on concrete or reinforced
concrete are limited and inconclusive. Sea walls out of the range of frost action
have been standing for many years without apparent injury. In many places
serious disintegration has taken place. This has occurred chiefly between low
and high tide levels and is due, evidently, in part to frost Chemical action also
appears to be indicated by the softening of the mortar. To effect the best resist-
ance to sea water, the concrete must be proportioned, mixed and placed so as
to prevent the penetration of sea water into the mass or through the joints. The
aggregates should be carefully selected, graded and proportioned with the cement
so as to secure the maximum possible density; the concrete should be thoroughly
mixed; the joints between old and new work should be made watertight; and
the concrete should be kept from exposure to sea water until it is thoroughly
hard and impervious.

1
Alexandre, Annales des Fonts et Chaussees, 1890, Vol. I, p. 408. Candlot,
Ciment et Chaux Hydraulique, Paris, 1891. Feret, Annales des Fonts et Chaussees,
1892, Vol. II, p. 93.
 DURABILITY OF CONCRETE 143

In some localities in the arid regions

92. Effect of Alkalies.
of the Western States has been met in the use of concrete
difficulty
because of the disintegrating effects of alkaline waters effects
similar to those of sea waterand probably due to the same causes.
The most is found where the concrete is alter-
serious disintegration

nately wet and dry, although in some cases the whole of the concrete
below water has been affected.
On many irrigation projects large quantities of concrete are being
used, and the problem of dealing with the alkaline salts, with which
the soil is impregnated in some localities, has become a serious one.
These alkaline deposits vary in character in different places, com-
prising salts of potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium. The
ill effects seem to occur where
sulphates are present in considerable
1
quantities, which agrees with the results of studies of the action
of sea water. The same precautions may be taken in selection of
materials as for work in sea water, but all cements seem to be affected
to some extent by contact with these salts. The use of dense con-
crete, or the application of protective coatings to prevent access of
the alkaline water to the interior of the mass of concrete, offers
the best means of preventing disintegration.
93. Resistance to Fire. Experience indicates that concrete, when
properly used, is one of the best materials for resisting fire. The
surface of concrete immediately exposed to the fire is injured and
may become dehydrated, but concrete is a poor conductor of heat,
and the penetration of the dehydrating effect is extremely slow.
2
Experiments by Professor Woolson show that when a mass of
concrete subjected to high heat for several hours, the temperature
is

1 inch beneath the surface is several hundred degrees below that

at the surface. With the temperature of 1500 F. at the surface

fortwo hours, the temperature at 2 inches beneath the surface was
from 500 to 700 F., and at 3 inches beneath the surface about
200 to 250 F.
When concrete is used as structural material, where it is liable
to be subjected to serious fire risk, a layer of concrete next the exposed
surface should be considered as fireproofing and not included in the
section necessary for resisting stresses.
The Joint Committee in its report of 1917 discusses fireproofing
as follows :

Concrete, because incombustible and of a low rate of heat conductivity, is

X
J. Y. Jewett, Proceedings American Society for Testing Materials, Vol.

VIII, 1908, p. 484.

2
Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. VII, 1907, p. 408.
144 PLAIN CONCRETE

highly efficient and admirably adapted for fire-proofing purposes. This has been
demonstrated by experience and tests.
The dehydration of concrete probably begins at about 500 F. and is completed
at about 900 F., but experience indicates that the volatilization of the water
absorbs heat from the surrounding mass, which, together with the resistance of
the air cells, tends to increase the heat resistance of the concrete, so that the
process of dehydration is very much retarded. The concrete that is actually
affected by fire and remains in position affords protection to that beneath it.
The thickness of the protective coating should be governed by the intensity
and duration of a possible fire and the rate of heat conductivity of the concrete.
The question of the rate of heat conductivity of concrete is one which requires
further study and investigation before a definite rate for different classes of con-
crete can be fully established. However, for ordinary conditions it is recom-
mended that the metal be protected by a minimum of 2 inches of concrete on
girders and columns, 1 inches on beams, and 1 inch on floor slabs.
Where fireproofing is required and not otherwise provided in monolithic
concrete columns, it is recommended that the concrete to a depth of 1| inches
be considered as protective covering and not included in the effective section.
The corners of columns, girders, and beams should be beveled or rounded,
as a sharp corner is more seriously affected by fire than a round one; experience
shows that round columns are more fire resistive than square.

ART. 25. STRENGTH OF PLAIN CONCRETE

94. Compressive Strength. There are several variables which
affect the strength of concrete. The
quality and quantity of cement,
the kind of aggregates and their grading, the proportions of fine
to coarse aggregate, the thoroughness of mixing, the consistency,
the degree of compacting, and the conditions under which hardening
takes place, all have an influence upon the strength of the resulting
concrete.
Thorough mixing and careful placing and compacting of the
concrete should be obtained in all work. Carelessness always reduces
its strength, and is wasteful and unnecessary.
The Joint Committee on Concrete recommends that the materials
be proportioned to secure as nearly as possible a maximum density.
"
The fine and coarse aggregates should be used in such proportions
as will secure maximum density. These proportions should be care-
fully determined by density experiments and the grading of the fine
and coarse aggregates should be uniformly maintained, or the por-
portions changed to meet the varying sizes." They also recommend
"
that the materials be mixed wet enough to produce a concrete
of such consistency as will flow sluggishly into the forms, and about
the metal reinforcement when used, and which, at the same time,
can be conveyed from the mixer to the forms without separation
of the coarse aggregate from the mortar."
 STRENGTH OF PLAIN CONCRETE 145

For such concrete, the Committee suggests the following values

of ultimate strength in compression as those which should be obtained
for the materials and proportions listed, the ratios given being those
of cement to the volumes of fine and coarse aggregates measured

separately. This ultimate strength is that developed at an age of

twenty-eight days, in cylinders 8 inches in diameter and 16 inches
long of the consistency described above, made and stored under
laboratory conditions.

TABLE OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS OF DIFFERENT MIXTURES OF CONCRETE

(In Pounds per Square Inch)

Aggregate. 1:3 1 :
4| 1:6 1 :
7| 1:9
Granite, trap rock 3300 2800 2200 1800 1400
Gravel, hard limestone and hard
sandstone 3000 2500 2000 1600 1300
Soft limestone and sandstone 2200 1800 1500 1200 1000
Cinders 800 700 600 500 400

BEARING

When compression is applied to a surface of concrete of at least twice the

loaded area, a stress of 35 per cent of the compressive strength may be allowed
in the area actually under load.

AXIAL COMPRESSION

For concentric compression on a plain concrete pier, the length of which

does not exceed 4 diameters, or on a column reinforced with longitudinal bars
only, the length of which does not exceed 12 diameters, 22.5 per cent of the
compressive strength may be allowed.

Allowable stresses for concrete in reinforced work are given in

Chapter VI.
Cement. The strength of concrete varies neany .in proportion
to the cement contained by it, and the ratio of cement to aggregate
should be selected to give the strength needed in the particular
work in hand.
The Committee suggests:
For reinforced concrete construction, one part cement to a total of six parts
of fine and coarse aggregates measured separately should generally be used.
For columns, richer mixtures are preferable. In massive masonry or rubble
concrete a mixture of 1 9 or even 1:12 may be used.
:

These proportions should be determined by the strength or other qualities

required in the construction at the critical period of use. Experience and judg-
ment based on observation and tests of similar conditions in similar localities
are excellent guides as to the proper proportions for any particular case.
146 PLAIN CONCRETE

Size of Aggregate. The values given above are suggested for

concrete as used in reinforced work and correspond to materials
broken to rather small maximum sizes. Stones of larger maximum
dimensions ordinarily show somewhat higher strengths. A stone
broken to 2j-inch maximum size will sometimes show strength 20
to 35 per cent higher than the same stone broken to 1-inch maximum
size, if both be properly graded.
Consistency. The mushy consistency recommended in the report
of the Committee is most convenient for ordinary use in concrete

work, particularly in reinforced work. In massive work, a stiffer

plastic consistency gives a slightly higher strength if the concrete
is properly compacted in placing. The strength rapidly decreases
as the quantity of water is made greater, so that the materials begin
to separate and considerable laitance forms.
Strength is gained more slowly by concrete mixed wet than by
that mixed with less water. A stiff plastic concrete may have con-
siderable more strength at seven days than a wetter mushy concrete
though the difference will have largely disappeared in twenty-eight

days.
Growth in Strength. It is customary to use tne strength at twenty-
eight days in fixing the stresses to be allowed on concrete in struc-
tures. This strength would usually be attained before maximum
loads could be applied. The strength of concrete under normal
conditions continues to increase through a considerable period.
Tests have shown that average concrete may be expected to reach
about twice the twenty-eight-day strength in two or three years
if kept from becoming too dry. Specimens kept dry show a con-
siderably smaller increase, and may ultimately gain but little more
than the twenty-eight-day strength.
Grading of Aggregates. With the same ratio of cement to total
aggregates, the strength of concrete is greater when the aggregates
are graded to give more dense mixtures. The amount of cement
required to give a definite strength is less for well-graded aggregates
than for those giving more porous concrete. In some instances
possible, by sifting the aggregates into several sizes and recombin-
it is

ing in proper proportions, to reduce considerably the quantity of

cement necessary to reach the required density and strength, with
a material saving in cost. In one case, with a poorly graded stone,
itwas found that if the stone be sifted into three sizes and recombined,
1 :
2J : 6 concrete of the graded stone gave as much strength as
1:2:4 concrete of the ungraded material. The saving in cost of
cement amounted to 80 cents per cubic yard, with an estimated
 STRENGTH OF PLAIN CONCRETE 147

additional cost of mixing of about 20 cents. Such results are obtained

only for material which is badly graded originally, and probably for
average materials the saving in cost of cement would not be enough
to pay for regrading. On any important work, however, it is worth
while to examine carefully the materials with reference to their
granulometric composition.
95. Tests for Compressive Strength. The compressive strength
of concrete has commonly been tested on 6-inch or 12-inch cubes,
and much of the available data is based upon such tests. The desir-

ability of eliminating the corners has led to the use of cylindrical

specimens, which are found much easier to make and handle satis-
factorily. The use whose height is greater than its
of a test piece
lateral diameter is also found advantageous. Blocks of concrete
under crushing loads usually yield through shearing on surfaces
making angles of about 60 with the horizontal, and by using blocks
whose heights are twice the diameter sufficient freedom is allowed
for such action. Tests have seemed to indicate that the strength
of blocks varies somewhat with the ratio of height to diameter, cubes

showing 25 to 35 per cent more strength per square inch than cylin-
ders whose heights are twice their diameters. Blocks of greater
relative height show a further loss of strength, but to much less

degree, those having a height five tunes the diameter giving an

average strength about 90 per cent of those with a ratio of 2 to 1.
A Committee of the American Concrete Institute recommended 1
that a cylindrical test piece be used, whose height is twice the
diameter, and diameter at least four times the maximum size of the
aggregate. Cylinders 8 inches in diameter and 16 inches high are
used as standard by the Joint Committee on Concrete, though
cylinders 6 inches by 12 inches are also sometimes used.
Forms made of cast iron, with a metal base, machined smooth
and true, are made by manufacturers of testing apparatus; they
are somewhat expensive, but are far more satisfactory in use than
lighter forms. Forms made of sheet metal with flanges to bolt or
clamp together may be used without the metal base by placing them
on plate glass.
Sampling the materials should be carefully done to insure obtain-
ing fair samples for the tests. To secure an average sample, the
method of quartering is sometimes applied, which consists in taking
shovelfuls of material from different parts of the pile, mixing them
together and spreading out on the mixing surface. The resulting
layer of material is then divided into quarters, two opposite quarters
1
Journal, American Concrete Institute, Oct., 1914.
148 PLAIN CONCRETE

are shoveled away, the other two quarters are mixed again and the
operation repeated until a sample of the size desired is obtained.
When the materials are not uniform and vary in different parts of
the supply, it may be desirable to take separate samples from each
part and make comparative tests.
Measurement of materials should be by weight in making tests.
When the proportions used in work are by volume the volume-
weight of the materials should first be ascertained, and the weight
proportions for the test pieces determined accordingly.
Mixing should be done on an impervious surface. The cement
and sand should first be mixed thoroughly, to a uniform color, and
spread evenly on the mixing surface. The coarse aggregate should
then be spread over the dry mixture of sand and cement and the
whole turned several times dry. Water may then be added in a
crater and the mass turned and wet until it is thoroughly worked
to uniform consistency.
On important work, it may often be desirable to test the con-
crete as it is being used, by making test pieces from the concrete as
delivered for placing in the work.
Forming the Block. The concrete should be tamped into the forms
in layers so as to bring the mortar to the surfaces and leave no open
spaces around the edges. After the concrete has set, the top of the
block may be smoothed by leveling with cement paste or mortar,
or with plaster of Paris, and a piece of glass pressed down on top
and left until the mortar has set.
Storage. In making tests for purposes of comparison, the test
pieces should be kept moist while they are hardening. Blocks left
in dry do not gain strength normally.
air

Testing.In making the tests, spherical bearing blocks should

be used and care taken to permit the adjustment of the test pieces
to uniform bearing, properly centered.
96. Tensile and Transverse Strength. There are very few data
available concerning the tensile strength of concrete, as it is not used
where it is subject to direct tension, and this strength is of com-
paratively little interest. The tensile strength is called into play
in unreinforced beams, but the action is quite different from that
of a direct pull. The results of tests indicate that the tensile strength
of concrete commonly varies from about one-fifteenth to one-twelfth
of the compressive strength.
The transverse strength is dependent upon the tensile resistance
of the material, and plain concrete is therefore a weak material for
use -in beams. On account of this weakness, concrete is seldom used
 COST OF CONCRETE WORK 149

forbeams without reinforcement, and in the computation of reinforced

beams, the resistance of the concrete on the tension side of the beam
is neglected.
The few data available indicate that the modulus of rupture for
plain concrete beams varies from about one-eighth to one-fifth of
the compressive unit strength, or that it is approximately twice the
strength in direct tension. These values are based upon the appli-
cation of the common theory of flexure, and the usual formulas for
homogeneous materials. The difference between the modulus of
rupture and tensile strength may be partly accounted for by the fact
that the modulus of elasticity is not constant and the neutral axis
does not remain at the gravity axis, but changes in position, approach-
ing the compression side of the beam as the load increases, so that
the actual tension does not reach the computed modulus of rupture.

ART. 26. COST OF CONCRETE WORK

97. Cost of Materials. The cost of cement varies with the
demand, and for different localities, with the cost of transportation.
Prices for cement delivered should always be obtained in making
estimates for work. The cost of wagon transportation in delivery
of cement to the work varies with the condition of the roads and
the means of transport available. A team may haul 10 or 12 barrels
of cement on a fair country road, and travel about 20 miles per day;
on hard-surface roads the loads may be increased, and auto trans-
portation over good roads is less
expensive.
The approximate
quantities of materials required may be taken
from the tables in Section 77. The following figures represent
costs of work previous to the World War. The unsettled prices
since existing make it impracticable to give later data of any value.
These costs should probably be doubled at present (spring, 1920).
Sand. For ordinary work in urban communities, sand may
usually be purchased delivered, and estimates should be based upon
the local prices, which vary in different localities (about $.70 to $1.60
is common) accordingto the nearness of the source of supply and the
way which
in the sand is delivered.

When sand is purchased by the ton, the weight per cubic

yard must be ascertained to figure the cost accurately. Ordinary
screened sand, with about 45 per cent voids, weighs from 2400 to
2500 pounds per cubic yard.
For sand taken from a pit, the costs include digging the sand,
loading into wagons, and hauling to the work. In digging and load-
150 PLAIN CONCRETE

ing, 1 to 1J hours labor is ordinarily required per cubic yard and

at 20 cents per hour the cost may be from 25 to 35 cents per cubic
yard. On well-organized work, where hauling is continuous, hauling
may cost 7 to 10 cents per 1000 feet of distance, while on smaller
and less well-arranged work, the cost may reach 12 to 15 cents,
with team and driver at $5 per day, but decreases as the length of
haul increases. Hand screening usually costs somewhat less than
loading, perhaps from 15 to 25 cents per cubic yard.
Stone and Gravel. Broken stone or gravel, like sand, may usually
be purchased for ordinary work by the cubic yard or by the ton.
The weight per cubic yard depends upon the specific gravity of the
stone and the percentage of voids. For ordinary crusher-run stone
with the chips removed and about 45 per cent voids, granite or hard
limestone weighs about 2500 pounds per cubic yard, trap about
2700 pounds; stone containing more fine material, in which the voids
are 40 per cent, weighs about 10 per cent more than these figures.
When gravel is to be obtained from a pit, the cost of digging and
loading, with labor at 20 cents an hour, commonly varies from about
35 to 50 cents per cubic yard, according to the quantity required
and the arrangements for loading, while hauling is about the same
as for sand. The
cost of screening gravel by hand may vary from
30 to 55 cents per cubic yard, 45 cents being an ordinary average.
Average Costs. Under average conditions, with a moderate haul
the price of sand delivered on work varies from about 90 cents to
$1.20 per cubic yard; similarly screened gravel, $1.20 to $1.50, and
broken stone, $1.40 to $1.75. When gravel or broken stone
is delivered on cars, about 15 cents per cubic yard must be allowed
for unloading.
98. Cost of Labor. The labor required in concrete work includes
handling the materials to the mixing platform, mixing the concrete
and handling the concrete to place. The cost varies with the organiz-
ation of thework and the experience of the men. The ability of
the foreman to systematize and control the work is one of the most
important items. The author on one occasion had two almost
identical pieces of work
in progress at the same time, and found
after the first few days that one job was costing about 40 per cent
more than the other, due almost entirely to differences in the manage-
ment of the foremen.
When materials are conveniently arranged and the concrete,
after mixing, may be shoveled into place from the mixing platform,
the cost of mixing and placing concrete is commonly from $0.90 to
$1.25 per cubic yard, with labor at 20 cents per hour. Wheeling
 COST OF CONCRETE WORK 151

the concrete to place costs about 15 cents per cubic yard for the first
50 feet and 5 cents for each additional 50 feet. For work of moder-
ate size the cost of machine mixing does not differ very materially
from hand mixing, when the overhead charges are included.
In placing mass concrete in large work, the labor costs may be
materially reduced where machinery is used for mixing and handling
the concrete. Costs from 60 to 75 cents per cubic yard are not
uncommon.
In reinforced concrete structural work, the placing of concrete
is more expensive than ordinary work mentioned above, and the
labor cost of mixing and placing concrete may be from $1.50 to $2
per cubic yard figures which will vary with the difficulty of spading
and compacting in the forms,
;

and with the means of distribution

over the work.
'

In work for which considerable machinery is required, a charge

for use of plant and supplies must be included, which will vary with
the size of the job and the extent of the plant required. For build-
ing operations where a hoisting plant is necessary, it will be from
60 cents to $1 per cubic yard.
99. Total Costs. The costs for concrete in place include the
costs materials, labor, and plant.
for In the construction of a
1:3:6 concrete foundation for street pavement, an average cost
is approximately as follows:
Cement, 1.02 barrel at $1.75 $1 79.

Sand, 0.46 cubic yard at $1.00 1 ... 0.46

Stone, 0.92 cubic yard at $1.40 1 .29
Labor, per cubic yard 1 . 10

Total cost per cubic yard $4 64.

For the construction of a concrete building, an average cost

for 1 :2 4 concrete of crusher run stone (45 per cent voids) may
:

be as follows:
Cement, 1.47 barrel at $1.80 $2.65
Sand, 0.43 cubic yard at $1 0.43
Stone, 0.87 cubic yard at $1.60 1.39
Labor per cubic yard 1 50.

Plant per cubic yard 80.

Total cost per cubic yard $6 77.

Allowance should be made for waste of materials, which always

occurs to some extent in some cases 5 per cent of the amount of
152 PLAIN CONCRETE

materials necessary to form the required concrete is needed to cover

this loss. Care in handling the materials and close supervision of
the mixing may reduce the loss to a negligible quantity, where the
work is concentrated in large units.
The above figures do not include the cost of forms or of steel
for reinforcement. Forms must be speciallydesigned each
for
structure and the cost varies widely. In massive construction or
in foundation work, the forms may be a comparatively small item,
while for heavy walls requiring support on the sides, they may cost
$.50 per cubic yard or less. On structural work, including beams
and columns, the cost of forms is frequently greater than that of
the concrete. In such cases, only a careful design for the forms,
and estimate of the materials and labor required for their erection,
can give accurate data as to cost. In building work, the cost of
forms is sometimes roughly estimated as about 8 to 10 cents per
square foot of surface of concrete, where the use of the materials
may be repeated, and when the forms can be used but once the cost
is much greater.
Valuable information concerning the cost of concrete construction
" "
may be found in Concrete Costs by Taylor and Thompson, and
" "
in Concrete Construction by Gillette and Hill.
"Concrete, Plain and Reinforced," by Taylor and Thompson, gives
a very complete discussion of the materials, proportions, methods
of mixing and placing, and properties of plain concrete.
 CHAPTER VI

REINFORCED CONCRETE
ART. 27. GENERAL PRINCIPLES

100. Object of Reinforcement. Concrete and steel are frequently

combined in structural work in two distinct types of construction:
.1. Structural Members of Steel Encased in Concrete.
In this type
of construction, the steel member designed to carry the loads,
is

and the concrete is used for protection of the steel against the
weather or or sometimes to give lateral stiffness to the member.
fire,
2. Reinforced concrete, in which the load-carrying member is

made of concrete, the steel being used to strengthen the concrete

by taking stresses that the concrete is unfitted to resist.

Structures of the first type, in which the concrete is used to give

the structure, are often classed as reinforced concrete,

stiffness to

although reliance is placed upon the steel alone for carrying the
loads. These are not, however, designed in accordance with the
theories of reinforced concrete.
The advantages to be gained by combining steel and concrete
are due to the fact that concrete is extremely weak and uneconomical
when subjected to tension, but has much greater strength and is a
convenient and economical material for resistance to compressions,
while steel must be made of special forms satisfactorily to carry
compression, but may be used for resisting tension in the form of
ordinary bars.
In structural forms, such as beams, in which both tensile and
compressive stresses are developed, the combination of the two
materials offers an economical means of construction when the con-
ditions are favorable,and the use of this type of construction has
been rapidly extending during the past few years.
In the use of concrete and steel in combination, the following
properties of the materials are important:
1. When steel bars are imbedded in concrete, the concrete
adheres to the steel and develops a considerable bond strength,
which may be relied upon to make the two materials act together.
153
154 REINFORCED CONCRETE

2. Concrete acts as a protection to the steel against rust. In

a number of instances in removing concrete structures, it has been
found that the steel, after being embedded for several years, was in
good condition and free from rust. To form an efficient protection
the concrete must be mixed rather wet, so that the steel is completely
covered with a coating of mortar.
3. The
coefficients of expansion for the two materials are so

nearly the same that no stresses need be considered as resulting

from differences of expansions or contractions due to changes in
temperature.
4. in dimension occur in unreinforced concrete during
Changes
hardening (see Section 85) and with variations in moisture condi-
tions. When these changes are restrained by reinforcement, the
concrete seems to adjust itself to the situation, adopting permanently
the form in which it is held, without being placed under appreciable
stress.
101. Bond Strength. The stresses carried by the steel in a
reinforced concrete structural member must usually be trans-
mitted to the steel through the bond between the steel and concrete.
Tests and experience show that plain steel bars imbedded in
concrete develop considerable bond strength which may be relied
upon to hold the bars permanently in place in resisting stresses
which tend to separate them from the concrete. Experiments upon
the adhesion of plain bars to concrete show that the bond strength
is approximately proportional to the area of surface contact, and

varies with the quality of the concrete, being nearly proportional

to the strength in compression.
When tests are made by pulling a bar of steel out of a block of
concrete in which end has been embedded, the compression of
its

the concrete may and the bond strength shown

influence the results,
be greater than would be developed in a beam where both steel and
concrete are under tension. When the length of the bar embedded
in the concrete is considerable, the bar may begin to slip at the sur-
face of the block before the resistance of the more deeply embedded
part is fully brought into play, and the bond resistance per unit
of surface area be less than for shorter lengths. In tests at the
University of Wisconsin no differences in unit bond strengths was
found between 6-inch and 12-inch embedments.
Various tests have shown ultimate bond strengths for ordinary
concrete from about 200 to 700 pounds per square inch of surface
area of bar. In general, for concrete as commonly employed in
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 155

structural work the unit bond resistance for plain bars may be from
200 to 300 pounds per square inch.
Twisted and deformed bars are made in a number of forms for
the purpose of increasing the bond
strength, and are extensively
used in reinforced concrete work; their raised projections or uneven
surfaces give a mechanical bond and carry considerable more load
before finally yielding than plain bars, although initial slip may
occur under about the same stresses.
102. Reinforcing Steel. The Joint Committee on Concrete
makes the following recommendations 1 concerning steel for reinforce-
ment bars:

The Committee recommends as a suitable material for reinforcement, steel

of structural grade filling the requirements of the Specifications for Billet-Steel
Concrete Reinforcement Bars of the American Society for Testing Materials.
For reinforcing slabs, small beams or minor details, or for reinforcing for
shrinkage and temperature stresses, steel wire, expanded metal, or other reticu-
lated steel may be used, with the unit stresses hereinafter recommended.
The reinforcement should be free from flaking rust, scale or coatings of any
character which would tend to reduce or destroy the bond.

The Specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials

are given in their Book of Standards or may be obtained in reprints
from the Secretary of the Society.
On important work, it is common to purchase steel subject to
these specifications, and to submit steel to careful inspection at
the mills.
" "
Engineers differ as to the advisability of using hard-grade
steel for reinforcement. As a concrete beam usually gives way
when the yield point of the steel is reached, through the cracking
and crushing of the concrete, the yield point may be considered
as the ultimate strength for concrete work, and some engineers
prefer to use hard-grade steel on account of its high yield point.
Medium steel is, however, usually preferred as less expensive and
less likely to be brittle. When
hard-grade steel is used, either high
carbon or cold deformed material, it should be carefully tested, as
it is more variable in quality than medium steel, but when meeting

the specifications is a superior material.

For ordinary reinforced concrete work, mild steel as commonly
found upon the market is usually employed. It is desirable to
subject this to the cold bending test, which is the most important

Proceedings, American Society of Civil Engineers, Dec. 1916.

1
156 REINFORCED CONCRETE

test for reinforcing steel, and upon failure the material should
always be rejected.
103. Ratio of Moduli of Elasticity. The modulus of elasticity
of a material is the ratio of unit stress to the corresponding unit

deformation, within the elastic limit of the material.

When two materials with different moduli of elasticity, like steel
and concrete, are combined in a structural member so that they
must act together, as in a column, they will each be extended or
compressed to the same amount, and the unit stress carried by each
material will be proportional to the modulus of elasticity of the
material.
When a beam is loaded so as to cause it to bend, it is lengthened
on the convex and shortened on the concave side. Tests of reinforced
concrete beams show that any plane section of the beam before
bending remains approximately plane when bent, and that the
amount of extension or shortening is proportional to the distance
from its neutral surface. In such beams the stresses upon steel
and concrete at the same distance from the neutral surface are pro-
portional to the moduli of elasticity of the materials.
In the discussion of stresses in any structural member of steel
and concrete subject to deformation, it is therefore necessary to
know the ratio of the moduli of elasticity of the two materials in
order to determine the amount of stress carried by each.
The modulus of elasticity of steel is practically the same for the
different grades and is independent of the ultimate strength or yield

point. An average value is about 30,000,000 lb./in., and this value

is usually employed in reinforced concrete computations.
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is not a constant, but
varies with the stress, becoming less as the stress becomes greater.
For small stresses, within the limits of allowable
working stress,
however, the variation is very small, and the modulus of elasticity
may be taken as constant without appreciable error. The formulas
in common use are based upon the assumption of a constant modulus
of elasticity,and variation of stress in beam design proportional
to distance from the neutral axis.
Tests for the determination of the moduli of elasticity of con-
cretes vary considerably in results, and indicate that the modulus
depends upon the quality of the concrete, being approximately
proportional to the compressive strength. The modulus also varies
with the age of the concrete, increasing with age more rapidly than
does the strength of the concrete.
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 157

1
The Committee makes the following recommendation
Joint
concerning the modulus of elasticity:

The value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete has a wide range, depending
on the materials used, the age, the range of stresses between which it is considered,
as well as other conditions. It is recommended that in computations for the

position of the neutral axis, and for the resisting moment of beams and for com-
pression of concrete in columns, it be assumed as:

(a) One-fortieth that of steel, when the strength of the concrete is taken
as not more than 800 pounds per square inch.
(6) One-fifteenth that of steel, when the strength of the concrete is taken

as greater than 800 pounds per square inch and less than 2200
pounds per square inch.
(c) One-twelfth that of steel, when the strength of the concrete is taken
as greater than 2200 pounds per square inch and less than 2900
pounds per square inch and
(d) One-tenth that of steel, when the strength 01 the concrete is taken
as greater than 2900 pounds per square inch.

Although not rigorously accurate, these assumptions will give safe results.
For the deflection of beams which are free to move longitudinally at the supports,
in using formulas for deflection which do not take into account the tensile

strength developed in the concrete, a modulus of one-eighth of that of steel is

recommended.

104. Reinforced Concrete in Tension. When reinforced con-

crete subjected to tensile stresses, the two materials act together,
is

each carrying unit stresses in proportion to its modulus of elasticity,

so long as the stresses do not exceed the strength of the concrete.
When, however, the steel is stressed to a fair working load, the
stress upon the concrete will have passed its breaking strength,
and it can no longer be considered as carrying stress a condition
which usually exists in reinforced concrete beams when carrying
normal working loads. The steel in such beams is designed to carry
all the tensions, the concrete on the tension side merely holding the

steel in place.
In the earlier studies of reinforced beams, it was supposed that

the concrete when reinforced became capable of carrying greater

tensions than plain concrete, and beam formulas were proposed in
which it was assumed that the concrete carried part of the tension.
Later investigations, however, showed that this was erroneous and
these formulas are no longer used in design.
Observations upon beams under tests have shown that minute
cracks, invisible to the naked eye, frequently exist in the concrete
1
Proceedings, American Society of Civil Engineers, Dec., 1916.
158 REINFORCED CONCRETE

surface on the tension side while the beam is carrying only a safe
load a discovery made in testing damp beams with the tension
side uppermost at the University of Wisconsin. Dark, wet lines
appeared upon the surface at about the time that the ultimate
strength of the concrete was reached, and these later developed into
fine cracks. Experience with this type of construction indicates
that, when
the materials are properly used, no injury results from
this overstressing of the concrete, and that the steel is fully pro-
tected by the concrete.

ART. 28. RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT

105. Flexure Formulas. The common or straight-line formulas

for reinforced concrete beams are based upon the ordinary theory
of flexure, and involve the following assumptions:
(1) A section of the beam that is plane before bending remains
plane when bent.
(2) The modulus of elasticity of concrete is constant within
the limits of safe unit stresses.
(3) The concrete resists compression only, all tensions being
carried by the steel.
(4) Initial stresses due to expansion or contraction of the con-
crete are negligible.
These assumptions greatly simplify the computations and are
found experimentally to be sufficiently accurate within the limits
of stresses used in ordinary beam design; they are not applicable
to ultimate loads and can be used only for working loads and work-

ing stresses.
The following notation will be used :

h = total depth of beam;

6 = breadth of beam;
d= depth of center of gravity of steel below compression face
of beam, or effective depth of beam;
kd = depth of neutral axis below compression face of beam;
jd= distance between centers of tension and compression;
A = area of cross-section of steel;

p = ratio of steel area to effective area of beam (p = A/bd)\

/s = unit tensile stress on steel;
/c = unit compressive stress on concrete at compression face;
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel;
EC = modulus of elasticity of concrete;
RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 159

n = ratio of moduli, E /E
S C ;

C = total compression in concrete;

T = total tension in steel;
M= resisting moment or bending moment.

Ikd,

FIG. 45. Reinforced Concrete Beam.

Assuming that a plane section before bending remains plane

after bending,we have (see Fig. 45),

fc/Ee kd
f,/E, d-kd'
or
nfe _ k
fc~l-k'
from which we obtain
fs _n(l-k)
k
'

fc
or
nfc
(1)
fs+nfc

The total compression on the concrete C = %f kbd.

is, c

The total tension on the steel is, T=Afs =f pbd. These

s are equal
for equilibrium; equating and reducing,

or
fs== k_
(2)
fc 2p
160 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Combining (1) and (2) we have

and solving for k,

= 2pn+(pn) -pn.
2
. . .
(4)

The
centroid of compressive stresses is at a distance kd/3 from
the compressive face of the beam, and

jd
= d-kd/3,
or

From the foregoing it is readily seen that the ratio of the unit
stresses on the steel and concrete, and the values of &, j and p are
interdependent. If the unit stresses and value of n be assumed,
k and the required percentage of steel may be found from Formulas
(1) and the percentage of steel be
(2). If known and the ratio n
assumed, the values of k and the ratio fs /fc may be found from (4)
and (2).
The resisting moment of the beam is due to the couple formed
by the tensions and compressions and is equal to either of them into
the arm of the couple :

M=Tjd=Af jd=f pjbd2 s s ......

, (6)
or
M = Cjd = fc kjbd
2
,
........ (7)
and

Formulas (6) and (7) give a means of determining the moment

of resistance of a beam of known dimensions and safe unit stresses,
while from (8) the necessary dimensions may be found to resist any
given bending moment with assumed unit stresses in steel and con-
crete.

Examples. The problems arising in the use of these formulas

are of two kinds the design of beams to carry certain loads; the
investigation of existing beams to determine the loads they may
safely carry, or the unit stresses resulting from given loads. The
following examples illustrate the use of the formulas for these pur-
poses :

1. A reinforced concrete beam is to carry a bending moment of

152,000 in.-lb. The safe unit stresses upon concrete and steel are
RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 161

2
600 and 14,000 lb./in. respectively. ft =15. Find dimensions for
the beam and area of steel required.
Solution. Formula (1) gives

15X600
14000+15X600
from (5)

(8) now gives

152000 _
"
14000 X. 0084 X. 87"

We may now assume a value for either b or d, or fix a relation be-

tween them. Assuming 6 = 8 inches, we have Sd2 = 1490 and d = 13.7
inches. A = pbd= .0084 X 8 X 13.7 = .92 in.
2
Taking d as 13 f inches,
if the concrete extends If inches below the steel, the total depth,
7i=13f+lf = 15i inches.
2. A
concrete beam is 9 inches wide and 16 inches deep, and is
reinforced with four J-inch round steel bars, with centers 2 inches
above the lower surface of the beam. The safe unit stresses for the
concrete and steel are 700 and 14,000 lb./in. 2 respectively. n=15.
What is the safe bending moment for the beam?
Solution The area of steel is A = .4418X4 = 1.767 in.
2
,
and

P =A 1.767
fcT9
Using (4),

= \/2X!5X.014+(15X.014) 2 -15X.014

This shows that if a stress of 14,000 lb/in. 2 be brought upon the

2
steel, the stress upon the concrete will be greater than 700 lb./in.
Hence the safe moment is that which causes a stress of 700 lb./in. 2
in the concrete, or applying (7)

M = ~(.47
z
X .84 X 9 X 14) 2 = 243750 in.-lb.

3. If the beam in the preceding example is subjected to a bend-

ing moment of 225,000 in.-lb., what are the maximum stresses upon
the steel and concrete?
Solution. As in the preceding case, we find A = 1.767 in.
2
,

A; = .47, = 0.84 and f /f = 16.8.

,/ s c
162 REINFORCED CONCRETE

From (6)
- * 225
=10810.
Ajd 1. 767 X. 84X14

fe = 10810/16.8 = 644
2
lb./in.

106. Tables.The labor of computation in the use of the above

formulas may be considerably lessened by tabulation of values of
some of the terms involved.
In Formula (8), the denominators fs pj and %fckj are constant
for any particular values of fa and fc and may be represented by
,

a single term,

Substituting this in (8) we have

M = Rbd?,
or
bd2 = M/R ......... (9)

In Table VII values of j, k, p and R are given for several values

of fs and fc when n = 15.
Table VIII gives values of the same quantities when n= 12.
In Table IX values of fs /fc, k, j and %jk are given for various
values of p, with n= 12 and n= 15.
Table X
gives the areas and weights of square and round steel
bars of the sizes commonly used in reinforced concrete work.
Examples. The use of the tables will be illustrated by solving a
few problems.
(4) A reinforced concrete beam is to resist a bending moment of
315,000 in.-lb. The safe unit stresses upon the concrete and steel
are 650 and 16,000 lb./in. 2 respectively. n=15. Find dimensions
for the beam and area of steel required.
Solution. From Table VII, for /,= 16,000 and /c = 650, we find
72=108 and p = .0078. Substituting this value of R in (9), bd? =
M/R = 315000/108 = 2917. If we assume 6 = 10 inches, we have
d2 = 2917/10 = 291.7 and d=l7 inches.
If the center of the steel be 2 inches from the surface of the con-

crete, the totaldepth of the beam, h= 17+2 = 19 inches.

The area A = pbd = .0078 X 10 X 17 = 1.33 in. 2
of steel required,

Example 5. A concrete beam is 10 inches wide and 18 inches deep

and is reinforced with four f-inch round steel bars, with centers 2
inches above the lower surface of beam. The safe unit stresses for
RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 163

00
ii CO *O CO
^ 00 O O
iO
CO

O5 1> CO C^lrH
iO Tfl IO rH OO
Tt<00 O
i 1

OOO CO OO

oo
CM CO CO (M rH
CO TJH rH 1C TH
<* oo o 00
<N
co

CO r- CM
I
O t^ O
10 rH
00 O
CO
<N

-
iO
p oo o
i i

o
?2
CO OO

OS

IO
COOSiO
CO OO CO
CO 00 O CO 00 COOOO
'a

00 00
O t^ !> TJH

CO 00 O .CO
8 S3

<M 10
Oi '^ CO CO Oi *O

g
164 REINFORCED CONCRETE

concrete and steel are 700 and 16,000 lb./in. 2 respectively, n =15.
What is the safe bending moment for the beam?
Solution. From Table X, four f-inch round bars have area of
1.77 in.2 and p= 1.77/160 = . 0116. From Table IX, for p = .0116
and n=15, we find /s //c =19.2 and jfc/2
= 188.

TABLE VIII. RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION

REINFORCEMENT
= 12

fs
RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 165

TABLE IX. RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION

REINFORCEMENT

p
166 REINFORCED CONCRETE

TABLE X. STEEL BARS. AREAS AND WEIGHTS

Diam.
in
Inches.
RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 167

107. Shearing Stresses. The distribution of shearing stresses in

the section of a reinforced concrete beam differs from that in a homo-
geneous beam. The concrete between the neutral axis and the steel
is not supposed to carry tension and consequently the unit shear is

constant over this area. Fig. 46 represents a portion of a reinforced

beam, the length s being very short, so that the shear V. may be the
same upon two ends.
its Let C\ and 2 represent the compression in
the concrete on the two sides, and TI and T2 the corresponding ten-
sions in the steel. The difference of tensions T\ T2 must be commu-
nicated to the concrete and carried as horizontal shear to the com-
pression side of the beam.
168 REINFORCED CONCRETE

pressive strength. This gives v=120 lb./in. 2 as a safe value for

ordinary concrete as commonly used in structural work (with crush-
ing strength of about 2000 lb./in. 2 at thirty days).
Rectangular beams, reinforced for tension only, are usually suffi-
ciently strong to resist direct shearing stresses when properly designed
for flexural stresses. The areas of such beams are not affected by
providing for shear, although they may sometimes need reinforcement
against diagonal tension.
108. Diagonal Tension. The intensity of the horizontal shear at
any point in a beam is equal to the intensity of the vertical shear at
the same point. In Fig. 47 let A BCD be an extremely small prism

vsb

T)
RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 169

the compressive resistance of the concrete. It is, however, commonly

necessary to reinforce concrete beams to prevent diagonal tension
cracks, as failures of beams frequently occur from this cause.
In a homogeneous beam, the maximum
tension at any point on
the tension side of the neutral axis the resultant obtained by com-
is

bining the diagonal tension due to shear with the horizontal tension
due to moment at the same point. In a reinforced concrete beam, the
all of the horizontal
steel is supposed to carry tension, and the con-
crete none. Some
horizontal tension will necessarily be carried by
the concrete, but, if sufficient horizontal reinforcement be used, the
reinforcement for diagonal tension need provide only for tensions due
to shear.

FIG. 48. Diagonal Tension Failure.

48 shows the form of failure likely to occur from diagonal

Fig.
tension, where horizontal reinforcement only is used. The diagonal
tension at c becomes greater than the tensile strength of the con-
crete and the concrete cracks. A horizontal crack above the steel
then follows, which separates the concrete from the steel and causes
failure.
The safe resistance of concrete, without reinforcement, to diagonal
tension is stated by the Joint Committee to be about one-third
of the safe resistance toshear, or about 2 per cent of the
direct
ultimate compressive strength. For ordinary concrete, breaking at
2000 lb./in. 2 when twenty-eight days old, reinforcement against
2
diagonal tension is necessary when v is greater than 40 lb./in. .

Two methods of placing steel for diagonal tension reinforcement

are commonly employed.
(a) Vertical stirrups may be used, designed to carry the vertical
170 REINFORCED CONCRETE

component of the diagonal tension, leaving the horizontal

component
to be taken by the horizontal tension steel.
(6) The steel may be placed at an angle
of 45 with the hori-
zontal and parallel with the tensions due to shear. In this case the
diagonal steel must be rigidly connected with the horizontal steel to

prevent slipping horizontally, which is often accomplished by bend-

ing up part of the horizontal reinforcement near the end of the beam,
where stresses due to moment are light.

__Jee_

FIG. 49. Vertical Stirrup Reinforcement.

Vertical Stirrups. Fig. 49 shows a beam reinforced for diagonal

tension by the use of vertical stirrups.

Let s = length of beam to be reinforced by one stirrup;

V = Total vertical shear in section s;
v = unit shearing stress;
Td = Total diagonal tension in distance s;
T = Total vertical tension in stirrup.
v

The average unit shear v = This is also the unit diagonal

r^.
tension due to shear, acting at an angle of 45 with the horizontal,
and the total tension is

Vs cos 45
ft cos 45 en)

The vertical component of this carried by the stirrup is

Vs
T = vbs
v
9 .
r0
cos 2 45 = vbs
-~- = (12)
RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 171

The total area of stirrup required to carry this stress is

Av
_vbs_ Vs _2AJ s _2A,fsjd ' '
~2fs -2f3d ~vT' ~T"' V
The Joint Committee recommends the use of the value

T, = ~
9 VQ
3 jd
or
9
T v =i.vbs,
3

in place of that given in Formula (12).

In designing stirrup reinforcement, the spaces s may be assumed
and the required area A v of stirrups computed, or the spacing may
be determined for stirrups of given area. The value of v to be used
should be the average value for the space s.
In order to avoid danger of cracks between stirrups, the spaces
s should not exceed one-half the effective depth of beam, %d. The
shear is a maximum at the support, and the first space should be
measured from the middle of the bearing on the support.

Diagonal tension reinforcement is needed only in the portion of

the beam in which the shear exceeds the allowable unit shear for plain
concrete (where v is greater than 2 per cent of the ultimate compress-
ive strength of the concrete). In a uniformly loaded beam, the
shear is zero at the middle of the beam and increases uniformly with
the distance from the middle to a maximum at the support. If
v m is maximum unit shear at the support and I the length of the
the
beam the unit shear (or unit diagonal tension) at any point distant
x from the middle of the beam is

Reinforcement for diagonal shear is needed from the point where v

equals the allowable shear for unreinforced concrete to the end of the
beam. For ordinary concrete, in which the allowable unit shear is
2
40 lb./in. ,
we have
_40[
~2vm

Diagonal Reinforcement. Fig. 50 represents a beam reinforced

for diagonal tension by bars inclined at 45 with the horizontal.
As before, if the unit shear is more than 2 per cent of the ultimate com-

pressive strength of the concrete, the beam needs reinforcement

against diagonal tension.
Let s be the length of beam for which the steel at a is to carry
the diagonal tension, and Td the total tension in the steel at a.
172 REINFORCED CONCRETE

v = the unit diagonal tension on the concrete, and bs cos 45

j-rjis
is the section normal to the tension over which this unit diagonal
tension is distributed. The total tension to be carried by the steel
at a is
Vs cos 45
m
Td =vbs ,
cos 45
,
e0 =
^ = Vs=.. . (14)

u u

FIG. 50. Diagonal Reinforcement.

The area of steel required is

vbs cos 45 Vs
A d =-
and

(15)
vb

The limits within which reinforcement is necessary, and its proper

spacing, may be determined in the same manner as for vertical stir-
rups. Where diagonal reinforcement is used, the spacing should not
exceed three-fourths of the effective depth of beam or s = f d.
Bending up Horizontal Steel. Diagonal reinforcement is com-
monly provided by bending up a portion of the horizontal steel near
the supports where it is not needed for horizontal tension. In a
simple beam uniformly loaded, the moment diagram is a parabola
(see Fig. 51) and the diminution of the moment from the middle
toward the ends is proportional to the square of the distance from the
middle of the beam. Thus if M
is the moment at the middle

MX, the moment at a point distant x from the middle, and 1/2, the
distance from the middle of the beam to the support.

M-M a
.
M (Z/2)
2'
RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 173

or
MX*
M-M X
-

(Z/2)
2 (16)

The area of horizontal steel needed at any point varies directly

with the moment at the point. If A is the area required at the middle
and A x the area needed at any point distant x from the middle,

= Ax
2
A-A X

and

FIG. 51. Distribution of Moment.

A A x is the area of steel that it is allowable to turn up at distance

x from the middle of the beam.
The Joint Committee does not consider diagonal tension reinforce-
ment to be fully effective unless it is firmly attached to the longi-
tudinal tension bars. When stirrups are looped about the longi-
tudinal steel, the Committee recommends that the allowable unit

shear (# rm be made 4J per cent of the ultimate compressive

strength, while when fully reinforced with bars firmly attached

6 per cent may be allowed.
109. Bond Resistance and Lateral Spacing. The stress carried
by the steel in a reinforced concrete beam is transmitted to the steel

through the bond existing between the concrete and steel.

Horizontal Tension Bars. The amount of stress that may be
transmitted to the horizontal steel at any cross-section of the beam
is equal to the horizontal shear at the section.
174 REINFORCED CONCRETE

y=
= r-r-,
Let v the unit horizontal shear in the concrete at any
bjd
section;
w = the unit bond stress between the steel and concrete;
So = total circumference of steel bars in the section;
6 = width of beam.
=Y
The total horizontal shear for unit length of beam, bv
^
then
u= ~= -^TJ, (19)

and
So = =- (20)
u ujd

If u does not exceed the safe unit bond stress between the steel

and concrete at the section of maximum shear, the horizontal shear

may be communicated to the steel without danger of the bars slipping.
The Joint Committee recommend that the safe bond stress between
concrete and plain reinforcing bars be limited to 4 per cent of the
compressive strength of the concrete, and for good deformed bars
not to exceed 5 per cent. For ordinary concrete (compression
2000 lb./in. 2 ) this would give a value for plain bars, u = 80 lb./in. 2 and ,

2
for the best deformed bars, w=100 lb./in.
In selecting sizes of bars for horizontal tension steel, care should
be taken that the bars are not too large to give sufficient surface
area to provide properly for bond stress. Thus, suppose a beam,
in which 6 = 6 inches, d=10 inches, and .7 = 0.85, requires for tension

steel, A =0.60 in.

2
If the maximum value of shear 7 = 3200 Ib.

and allowable unit bond stress u = 80 lb./in.

2
,
the required surface
area of steel per inch of length,

- V 32
=4.7 in.*

Referring to Table X, we find :

For two f-in. round bars, A =0.61 and So = 2X1.96 = 3.92 in.
2

three J-in. round bars, A = 0.59 and So = 3 X 1.57 =4.71 in.

2

four ^-in. round bars, A = 0.60 and So = 4 XI. 37 = 5.48 in.

2

six i^-in. square bars, A = 0.59 and So = 6 X 1.25 = 7.50 in.

2

The f-inch bars are too large for the bond stress; the J-inch bars are
just sufficient; the j^-inch bars are still better and would probably
be selected.
RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 175

Length of Bar to Prevent Slipping. The stress carried by any

reinforcing bar must be transmitted to the concrete between the
point at which the stress exists and the end of the bar, which must be
accomplished either by having a sufficient length of bar to develop
bond stress equal to the maximum tension or by anchoring the bar
by other means.

Let fs = tensile stress per square inch in the bar;

i = diameter of bar in inches;

u = allowable bond stress per square inch;

lb = length required for bond.
9 /

For round bar. the total stress = -~~- = irilbU.

4
For square bars, the total stress = i2fs =4ilbu.
Then for either round or square bars,

<>

/,= 16,000 lb./in. and it = 80 lb./in. Z & = 50z, or for safety,

2 2
If ,

the length between the point where the stress of 16,000 lb./in. 2
exists and the end of the bar must be 50 diameters.

Anchoring Bar by Bending. When it is not feasible to secure the

length of bar necessary for bond, the end of the bar may be anchored
in the concrete by bending to a semi-circle.
Experiments indicate
bar in tension may be developed
that, in general, the full strength of a
by bending the end to a semicircle, the diameter of which is four
times the diameter of the bar. Short right-angled bends are found
to be much less effective than curves through 180.
In the case of restrained beams, or cantilevers, when maximum
tension occurs near the support, careful attention must be given to
the anchorage of the bars. Bars used for diagonal tension reinforce-
ment, either vertical stirrups or inclined bars, have maximum tension
at the neutral axis, and must have a sufficient embedment on the com-
pression side of the neutral axis to resist the maximum tension in the
steel.

Lateral Spacing of Steel. The horizontal tension rods in a rein-

forced concrete beam must be so spaced as to leave a sufficient area of
concrete between them to carry the shear communicated to the con-
crete by the portion of the bars below the minimum section of con-
crete. This would require that for circular bars the horizontal sec-
tion between rods be capable of carrying a shearing stress equal to the
176 REINFORCED CONCRETE

bond stress on the lower half of the bars. If s c be the clear spacing

between the bars and i the diameter of the bar, for the round bar

s v = iriu or
iriu

~2
S
<=W
For the values of unit stress recommended by the Joint Com-
mittee (v
=6 per cent and u=4 per cent of the ultimate compressive
ftiM
=
strength), v %u, and for round =
bars, s c ^-=l.05i.

For square bars with sides vertical, s cv = 3iu, or s c = 2i, and for

square bars with diagonals vertical, s c = *.

For deformed bars these values would be increased in the ratio
of 5 to 4.
The Joint Committee recommends 1
that:

The lateral spacing of parallel bars should not be less than three diameters from
center to center, nor should the distance from the side of the beam to the center
of the nearest bar be less than two diameters. The clear spacing between two
layers of bars should be not less than 1 inch. The use of more than two layers
is not recommended, unless the layers are tied together by adequate metal con-

nections, particularly at and near points where bars are bent up or bent down.
Where more than one layer is used at least all bars above the lower layer should
be bent up and anchored beyond the edge of the support.

110. Design of Beams. The methods of applying formulas and

tables in the design of rectangular beams is illustrated in the following

examples :

Design a rectangular beam to have a span of 25 feet and

(7)

carry a uniform load of 600 pounds per linear foot, in addition to its
own weight, using working stresses recommended by the Joint Com-
mittee for concrete of 2000 lb./in. 2 compressive strength.
Solution. From Table VII, for ft =15, /,
= 16,000 and fc = 650,
we find fl = 108, p = .0078, j=.874.
Assume weight of beam = 300 pounds per linear foot.

Then jf--
o o
^rc in ..lb .

843750/108 = 7812, and for 6=12, d = 25.5,

for 6 = 14, d = 23.6 Taking 6 = 14 and total depth, ft = 25.5, weight
of beam = 14X25. 5X150/144 = 372 pounds per linear foot. The
assumed load is too small. Assume weight of beam =400 pounds
per linear foot.

o lUo

Proceedings, American Society of Civil Engineers, December, 1916.

1
RECTANGULAR BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 177

For 6=14, d = Using 6 = 14 and d = 25, make ft = 27.

-J-^j-=24.9.

^--
27X14X150 =
Then weight of beam = 394 pounds per linear foot,

which agrees with the assumption.

Horizontal A =pdb = 0078X14X25 = 2.73 in. 2
steel, .

From Table X, seven f-inch square bars give A =2.73 in. 2

f-inch square bars give A =2.81

five 2
in.

f-inch round bars give A =2.65

six 2
in.

Seven f-inch square bars, spaced 1| inch c. to c. or six f-inch round

bars, spaced 2J inches c. to c. might be placed in the width of 14
inches, meeting the requirement of spacing 3 diameters c. to c. We
will use five f-inch square bars, spaced 2J inches c. to c. and 2 inches
from side of beam.
,,
Maximum
. ,

Shear, V = ^Z = 25X1000
T7 co
--~ = 12,500
10 1U
Ib.
2i
-
V 12500

The section is sufficient for shear, and no diagonal tension reinforce-

ment is necessary.
Bond Stress, Table X, for five f-inch bars, 2o = 5X3.00 = 15 in. 2
and (19)

U=
bv
= 14X40.6 = 37
Q . 91b
ftl o
2 , ,.

2o IS" -/m. '

,

which is less than the allowable stress.

8. A simple beam of 10-foot span to center of bearings, is to carry
a load of 400 pounds per linear foot. Design the beam, assuming
n= fs = 15,000 /c = 750
2 2
15. lb./in. , lb./in ,
safe value of unit
2
shear =120 lb./in. ,
and for diagonal tension on concrete =40 lb./in. 2
Solution. Assuming the weight of beam as 65 pounds per linear
foot, the total load is (400+65)10 = 4650 pounds.

,,
M --o^ = 69750
= %ul = 4650X10X12
1
,
ftfV7Kn
.

in.-lb.

From Table VII, f or fs = 15,000, /c =750, and n=15, we have

R = 138, j = 0.857, and p = .0107.
then &d2 =M/# = 69750/138 = 505. If we assume 6 = 5, we find
d = 10, and A = pbd = .0107 X 5 X 10 = 0.535 in. 2
By Table X, five f-inch round bars = .55 in.
2

four =
f-inch square bars .56 in.
2

=
three j^-inch square bars .57 in. 2
178 REINFORCED CONCRETE

The four f -inch square bars will fit in the width of beam with proper
spacing, but we will use three y^-inch bars.
If the concrete extend 1J inches below the center of the steel,

/i=d-j-li = lliinches, and the weight of beam is 5X11.5X150/144

= 60 lb./ft.; this is a little less than our assumed weight.
Maximum Shear,
V

2
This is less than 120 lb./in. ,
and the dimensions of the beam are
sufficient.

Reinforcement for diagonal tension is needed beyond the point

where v =40 lb./m. 2 , or x=^

401
= 40X10 =
. 3.7 feet. Reinforcement is
2v m 2 X o4
required to 53.7 = 1.3 foot = 15.6 inches from the support.
Vertical Stirrups. If we assume s = %d = 5 inches for the stirrup
next the support, we have (13).

vbs 54X5X5

For U-shaped stirrup, the section of rod required will be one-half

of this, or 0.045 in. 2 one-quarter in round bars are sufficient, and
three stirrups may be used, spaced 3, 8, and 13 inches from the
middle of support.
Bond For the horizontal steel, Table X, 2o = 3X1.75
Stress.
= 5.25 in.
2
(19) u
,
= bv/2o = 5X54/5.25 = 51.4 lb./in.2 which is
and ,

less than the allowable bond stress, and no anchoring is necessary.

fi 15000
For the vertical stirrups (21) =11.8 inches,
^=1^=.
or the stirrups need 11.8 inches above the neutral axis for anchor-
age; they must therefore have hooked ends.

ART. 29. T-BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT

111. Flexure Formulas. In a rectangular reinforced concrete

beam, in which the steel carries all the tension, the area of concrete
below the neutral axis does not affect the resisting moment of the
beam. The office of this concrete is to hold the steel in place and
carry the shear, thus connecting the steel with the compression area
of concrete.
In a T-beam, the flange carrying the compression is connected
with a narrow web which holds the steel, as shown in Fig. 52. When
the neutral axis is in the flange, such a beam may be computed by the
 T-BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 179

formulas and tables used for a rectangular beam, using the width of
the flange, b, as the width of the beam.

-1
180 REINFORCED CONCRETE

From the equality of (24) and (25) we find

(2k-t/d) t

and
P=
2n(li=W'd>
-
V * (26)

fc.^+M/f.
pn+t/d
..... .
(27)

The distance of the centroid of compression from tne upper face

of the beam is
3k-2t/d i_
2k-t/d '3'
therefore

(28)
2kt/d 3

The resisting moment of the beam is

.-V . . . (29)
or

Examples. The use of these formulas in the solution of problems

arising in the design or investigation of T-beams are illustrated
in the following examples :

9. A T-beam has the following dimensions, 6 = 48 inches, = 4

=
inches, d 22 inches, 6'
= 10 inches. The steel reinforcement con-
sists of six j-inch round rods. If the safe unit stresses of steel and

concrete are 15,000 and 600 lb./in. 2 respectively, and'n = 15, what
is the safe resisting moment of the beam?

Solution. From Table X, A =2.65 in 2 , and p = 00 ^ Q

= .0025;
formula (27) gives

we find
.0025X15+ A
Using (28)
~ 22
M-22 3X.247-2(^) 4 20 "39
Jd '

2X.247-A 3-
From (22),
/,_ 15(1-. 247)
T~ ~^T
/c = 600 = 600X45.7 = 27,420
2 2
If lb./in. , /, lb./in.
This is greater than the safe unit stress on steel, and the safe moment

willbe that which causes a stress of 15,000 lbs./in. 2 on the steel, or

from (29),
M
= 2.65 X 15000 X 20.39 = 810000 in.-lb.
 T-BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 181

10. The flange of the T-beam is 26 inches wide and 4 inches

thick. The beam to carry a bending moment of 520,000 in.-lb.
is

The safe unit stresses for concrete and steel are 600 and 16,000
2
lb./in. respectively. What area of steel and depth of beam are
needed.
1 6
= .360.
Solution.-*? (23) fc=
1600 ^ 15 ; 600
We must now
find d by assuming values and testing their suitability. Try d 18;
from (28) we have
4
' "
2X.360-A 3
(9) gives C = M/jd = 520000/16.3 = 31900.
From (24) /c = 07 .-fa = 440 lb./in.
2
This is a safe value, but
t

~2kd~
a less
depth answer. Trying 15 inches, we find C = 38,000
will

pounds, and /c
= 580 lb./in.
2
15 inches is, therefore, approximately
;

the minimum value for d. For this value of d Formula (25) gives, }

A = T/f = 38000/15000 = 2.375

s in. 2

Width of Flange. T-beams without lateral reinforcement in the

flanges should have a width of flange not more than three times the
width of web, 6 = 36'. When the flange is reinforced at right angles
to the length of beam, as in a slab floor with T-beams support, experi-
ence indicates that the flange may overhang the web on each side
to a distance equal to five or six times the thickness of flange, and still
act satisfactorily as compression area for the beam. If the width of

flange be greater than this, the extra width is of little value and
should not be considered in estimating the strength of the beam.
The Joint Committee has recommended the following rules for
determining flange width:
In beam and slab construction an effective bond should be provided at the
junction of the beam and slab. When the principal slab reinforcement is parallel
to the beam, transverse reinforcement should be used extending over the beam
and well into the slab.
The slab may be considered an integral part of the beam, when adequate
bond and shearing resistance between slab and web of beam is provided, but its
effective width shall be determined by the following rules:
(a) It shall not exceed one-fourth of the span length of the beam.
(6) Its overhanging width on either side of the web shall not exceed six times
the thickness of the slab.
In the design of continuous T-Beams, due consideration should be given the
compressive stress at the support.
182 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Beams in which the T-form is used only for the purpose of providing additional
compression area of concrete should preferably have a width of flange not more
than three times the width of the stem and a thickness of flange not less than
one-third of the depth of the beam. Both in this form and in the beam and slab
form the web stresses and the limitations in placing and spacing the longitudinal
reinforcement will probably be controlling factors in design.

112. Shear and Bond Stresses. Stresses due to shear in the

concrete and bond stresses between the steel and concrete in T-beams
are found by the same methods that are used for rectangular beams.
The shearing and diagonal tension stresses must be carried by the
web of the beam, the area of flange not being considered in finding
unit shear. Using the same notation as for rectangular beams and
letting b' represent the width of the web of the T-beam, the formulas
as applied to T-beams become:

For shear, v = y
r^,
and
b'd = -.. (33)
vj

For vertical stirrups,

__vb's Vs
Av
~2f s

or

For diagonal steel,

vVs Vs
~w,
or
=2
s
~^ (35)

For point where it is allowable to turn up steel,

A ~ Ax=
W2?'
and
X= .
L^A*. , fc .
., -< 1: ,.';" . .
(36)

For bond stress,

b'v V
and
20 = =-^ (37)
 T-BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 183

For length of bar to prevent slipping,

'

"'';'
fc-. .-! . , , .'V >.., , (38)

The Width of the Web (&') must be sufficient to provide proper

area for carrying shear, as shown in (33), and also to allow for properly
spacing the steel, as explained in Section 109. b' should not usually
be taken at less than d/3, except in heavy beams where a thickness of

d/4. be allowable. The value of j, when not known, may be

may
assumed as { without material error, and the value of vj in (33) may
be taken as f of the allowable unit shear.
T-Beam Diagrams. The labor of T-beam computations
113.

may be considerably lessened by tabulation 'of some of the terms

which enter into the formulas. Some of these tabulations are here
given in the form of diagrams.

If we place Q=fcj
-- , Q will be constant for any particular
^,

values of unit stresses and t/d. Substituting in Formula (30) we

obtain M
= Qbtd and M/bt = Qd or

Q = M/W. .... , . . .
(39)

In Diagram I, values of fc and p are given in terms of various

values of d/t and Q for n = 15 and fs = 16,000. This diagram may be
used in design of beams when these units are to be employed, or
similar diagrams may easily be prepared for other values of fs and n.

Diagram II gives values of p and j in terms of fs /fc and d/t, when

n = 15. This diagram may be used in reviewing a beam of known
dimensions and reinforcement, or in design when values of fs other
than that used in Diagram I are to be employed.
Examples. The following examples illustrate the use of these
diagrams and formulas in computation.
11. A T-beam has dimensions as follows: b = 45 inches, t 4 inches,
d = 20 =9
f
inches, b inches. It is reinforced with ten f-inch round
steel bars. If the safe unit stresses of steel and concrete are 16,000
2
and 650 lb./in. respectively, what is the safe resisting moment for
the beam?
4 41S
A = .4418X10=4.418 in. 2 and p=
'

Solution. Table X, -

4o X 2\j ,

= .0049. From Diagram II, for p = .0049 and d/t = 5, we find

/// = 29, and j = .914. If / = 650, /. = 650X29 = 18850. This is
c
184 REINFORCED CONCRETE

more than is allowable, and the safe resisting moment is that giving

a stress of 16,000 on the steel, or using (29)

= 1,292,800 in./lb.

The dimensions of aT-beam are, 6 = 36 in., t = 3 in., d= 13 in.,

12.
The beam is reinforced with six J-inch round steel bars. If this

=
16,000
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.O 5.5 6.O 6.5 7.0

150 r _ ^ * * -"'-^ i i i i i i i i i i i i
_i
i 150
.5 3.O 5.5 4.O 4-.S 5.O 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

VALUES OF
DIAGRAM I for T-Beam Design.
M/bt=Qd.

beam subjected to a bending moment of 550,000

is in.-lb., what are
the stresses in the steel and concrete respectively?
2 65
A = .4418 X 6 = 2.65 2
and p= = 0057.
Solution. in. ,
^^3
d/t= 13/3 =4.33. From Diagram II, we
find fs /fe = 27.5 and j=. 903.
CCrVAAf)
Formula (29) now gives /
= = 1827 lb /in 2 '
' '

2 65 x
.
903X13
which fe = 18270/27.5 = 660
2
lb./in.
 T-BEAMS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENTS 185

13. The flange of a T-beam is to be 30 inches wide and 5 inches

thick. The beam to sustain a bending moment of 930,000 in.-lb.,
is

and a maximum shear of 14,500 pounds. The safe unit stresses

4-5

15

10 10
a.5 3.0 3.5 4:0 4-.S 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 70
VALUES OF *%
DIAGRAM II for Review of T-Beam.
2
on steel and concrete are 16,000 and 650 lb./in. ,
and maximum
2
unit shear 120 lb./in. What dimensions of web and area of steel
are required?
V = 14500
Solution. Assuming j f, ^'=105, and from (33) b'd = luo
vj
186 REINFORCED CONCRETE
= 138 in.
2
For 6' = 8, d=18 or for b' = 7, d = 20 inches. Either
of these values would give proper form to the web. The deeper
beam will require less steel and may be used provided it gives suf-
ficient width for placing the steel, and if the stress upon the concrete
is satisfactory. Assume d = 2Q inches. Then d/t=4 and (31)
930000
^ == ==31Q "^ r tnese va ^ ues Diagram I gives /c = 540
'

3QX5X20
lb./in.
2
and p = .0054. A =pbd = 0054X20X30 = 3.24
. in.
2
and (20)

From Table X, for

six f-inch square bars, A =3.37 in.

2
,
2o= 18.0 in.
four j^-inch square bars, A =3. 52 in.
2
,
2o = 15.0 in.
four 1-inch round bars, A =3. 14 in. 2 , 2o=12.56 in.

The four ^f-inch bars could be placed in the 7-inch width of web
in two rows (see Section 109). The six f-inch bars need a width
of at least 7\ inches and could be used in two rows by increasing the
width of web by J inch.
If d be made 21 inches, the steel needed would be A =3. 09 in. 2
and the four 1-inch round bars could be used in two rows in the
7-inch width. At ordinary prices, the saving in steel would more
than pay for the increased amount of concrete, and this would make
the cheapest beam.

ART. 30. BEAMS REINFORCED FOR COMPRESSION

114. Flexure Formulas. It is frequently necessary to place steel
in the compression as well as the tension side of a beam. When the
size of a rectangular beam limited, so that the concrete area is
is

insufficient to carry the stress, steel may be used to take the surplus

compression. In this case the concrete and steel act together, and
the stress upon the steel must be limited to such an amount as will
not overtax the compressive strength of the concrete.
In this discussion, the following notation will be used, in addition
to that employed for rectangular beams :

A' = area of cross-section of compression steel;

=
p' ratio of compression steel area to effective area of beam,
(p'=A'/bd);
d'= depth of center of gravity of compression steel below
compression face of beam;
/'s =unit stress in compression steel;
C' = total compression on steel.
 BEAMS REINFORCED FOR COMPRESSION 187

The same principles apply in this case as in that of the beam

reinforced for tension only, and the concrete is supposed to carry
compression but no tension. It is easily seen that

f.-f.^J^,
and that

Compression on concrete,

(41)
and compression on steel,

C' = A'f',=f',p'bd (42)

Tension on steel,
'
= Af =f pbd
s s (43)

Substituting (41) and (42) in (43) and combining with (39) and
(40) we find

f
-n(p-p ). . .
(44)

Taking moments about the tension steel, we find the resisting

moment of the beam,

M = Cjd+C'(d-d r
) (45)

Example. The use of these formulas in design will be illustrated

by the following example :

14. A beam whose dimensions are 6 = 12 in., d = 22 in., d' = 2

in.,is to carry a bending moment of 1,100,000 in.-lbs. The safe

unit stresses are 700 and 16,000 lb./in. 2 for concrete and steel

respectively, n
= 15. Find the areas of steel required.
Solution. For the given stresses (Table VII), A; = .397 and
.;
= .868. Formula (41) gives

700
C= = 36680
-^ X .397 X 12 X 22 pounds.

From (45),
1, 100,000- 36680 X .868X22
20
By Formula (40),

OQ7' 2

/',
= 15 X 700 X 22 = 8085 lb./in
2
188 REINFORCED CONCRETE

and (42)
A' = 19980/8085 = 2.47 in.
2

Area of tension steel (43),

T 36680+19980

115. Tables.The labor of computation may be materially

lessenedby the use of tables, which may be made in several ways, of
which the following seem most convenient for use.
Table XI. Transposing the terms of formula (43) we have

r c 1

A -
A -4-
f T"5T
Js Js

This may be placed in the form,

A= Pl bd+^p,
Js
....... (46)

inwhich p\ is the ratio of steel for a beam with the same unit stresses
and without compression steel.
Formula (45) may be put in the form

M = Rbd +f' A'(d-d'),

2
s

or solving for A'

-f s (d-d'y

Values of R, pi and f' s in terms of various values of fs fc and d'/d

, , ,

for n=15, are given in Table XI. This table may be used to find
the areas of steel required when a beam of given dimensions must
carry a bending moment too great to be resisted by tension reinforce-
ment only.
Table XII. Combining (41), (42) and (45) we have
M = ^f jkbdc
2
-i-f sp
f
(l
= d'/d)bd2 ,

from which
= fcjk+f' sp'(l-d'/d)=G, .... (48)

in which G is constant for definite values of unit stresses and steel

ratios. In Table XII, values of p' and p are given directly for various
values of /c and G when n = 15 and /,= 16,000 lbs./in.
2

To use this table in design, it is only necessary to find G by

dividing the bending moment
2
M
by bd for the proposed beam
and take the required ratios of steel directly from the table.
 BEAMS REINFORCED FOR COMPRESSION 189

TABLE XI BEAMS WITH COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT.

Values of fs in terms of fs ,fc and d'/d

n = 15

fs
190 REINFORCED CONCRETE

TABLE XII. BEAMS WITH COMPRESSION STEEL

Values for p'.

/s = 16,000. n = 15. G = M/bd. z

fc
 BEAMS REINFORCED FOR COMPRESSION 191

TABLE XIII. BEAMS WITH COMPRESSION STEEL

Values of fs /fc inTerms of p and p'

d'
192 REINFORCED CONCRETE

TABLE XIV. BEAMS WITH COMPRESSION STEEL

Values of N in Formula, Nf
c =M/bd;
n = 15

t
 BEAMS REINFORCED FOR COMPRESSION 193

Tables XIII and XIV. If Formulas (39) and (44) be combined

a value for fs /fc in terms of p, p' and d'/d may be found. These
values are tabulated in Table XIII.
If the values of /', from (40) be substituted in (48), it becomes
M
and making
'
4Jfc +np (l- d /d) =N>
'(*=|V^
we have

Combining the above value of N with (39) we find that the value
of N depends upon n, fs /fc , p' and d'/d. In Table XIV, values of
N are tabulated for various values of f /f
s c p' and d'/d when n= 15. ,

These tables may be used in the investigation of beams of known

dimensions and reinforcement, for the purpose of finding the safe
resisting moment, or the unit stresses under given bending moment.
Examples. The use of these tables will be best illustrated by
a few examples.
15. Solve Problem 14 (p. 187) by the use of the tables.
Solution. As w = 15 and = 16,000 2
Table XII may
"L
/, lb./in. ,

be used. d'/e*=.09, G=M/bd?= = 190. From Table

XII, with /c =700, =190 and d'/d =.09, we find directly that
p = .0136 and p'
= .0093, from which,
A = .0136X12X22 = 3.59 in.
2
,

and
A' -.0093X12X22 = 2.46 in.
2

16. A rectangular beam has the following dimensions; 6 = 10

inches, d
= 18 inches, d' = 1.5 inches, and is to carry a bending moment
of 550,000 in.-lb. The safe unit stresses are 600 and 14,000 2
lb./in.
for concrete and steel respectively, n = 15. Find the areas of steel

required.
Solution. d'/d= 1.5/18 = .083. From Table XI for /, = 14,000,
fc = 600, and d'/d = .083, we find R = 102, p = .0084, f = 7090 lb./in. 2
f
s

substituting these values in (47) there results

,, -550000-102X10X18X18
~ = 1 88in 2
A== - -

7090X16.5-
and (46)
70QO
A = .0084X10X18+,^X1.88 = 2.46 in 2
IttUUU
194 REINFORCED CONCRETE

17. A rectangular beam which 6 = 10 inches, d=22 inches

in
and d' = 2 inches, is reinforced with 2.6 in. 2 of steel in tension and
the same amount in compression. The beam carries a bending
moment of 850,000 in./lb. What are the maximum unit stresses
upon the steel and concrete respectively?

Solution. p = p' = T7^7.

= .0118. d'/d = .09. For these values

Table XIII gives /.// =26.5 and Table XIV, N = 280. Then formula
(49)

2
/,= 627X26.5 =16620 lb./in.

18. A rectangular beam has 6=10 inches, d=16 inches, d' = 2

inches, A = 2.4 in. 2 A =2.25 in.2 If the safe unit stresses on steel
'
,
.

2
and concrete are 16000 and 650 lb./in. respectively, what is the safe
resisting moment for the beam?

Solution. =
p=
p'= Qx ^ =.014, d'/d .l25.
=.015,

From Table XIII, for these values /,//, = 23.0 and Table XIV,
N = 306. If /. = 16,000, f = 16,000/23 = 696 lb./in. 2 which is greater
e ,

than is allowable. The safe moment will therefore be that which

2
produces a stress of 650 lb./in. in the concrete. Substituting in
(49),
M = 306X650X10X16X16 = 509,184 in.-lb.

ART. 31. SLAB AND BEAM DESIGN

116. Bending Moments and Shears. Structural forms in which

slabs of concrete are supported by T-beams are very common in rein-
forced concrete structures. In this type of construction, the slab
is commonly made continuous over the T-beam and forms the flange
of the T-beam (see Fig. 53), being built with the beam and a part of
it. In determining the bending moments and shears in such con-
struction, the loads may usually be taken as uniform, and the slabs
and beams as fully or partly continuous, depending upon the method
of support.

Fully Continuous Beams. If a slab which passes over one or more

cross-beams is firmly held at the ends by being built into and tied by
reinforcement to a wall or heavy beam, it may be considered as fully
continuous, and when uniformly loaded, the positive moments of
the middle of the spans are -j^wl 2 and the negative moments at
 SLAB AND BEAM DESIGN 195

2
supports -j^wl The shear at each end of span in such a beam is
. .

f wl. If the movable load covers some of the spans leaving others
unloaded, these moments may be somewhat increased. For slabs
of this type, it is conservative practice to use -f^wl 2 for both positive
and negative bending moments and \wl for maximum vertical shear.

Supported Ends. The ends of continuous beams, resting upon

side walls or end columns, cannot be considered as fixed, and are
to be taken as simply supported. Such a beam, or a slab the ends of
which are not fixed, has greater positive moments in the end spans and
greater negative moments at the first supports from the ends than
fully continuous beams. These moments are usually taken as
2
^wl for beams of more than two spans. The shear in the end span
next the first support may be greater than one-half the load on the
span and should be taken as .6 wl. For beams of two spans, the nega-
tive moment at the middle support is taken as \wl 2 and the positive ,

moment as -^wl 2 .

The moments for continuous beams of unequal spans, or with

concentrated and uneven loading should be carefully determined
for each individual case.
The Joint Committee makes the following recommendations in
its 1916 report:

(a) For floor slabs the bending moments at center and at support should
wl 2
be taken at - for both dead and line loads, where w represents the
\2i

load per linear unit and I the span length.

(6) For beams the bending moment at center and at support for interior
wl z
spans should be taken at -, and for end spans it should be taken
2
wl
at for center and interior support, for both dead and live loads.

(c) In the case of beams and slabs continuous for two spans only, with
their ends restrained, the bending moment both at the central support

and near the middle of the span should be taken at -.

(d) At the ends of continuous beams the amount of negative moment

which will be developed in the beam
depend on the condition of
will
restraint or fixedness, and this will depend on the form of construction
wl2
used. In the ordinary cases a moment of -
may be taken; for :

lo
small beams running into heavy columns this should be increased,
wl 2
but not to exceed .

For spans of unusual length, or for spans of materially unequal length, more
exact calculations should be made. Special consideration is also required in
the case of concentrated loads.
196 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Even if the center of the span is designed for a greater bending moment than
is called for by (a) or (6), the negative moment at the support should not be
taken as less than the values there given.

117. Loading of Slabs, Beams and Girders. Slabs are commonly

used as continuous beams passing over a number of T-beams, of which
the slab forms the flange as shown in Fig. 53.

"V ^~
 SLAB AND BEAM DESIGN 197

slab exceeds 1 .5 times its width the entire load should be carried by transverse
reinforcement.
For uniformly distributed loads on square slabs', one-half the live and dead
load may be used in the calculations of moment to be resisted in each direction.
For oblong slabs, the length of which is not greater than one and one-half times
their width, the moment to be resisted by the transverse reinforcement may be
found by using a proportion of the live and dead load equal to that given by

the formula r = =- 0.5, where I = length and 6 = breadth of slab. The longitudinal
o
reinforcement should then be proportioned to carry the remainder of the load.
In placing reinforcement in such slabs account may well be taken of the fact
that the bending moment is greater near the center of the slab than near the

Jb

FIG. 54. Double-reinforced Slabs.

For this purpose two-thirds of the previously calculated moments may

be assumed as carried by the center half of the slab and one-third by the oustide
quarters.

An interesting discussion of the distribution of stresses in double

reinforced slabs may be found in a paper by Mr. A. C. Janni in Trans-
American Society of Civil Engineers, 1917.
actions of the
118.Problems in Design. The use of the formulas and tables
which have been given, in designing slab and beams, will be illustrated
by the solution of a few problems. In these examples, the working
stresses recommended by the Joint Committee for 2000 pounds con-
crete will be used.
Example 19. A concrete slab is to be supported by T-beams 6
feet apart c. to c., and to carry a live load of 250 pounds per square
198 REINFORCED CONCRETE

foot. The T-beams have a clear span of 17 J feet and are built into
brick walls at the ends. Design the slab and beams.
Solution. Assume the weight of slab as 50 pounds per square
foot, giving a total load of 300 pounds per linear foot for a section of
slab 12 inches wide. Taking the slab as fully continuous.
., wl2 300X6X6X12 =
i - i -
10,800 m.-lb.

From Table VII, for /s = 16,000 and /< = 650, # = 108, p = .0078 and
j=.874. Formula (9) gives 12d 2 = 10,800/1 08 =100, and d = 2.9
inches, use 3 inches. A = p6d = 3Xl2X.0078 = .277 in.
2
From
Table XV (p. 199), we select f-inch round bars spaced 4.5 inches
apart, A = .29 in.
2

concrete extends f inch below steel, the thickness of slab is

If

3J inches, and the weight of slab is 150X3.75/12 = 47 pounds per

square foot, which agrees with the assumed load.

FIG. 55. T-Beam Design.

Reinforcement for negative moment over the supports should be

the same as for positive moment at mid-span, and will be provided by
turning up every alternate bar at the quarter point on each side of the
support and continuing them over the support to the one-third point.
Transverse reinforcement to prevent cracks will be provided by using
f-inch bars spaced 12 inches apart.

Unit shear at ends of slab,

V 300X3 2
28.61b./in.
bjd 12 X. 874X3

No diagonal tension reinforcement is necessary.

T-beam. Assuming the weight of the web of the T-beam as 150
pounds per linear foot, the total load on the T-beam is 6(250+47)
+ 150=1930 pounds per linear foot. Taking the bearing upon the
wall as 6 inches the effective length of T-beam between centers of
bearings is 17.5+.5=18 feet.
SLAB AND BEAM DESIGN 199
200 REINFORCED CONCRETE

The maximum shear 7=1930x9 = 17370 pounds. The area

V 17370
assuming j = f, b'd = = -^^-=165. in.
uired for shear, 2
vj luo
For 6' =8, d=2l or for 6' =9, d=18.5. Take 6' =9, and (2 = 18.5.

Width of flange 6 = 2X6X3f +9 = 54 inches, and by (31)

~ M 923400 d

/c = 430 and p = .0035, then

2
from Diagram I, lb./in. ,

A =pbd = 0035X54X18.5 = 3.50 in. 2

.
,

and from Table X, six f-inch round bars in two rows, 2 inches c. to c.,

spaced 2.75 inches apart in the rows and 1.75 inches from side of
2
web. 4=3.61 in.

As the ends of the beam are built into the walls, some negative
moment may be developed at the supports, which might cause cracks
to occur unless reinforced. The upper layer of reinforcement will
therefore be turned up, two rods at the quarter point and the other
midway between the quarter point and support, and extend to the end
of the beam (see Fig. 55).
If the concrete extend 2 inches below the steel, the weight of web

below the slab is 9(18.5+3- 3.75) X 150/144 =166 pounds per linear
foot. This is a little greater than the assumed value, but would add
less than 1 per cent to the total load and need not be redesigned.
For the three bars in bottom of beam at the support. Table gives X
20 = 3X2.75 = 8.25, and the unit bond stress u= b 'v/2o= 9X120/8.25
= 131 2
This is too great for safety, and the bars should be
lb./in.
bent into hooks at the ends.
2
v is 120 lb./in. at the supports, and diagonal tension reinforce-
ment is needed where v ismore than 40 lb./in. 2 Stirrups will be
needed for two-thirds of the distance from the support to the mid-
span, or 6 feet. the stirrups be spaced s = d/2 = 9 inches apart,
If

eight stirrups will be needed at each end of the beam. For the
stirrups next the support (34)

AA =
vb's 120X9X9 = '
q
.

31in> 2
'
~2f-= 2X16000
Two J-inch round bars, bent as shown (Fig. 55) may be used for the
first four stirrups, and f-inch bars for the four nearer the middle of
the beam.
 SLAB AND BEAM DESIGN 201

Example 20. A reinforced concrete slab, to carry a live load of

200 pounds per square foot, is to rest upon a series of T-beams 5 feet

apart c. to c. The T-beams are to be continuous for three spans over

girders 15 feet c. to c. The girders are supported by walls at the
ends and have a span of 20 feet. Design the slab and beams.
Solution. Assume the weight of slab at 40 pounds per square

foot; then M = 24QX5 * 5X12

# = 108,p = .0078, j = .874, 12^ = 6000/108 = 55.5 and d=2.15,
Take d 2.25 in. A = 2.25 X 12 X .0078 = .21 in. 2
=
If concrete extend f-inch below steel, the total depth of slab is

3 inches, and weight of slab is 150XA = 37.5 pounds per square foot.
From Table XV
j^-inch round bars spaced 4 inches apart give
A = .23. in.
2
Negative moment at supports will be provided for by
bending these up at the quarter points. For lateral reinforcement
^-inch round bars spaced 12 inches c. to c. will be
to prevent cracks,
used.
T-beams. Assuming weight of web of T-beam as 125 pounds per
linear foot, load upon T-beam is 5(200+40) + 125= 1325 pounds per
linear foot and total span load is 1325 X 15= 19,875 pounds.
Maximum shear in end span next girder is V =19,875 X.6 = 11,-
925 pounds, and 6^=7/^=11,925/105=113 in. 2 7X16 or 8X14
might be used. Try 7X16, then M=Wl/10= 19,875X15X12/10 =
357,750 in.-lb. Taking overhang of flange as six times its depth, 6 =
2X6X3+7 = 43 inches and Formula (31)

/c = 325 lb./in. and p=.0024. ^1 = 1.65 in.

2 2
From diagram 7,
Table X, round
six f-inch bars, A = 1.84 in.
2
in two rows, If inches
apart and spaced 2 inches c. to c. and 1.5 inches from side of web.
If concrete extends 2 inches below steel, the weight of web below

slab is 7X16X150/144=117 pounds per linear foot, which is within

the assumed load.
The negative moment at crossing of girder is equal to the posi-
tive moment already found. Turn up the upper row of bars on each
side to provide for tension at top of beam and run the lower ones

through at bottom to provide compression reinforcement as shown

in Fig. 56. We now have a beam with compression reinforcement,
in which 6 = 7, d = 16, d' = 3, A=A'=1.84, p=p'= 1.84/112 = .0164,
202 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Formula (48) gives G= = = 200, and Table XII,

for/5 =16000, /c = 650, = 200, and d'/d = .!S, we find that p = .0139
and p' = .0219 are required. The area of steel in compression
(p .0164) is not sufficient and we must either increase the area of

compression steel in the bottom of beam or increase the area of

concrete section over the support. Try making d 17 inches. Then

Now from Table XII, we find that p = .0123 and p' = .0156 are
required. The reinforcement is now sufficient and we will increase

FIG. 56. T-Beam and Girder.

the depth to 17 inches at the girder, sloping the haunches as shown

in Fig. 56.

Diagonal Tension. Assuming J as .85, the maximum unit shear

next the girder is v = = = 118 lb./in. 2

If stirrups be spaced
85 x 17
8 inches apart, the area required for the end stirrups is (34)

118X7X8 = 2
.21 in.
2X16000
Two f-inch bars will answer, or a f-inch bar bent to U-shape around
horizontal reinforcement. Stirrups will be needed to 6 feet from
girder and 4 feet from end support in the end spans and 5 feet from
girder on each end of the middle span.
Girders. beams carrying three
The girders are simple rectangular
concentrated loads at the middle and quarter points. Each load is
1.1 times a span load of the T-beam, or 1.1X19875 = 21862 pounds;

assuming that the girder weighs 800 pounds per linear foot, the
reaction or shear at the support is 1.5X21862+800X10=40793
pounds and the maximum bending moment M
= 40,793 X (120
29,862) X 60 = 3,103,440 in.-lb. bd2 = 3, 103,440/108 = 28,735. For
 SLAB AND BEAM DESIGN 203

6 = 20,
d=38; for 6 = 18, d=40. Try 6 = 18,
d = 40; then A = .0078X
18X40 = 5.61 in.
2
. Ten f-inch square bars (4 = 5.62) placed in two
rows If inches c. to c., six bars in lower and four in upper layer

(Fig. 56). concrete extend 2} inches below center of lower layer

If

of steel, the beam is 43 inches deep and weighs 18 X 43 X 150/144 = 806

pounds per linear foot, which agrees with the assumed weight.
= 40793
The maximum unit shear v Q7/1x//m
2
=65 lb./in. Diag-
onal tension reinforcement will be needed from support to first load
(60 inches) This may be supplied by bending up horizontal steel.
.

The bending moment at first load is

40,793 X 60 -4000X30 = 2,327,580 in.-lb.

This isabout three-fourths of the moment at the middle and two

bars may be bent up at this point. For two bars 4^ = 1.12 in. 2 ,
and Formula (15)

s =A dfs V2
-^-r = 1.12X16000X1.4
vb
grvxio
- -
=21.5
65 X 18
inches.

Turn up pairs of bars at 20, 40 and 60 inches from support.

The bond stress on four horizontal bars at end of beam is

bv 18X65 _ ,.

This is rather large unless deformed bars are used, and bars should
be bent into hooks at ends.
Example 21. A reinforced concrete slab, divided into panels
12 ft.X!4 feet, by T-beam supports is to carry a live load of 150
pounds per square foot. The T-beams are supported by columns
at the corners of the panels; their ends resting upon side walls.
Design the slab and beams.
Solution. Assume the weight of slab at 70 pounds per square
foot. The proportion of load carried by the 12-foot span is 14/12
0.5 = .67 (see Section 117). The load on the slab in the 12-foot
length is (150+70) X. 67 =147 Ib. per square foot and in the 14-foot
length 220 X. 34 = 75 pounds per square foot. If 4/3 of the average
load per square foot be borne by the mid-section, the load to be
carried by a 12-inch width will be 147X4/3 = 196 pounds per
linear foot.
204 REINFORCED CONCRETE

12d2 = 28224/108 = 261 and d = 4.75 inches. If the concrete extend

f inch below steel, the total depth of slab will be 5.5 inches and the
weight of slab 150X5.5/12 = 69 pounds per square foot, as assumed.
A = .0078X12X4.75 = .44 2
From Table XV, f-inch square
in.

bars spaced 3.5 inch c. to c. may be used.

Alternate bars in each span will be turned up at the quarter
points for negative shear at the supports.
The side-sections of the shorter span will carry one-half the
moment of the mid-sections, and will need about one-half the rein-
forcement. We will space the f-inch bars 6 inches apart for the
side sections.
For the longer span (14 feet) the load upon the mid-section will
be 75X4/3 = 100 pounds per linear foot, and the bending moment
,,
M -
100X14X14X12 =
-= 1ftnAA in.-lb.
19,600
.
1U T,
If we place the
.
,
reinf orce-

ment in the 14-foot direction on top of that in the shorter span, the
effective depth will be about J-inch less, or d = 4.75 0.5 =4.25 inches,

and R== = = 86. From Table VII, we find that

^2 ^x^25X4: 25
/s =16,000
if and # = 86, p = .006 and / = 565 lb./in. 2 A = .006X12
c

X4.25 = .306 in.

2
and Table XV gives f-inch round bars spaced
4 inches apart, A = .33 in. 2 Use these for mid-half of slab and bars
of the same size spaced 7 inches apart for the side-sections.
T-Beams. Assuming the longer T-beam to weigh 250 pounds
per linear foot, the total load will be 196X12X14+250X14=36,428
pounds. The maximum shear will be V = 36,428 X .6 = 21,857 pounds
and section needed for shear &'d = 21,857/105 = 208 in.
2
Try
V = 10, d = 2l inches.
The load at the middle of the beam is greater than that at the
ends; this somewhat increases the moment, but the error will not
be more than about 2 per cent if the load be taken as uniformly
distributed.

M = ul = 35428X14X12 = 611,990 .

in.-lb.

Taking the width of flange as one-fourth the length of beam

6=45 in.
M 611990
~ d/*-

From Diagram I, we find that the neutral axis is in the flange

and the beam should be designed as a rectangular section.

and
 SLAB AND BEAM DESIGN 205

# = 29, we see that fe will be less than 350 lb./in.

2
and the steel
needed is p = .0021 (p
= 7#/100QOO
approximately) or A = .0021X45
X 20 =1.89 in.
2
Four fj-inch square bars may be used. Two of
these bars to be turned up at the quarter point on each side of the
support to provide for tension due to negative moment.
We now have at the support a double reinforced beam in which
6 = 10 inches, d = 21 inches, A = A = 1.89 in.2
'
, p = p' = 1.89/210 = .0090,
d
r
= 2 inches, d'/d = .095 and G = in !^o??? 01 = 136 - From Table XII
lUX^l X^l >

for /,= 16,000, fe = 650,

=136 and d'/d =.095 we find that p = 0096
and p' = .0042 are required. The reinforcement for tension is a
little small, but as the beam will be strengthened by the slab rein-

forcement parallel to it, the j^-inch bars will probably be ample.

Diagonal tension reinforcement will be needed for 5 feet from
the supports. If stirrups be spaced 9 inches apart, seven stirrups
will

AA ___
be needed. The first stirrup will require

'~2/s
~
2X16000
= QA .
2

^-inch round bars bent to U-shape will answer for the first three
stirrups, the four next the middle of the beam may be f-inch.
The loads upon the shorter beams, assuming the beam to weigh
150 pounds per foot, are 100X14X12+150X12 = 18600 pounds.
The maximum shear is 18600 X.6 = 11160 pounds. 6^=11160/105
= 106. A section 7 inches X 16 inches might be used, but assuming
that the depth must be the same as for the longer beams, we may
use 7 inches X 21 inches. Then
18600 12
M== = 26784Q in _lb ^ and 6 = //4 = 36 inches
XJ2X
267840
As before, the neutral axis is in the flange, #
and Table VII, fe will be small and p = .0012. A = .0012X36X21
= 0.90 in. 2 Three f-inch round bars will be used. Part of these
bars will be turned up, two on one side and one on the other of each
support to provide for tension due to negative moment. Then

and from Table XII we find that no compression steel is necessary.

Maximum unit shear, v= Q^K

=^ lb./in.
2
Diagonal
i X^l X . 01 O
206 REINFORCED CONCRETE

tension reinforcement is needed 72X47/87=40 inches from support.

Spacing stirrups 10 inches apart, for end stirrups
87X10X10
Ac .27 in. 2
2X16000
Use f-inch square bars bent to U-shape.

ART. 32. CONCRETE COLUMNS

119. Plain Concrete Columns. The strength of plain concrete in
compression has been discussed in Section 94. The failure of a short
block under compression occurs through lateral expansion and the
shearing of the material on surfaces making angles of about 30
with the line of pressure as shown in Fig. 57 (a). As the height of
block becomes greater in proportion to its diameter, the resistance of
the concrete becomes less certain and plain columns in which the
length is more than four times the height frequently fail by shearing
diagonally across the column as shown in Fig. 57 (6). This usually

T
(a) (5)

FIG. 57. Crushing of Concrete Columns.

occurs where the concrete is of good quality and shows high crushing
strength. Weaker concrete usually fails by local crushing.
Columns in which the lengths are more than six or eight times the
diameters are usually reinforced. The Joint Committee recommends
that all columns more than four diameters be reinforced, and that
the stress on plain columns be limited to 22.5 per cent of the ultimate
crushing strength of the concrete.
The use of concrete rich in cement is nearly always advisable
in the construction of columns, on account of the greater reliability
of such concrete, as well as because of the economy of reduced section
 CONCRETE COLUMNS 207

allowable with rich concrete. In reinforced columns, concrete of

high compressive strength also admits of more economical use of steel,
through employing higher unit stresses than are admissible with less
rich concrete. Concrete less rich than 1 to 6 (2000 pounds) mixtures
(see Section 94) is undesirable in column work and richer mixtures
are commonly preferable.
120. Longitudinal Reinforcement. Longitudinal bars in the
corners of square columns, or near the exterior surfaces of round
columns, diminish the uncertainty of action of the columns through
preventing the material yielding at points of local weakness. Such
reinforcement should always be stayed by light band reinforcement
at frequent intervals asshown in Fig. 58 (a). This will prevent the
longitudinal bars breaking away from the column through bending
when loaded.
When a column containing longitudinal steel is loaded, the con-
crete and steel are shortened by the compression to the same extent
and the stress carried by each material is proportional to its modulus
of elasticity.

Let A = cross-section of column ;

AS = cross-section of steel;

p = steel ratio = As/ A ;

n = ratio of moduli of elasticity = ES /EC ',

P = total load on columns ;

fc
= unit compression on concrete ;

/s
= unit compression on steel = nfc .

The total area of concrete is A(l p), and

P=f A(l-p)+f.A.=f (A-pA)+f npA,

e e c

or '
:

. .. . ;- . . . . . (50)

The Joint Committee recommends the following working stresses :

(a) Columns with longitudinal reinforcement to the extent of not less

than 1 per cent and not more than 4 per cent, and with lateral ties
of not less than j inch in diameter 12 inches apart, nor more than
16 diameters of the longitudinal bar: the unit stress recommended
for axial compression, on concrete piers having a length not more
than four diameters.

The Committee also recommends that the ratio of unsupported length

ofcolumn to its least width be limited to 15, and that the hoops or
bands are not to be counted on directly as adding to the strength
of the column.
208 REINFORCED CONCRETE

In Formula (50), if we let Z=l + (n l)p = r-r, and tabulate

hA
values of Z (see Table XVI) in terms of n and p, the computation
of columns of this type becomes very simple.
TABLE XVI. COLUMNS WITH LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
P
Values of Z= ,
in Terms of n and p
fcA

P
 CONCRETE COLUMNS 209

130000 ..
= 1.474
Solution. Z IT-TV;-
1
and from
XVI, Table
450X14X14
p = .034. Then A s =. 034X14X14 = 6.66 in.
2
This might be four
l|-inch round bars at the corners =
(A s 7.07), or eight ff-inch square
bars at corners and middle of sides (A s = 7.03), or four IJ-inch round
bars at corners and four f-inch round bars at middle of sides.
(A s = 6.68in.
2
).

The Joint Committee recommends a minimum of 1 per cent of

longitudinal steel for columns of more than four diameters in length.
This gives rigidity to the column, and security against local yielding
in the concrete. High percentages of longitudinal steel are not

(a) ft)

FIG. 58. Reinforced Concrete Columns.

usually economical, because of the greater cost of steel as compared

with concrete for resisting compression, particularly when the stresses
in the steel are limited by those
in the concrete.
When the concrete used for fireproofing, the steel should be
is

covered by at least 2 inches of concrete, and about 1 \ inches of con-

crete on the exterior of the column should not be considered in deter-

mining the strength of the column.

121. Columns with Hooped Reinforcement. As shown in Section
95, the failure of concrete under compression commonly occurs
through shearing due to lateral expansion. If the concrete in the
column be held by band or spiral steel (see Fig. 58 (6) ) from yielding to
210 REINFORCED CONCRETE

lateral expansion, the resistance to crushing will be materially in-

creased. Such reinforcement is either formed of steel bars bent to
form a spiral or bands of steel spaced at a uniform distance apart,
but in either case, the bands should not be spaced more than about
one-sixth of the diameter of the column apart, and must be held in
place by longitudinal spacing bars.
Experiments upon columns with hooped reinforcement indicate
that the deflections under working loads are not decreased by the
reinforcement, but the ultimate strength is considerably increased, as
compared with columns without such reinforcement. When hcoped
reinforcement used, it is usual to allow a larger unit stress than for
is

plain columns, or those with longitudinal reinforcement only. The

effective area of the column is that inside the reinforcement. The
concrete outside the hooping is stripped off when a stress is reached at
which plain concrete would fail.

Hooped reinforcement prevents crushing of the concrete until a

load is reached which stresses the steel to itsyield point, but does not
stiffen the column longitudinally, and columns so reinforced fre-
quently by bending. This reinforcement is commonly combined
fail

with longitudinal steel as shown in Fig. 58 (c). The longitudinal

steel serves to stiffen the column against bending, and makes the

hooping more effective. In general, it is not advisable to use hooped

reinforcement without longitudinal steel, as the same amount of
steel would be more effective in strengthening the column if used as

longitudinal steel.
Experiments indicate that about 1 per cent of steel in closely
spaced hooping is sufficient to resist lateral expansion and give in-
creased strength in compression. Larger amounts of steel do not
materially increase the resistance. The Joint Committee makes the
following recommendations :

(6) Columns reinforced with not less than 1 per cent and not more than
4 per cent of longitudinal bars and with circular hoops or spirals not
less than 1 per cent of the volume of the concrete and as hereinafter

specified: a unit stress 55 per cent higher than given for (a), provided
the ratio of unsupported length of column to diameter of the hooped
core is not more than 10.

The foregoing recommendations are based on the following conditions:

It is recommended that the minimum size of columns to which the working
stresses may be applied be 12 inches out to out.
In cases longitudinal reinforcement is assumed to carry its proportion of
all

stress. The hoops or bands are not to be counted on directly as adding to the
strength of the column.
Longitudinal reinforcement bars should be maintained straight, and should
 CONCRETE COLUMNS 211

have sufficient lateral support to be securely held in place until the concrete
has set.
Where hoopingis used, the total amount of such reinforcement shall be not

less than 1 per cent of the volume of the column, enclosed. The clear spacing
of such hooping shall be not greater than one-sixth the diameter of the enclosed
column and preferably not greater than one-tenth, and in no case more than 2
inches. Hooping is to be circular and the ends of bands must be united in such
a way as to develop their full strength. Adequate means must be provided
to hold bands or hoops in place so as to form a column, the core of which
shall be straight and well centered. The strength of hooped columns depends
very much upon the ratio of length to diameter of hooped core, and the strength
due to hooping decreases rapidly as this ratio increases beyond five. The work-
ing stresses recommended are for hooped columns with a length of not more
than ten diameters of the hooped core.
The Committee has no recommendation to make for a formula for working
stresses for columns longer than ten diameters.

Let d = effective diameter of column in inches;

a = area of the steel bar to be used, in square inches;
s = longitudinal spacing of the bands or spirals, in inches;

p = ratio of steel to concrete in column.

Then
a = pds/4:
or
s=4a/pd ......... (51)

From this we may obtain

the size of bars necessary for steel of re-
quired spacing, or the spacing required for bars of given size.
Example 24. A concrete column is to carry a load of 225,000
pounds and be reinforced with 1 per cent of spiral steel and 2 per cent

of longitudinal Using the stresses recommended by the

steel.

Joint Committee for concrete of 2000 pounds compressive strength,

find dimensions for concrete and steel.
Solution. Without hooped reinforcement, the value of fc would
be limited to 22.5 per cent of the compressive strength, or 450 lb./ in.
This may be increased 55 per cent when spiral reinforcement is used
or /c = 700 lb./in. 2
Using Table XVI, for p = .02 and rc = 15, Z=1.28, from which
P 225000 2
=251 in. ,
and diameter of column is 18 inches.

=
Longitudinal steel, A s =. 02X251 5.02 in. From Table we see 2
X
that five 1-inch square bars, spaced about 11 inches apart about
the circumference of the column, or nine f-inch square bars spaced
about 6 inches apart may be used. For the spiral steel, we find
from (51) that if the spacing be made 2| inches, a =
.OlXl8X2J/4
= .112 in.
2
,
and f-inch round bars may be used.
212 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Loaded Columns. When the center of gravity

122. Eccentrically
of the loadupon a column does not coincide with the gravity axis of
the column, bending stresses are produced which must be taken into
account in designing the column. In some cases, lateral forces may
be acting upon a column, producing bending moments, as in wall
columns carrying the ends of beams which are firmly attached to the
columns. When these conditions exist, the maximum unit com-
pression due to both direct thrust and bending moment at any sec-
tion must not exceed the safe values for the concrete, and any tensions
which may occur must be taken by proper reinforcement.
Let Fig. 59 represent the section of a column under eccentric
load.
A = area of section of column;
A = area of longitudinal steel hi
s section;
P= longitudinal load on column;
e = eccentricity of load ;
Ic moment of about its gravity axis;
inertia of section
Is = moment of about same axis;
inertia of steel area
u distance gravity axis to most remote edge of section ;

M bending moment on section, Pe;

fc = maximum unit compression on concrete;
f' c
= minimum unit compression on concrete.

/c = is made up of two parts that due to direct thrust and that

due to bending moment, and is

_ P MU /KIN
7f'
,

A+(n-l)A^/,+(n-l)//
and
Mu

When the stress due to moment is greater than that due to direct
thrust, f c becomes negative, showing the stress to be tension.
Tensions in columns, if occurring at all, should be very small and
need not be specially provided for. The stresses in steel are always
less than nfc and therefore within safe limits.
,

If the section is symmetrical about its =

gravity axis, u d/2 t

3
bd
and for rectangular sections, I c = -^r and Is = A s ds 2
/4, in which ds
\2i

is distance between centers of steel on the two sides of column. For

circular sections, I c = .049d 4 and Is = .125A s ds 2 where d is the diameter
,

of the column and ds is diameter of the circle containing the centers oi

the steel bars.
 CONCRETE COLUMNS 213

Example 25. A wall column, 12X16 inches in section, carries

beam which
the end of a brings a longitudinal load of 60,000 pounds
and a bending moment of 180,000 in.-lb. upon the column. The
column reinforced with four 1-inch square steel bars at the corners,
is

the centers of steel being 2 inches from surfapes of concrete. n=15.

Find the unit stresses on the concrete.

FIG. 59. Column with Eccentric Load.

Solution.

Ic = 12X16X16X16/12=4096. J S =4X12X12/4 = 144.

60000 180000X8
' '
= 242+235=477 lb./in.
2
,
192+14X4 4096+14X144
/'c =242-235 = 71b/in. 2
Complete discussions of the principles of reinforced concrete
"
design with applications to structures is given in Concrete, Plain
"
and Reinforced," by Taylor and Thompson, and in Principles of
Reinforced Concrete Construction/' by Turneaure and Maurer.
 CHAPTER VII

RETAINING WALLS

ART. 33. PRESSURE OF EARTH AGAINST A WALL.

123. Theories of Earth Pressure. The lateral pressure of a mass

of earth against a retaining wall is affected by so many variable
conditions that the determination of its actual value in a particular
instance is practically impossible.
Several theories, based in each case upon certain ideal conditions,
have been proposed, none of which are more than very rough approxi-
mations to the conditions existing in such structures. These theo-

FIG. 60. Pressure of Earth against a Wall.

ries assume that the earth is composed of a mass of particles exerting

frictionupon each other but without cohesion, or that the pressure
against the wall is caused by a wedge of earth which tends to slide
upon plane surface of rupture, as shown in Fig. 60. Formulas for
a
the resultant thrust against the wall have been produced in accord-
ance with the various theories by several methods, they differ mainly
in the direction given to the thrust upon the wall.
Coulomb's Theory. A formula for computing the lateral thrust
against a wall was proposed by Coulomb in 1773. Coulomb assumed
that the thrust was caused by a prism of earth (BAC, Fig. 60) sliding
214
 PRESSURE OF EARTH AGAINST A WALL 215

upon any plane AC which produces the maximum thrust upon the
wall. a certain slope (AD, Fig. 60) at which the material if
There is

loosely placed will stand. This is known as the natural slope, and
the angle made by this slope with the horizontal as the angle of fric-
tion of the earth. On slopes steeper than the natural slope, there is a
tendency for the earth to slide down, and if held by a wall, pressures
are produced which depend upon the frictional resistance to sliding.
The thrust is assumed by Coulomb to be normal to the wall, and
the pressure upon the plane of rupture to be inclined at the angle of
friction to the normal to the plane.

Let h = height of wall;

P = resultant pressure upon a unit length of wall;
R = pressure upon the plane of rupture;
G = weight of the wedge of earth ;

e = weight of earth per cubic foot;

= angle of friction of earth;
a = angle between the back of wall and plane of rupture.

the back of the wall be vertical and the surface of earth horizon-
If

tal, from Fig. 60,

tan a
tan (a-\-<t>Y

For maximum value of P, a = 45 and the plane of rupture

^,

bisects the angle between the back of the wall and the natural slope.
Substituting this value,

P varies as the square of h, and is therefore applied at a distance

h/3 above the base of the wall. This is the same in all of the theories.
Poncelet's Theory. In 1840 Poncelet proposed to modify the
method of Coulomb by making the thrust upon the wall act at the
angle of friction with the normal to the wall.
Before the wall can be overturned about its toe (F, Fig. 61) the
back of the wall (A B) must be raised and upon the earth behind
slide

it, thus calling into play the friction of the earth upon the wall as a

resistance. As the friction of earth upon a rough masonry wall is

greater than that of earth upon earth, a nlm of earth would be carried
with the wall and slide upon the earth behind and the angle of friction
is usually taken as equal to the natural slope of the earth.
216 RETAINING WALLS

Let 6 = the angle made by the back of the wall with the horizontal ;

z = the angle made by the earth surface with the horizontal.

Following the same procedure as in developing Coulomb's formula,
we find the pressure against the wall,
2
P = i^2 Si (-*)
sin (4>i), sin 2</>

FIG. 61. Poncelet's Theory of Pressure.

For a vertical wall and horizontal earth surface = 90 and

o),
eh2 cos

which is the formula proposed by Poncelet.

Rankine's Theory. Rankine considered the earth to be made up

of a homogeneous mass of particles, possessing frictional resistance
to sliding over each other but without cohesion. He deduced for-
mulas for the pressure upon ideal plane sections through an unlimited
mass of earth with plane upper surface, the earth being subject to no
external force except its own weight, and determined the direction
of the pressure from these assumptions.
Rankine found that the resultant pressure upon any vertical
plane section through a bank of earth with plane upper surface is
parallel to the slope of the upper surface (see Fig. 62) .

Let E = the pressure upon the vertical section;

^ = the angle made by the inclination of the upper surface

with the horizontal;

 PRESSURE OF EARTH AGAINST A WALL 217

= the angle of friction of the earth;

e = the weight per cubic foot of the earth;
$=the height of vertical section through earth.
Then
2
Vcos 2 cos 2
,
= eS cosz--
cos ^
.

.
i

+ V cos2 i
,

cos i cos 2 </>

is Rankine's formula for earth pressure. This pressure acts upon

the vertical section at a distance S/3 from its base, and makes an

angle i with the horizontal.

Rankine's formula may be produced in the same manner as
Poncelet's by assuming the pressure parallel to the upper slope.

FIG. 62. Pressure of Earth

Thus in Fig. 61 if the angle made by P with the normal to the wall
be equal to it we find

eS 2 cos 2
2'
sin (0 a) sin(0-j-fr')\
cos 2 i )

1
which may be transformed into Rankine's formula as given above.

Weyrauchs theory is practically the same as Rankine's although

produced in a different way.
Cohesion. In all of the ordinary formulas for earth pressure, the
effect of cohesion is neglected. Experiments indicate that this effect is
not sufficient to affect very materially the actual pressure upon a wall.
It causes the earth to break off and slide upon a concave surface in-
stead of a plane surface. At the upper surface of the earth, the cohe-
1
Wm. Cain, Practical Designing of Retaining Walls, 1914, p. 103.
218 RETAINING WALLS

sion is sufficient to overcome the lateral thrust and cause the earth
to stand in a vertical position, while as the lateral thrust increases
with the depth, the cohesion becomes relatively less important and
the surface of rupture flattens out. When earth is placed behind a
wall after it is constructed cohesion is probably negligible at first,
although after the earth has become compacted may develop in some
cases so that practically no pressure comes against the wall. It is
so uncertain that no reliance should be placed upon it in designing
walls.
Value of Theories. On account of the variable nature of the
material, it is evident that estimates of earth pressures are only
rough approximations to the actual pressures. The material assumed
as possessing uniform frictionand without cohesion does not exist in
practice. The general laws developed, however, do give rational
methods of reaching reasonable estimates upon which safe designs
may be based.
Experiments upon sand pressures, and experience with walls in
use, indicate that Coulomb's use of horizontal earth pressures, or
Rankine's thrust parallel to earth surface, where the surface is near the
horizontal, give thrusts much greater than those actually produced
upon walls with vertical backs. For such walls, the use of the
Poncelet's formulas, taking into account the friction of the earth
on the back of the wall, give results which seem to agree fairly well
with experiment and experience.
For walls leaning forward, so that considerable weights of earth
rest upon them, Rankine's formulas may be applied to find the
thrust upon the vertical section through the earth at the inner edge
of the base of the wall. This thrust, combined with the weight of
earth resting upon the wall, gives the thrust against the wall.
124. Computation of Earth Thrusts. When the back of a wall is

nearly vertical, the thrust may usually be taken as making the angle
of friction with a normal to the surface of the wall, as assumed in the

theory of Poncelet. For such walls the thrust may be obtained from
the formula already given:

eh? sin2 (0-0) M

,\7 sin -;)- ssin 20
(0-;)- \
2 n //. , , /
sin 0-sm(0+0)u-f
' A /- , .. .

\sm (Bi) sm
2
eh
If we place P=Q, 2i
values of Q may be tabulated for various

slopes and angles of friction as shown in Table XVII. The values of

P obtained by this method are supposed to act against the wall at a
 PRESSURE OF EARTH AGAINST A WALL 219

distance h/3 above the base, and make the angle of friction with the
normal to the wall.

TABLE XVIL EARTH PRESSURE AGAINST A WALL

Values of Q in Formula (1), P=^r--Q

Batter of Back
of Wall.
220 RETAINING WALLS

Values of Kcorresponding to various values of i and $ are tabu-

lated in Table XVIII, thus greatly reducing the labor of computing
the pressures. E as computed from this formula is supposed to act
at a distance S/3 from the bottom of the section and to be parallel
to the upper surface of the earth. S in this formula is the height
of the earth section and not the height of the wall.

TABLE XVIII PRESSURES UPON VERTICAL SECTIONS THROUGH

EARTH
Values of K in Formula (2) -E=K
SLOPE OF UPPER
SURFACE OF EARTH.
 PRESSURE OF EARTH AGAINST A WALL 221

TABLE XIX. FRICTION ANGLES AND WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS

Kind of Material.
222 RETAINING WALLS

A graphical method is shown in Fig. 63. OA is the back of a wall,

and A BCD, etc., the upper surface of the earth resting against it.
Divide the earth into a number of prisms by the lines OB, OC, etc.

On the line oa lay off on some convenient scale ab, be, etc., equal
respectively to the weights of the prisms OAB, OBC, OCD, etc.
From a draw the lines 061, aci, etc., making the angle of friction

(</>) with the normals to OB, OC, OD, etc., respectively. From the
points b, c, d, etc., draw the lines 661, cci, ddi, etc., making the
angle of friction (<j>) with the back of the wall (OA), to intersection
with the lines abi, aci, etc., respectively. The lengths bbi,cci, ddi, etc.,
will then represent, on the scale to which the weights were laid off,
the thrusts of the prisms between the back of the wall and the planes
OB, OC, etc., respectively.

FIG. 63. Graphical Determination of Earth Pressures.

In the figure, ee\ is the maximum thrust, caused by the prism between
OA and OE, showing OE to be the plane of rupture. This resultant
thrust will act at a distance h/3 from the base of the wall, at the angle
of friction with the normal to the wall.
Detailed discussions of methods of determining earth pressures
are given in "Retaining Walls for Earth" by M. A. Howe, New York,
1896, and in "Practical Designing of Retaining Walls," by Wm. Cain,
New York, 1914. An interesting paper by E. P. Goodrich in Trans-
 SOLID MASONRY WALLS 223

actions, American Society of Civil Engineers, December, 1904, gives

results of experiments for determination of internal friction and
lateral pressure of earth.

ART. 34. SOLID MASONRY WALLS

126. Stability of Walls. A masonry retaining wall may fail in

either of three ways:

1. By overturning or rotating about its toe.

2. By crushing the masonry.

3. By sliding on a horizontal joint.

Insufficient foundation is probably the most common cause of

failure of retaining walls. This is not, however, due to failure of the

wall itself, but to lack of sufficient footing or other support when
placed upon compressible or soft soils or to lack of proper drainage.
This is discussed in Art. 36.

FIG. 64. Stresses upon Retaining Walls.

In Fig. 64, A BCD is a wall with vertical face supporting a bank of

earth as shown.
Let P = thrust of earth against the wall;
V = Vertical component of P;
H = horizontal component of P;
W = weight of wall acting through its center of gravity;
R = resultant pressure on base AB ;
224 RETAINING WALLS

6 = width of base of wall;

a = width of top of wall;
d = distance from face of wall to its center of gravity;
/c = unit compression on masonry at toe of wall;
x = distance from toe of wall to point of application of
resultant pressure upon the base;
= angle made by R with base of wall.

Resisting Moment. The moment of the thrust about the toe

of the wall at B is M = HX- VX (26 + a) .

o
This moment tends to overturn the wall by causing rotation
about B, and is resisted by the moment of the weight of wall in the
opposite direction. This moment is w = Wd. M
When these moments M = the resultant R
are equal (MW P Q),
obtained by combining P and W passes through B and the wall is

on the point of overturning. The ratio M W /M the factor of P is

safety against overturning.

When Mw greater than M R
is cut the base of the wall to
PJ will
the right of B. Placing M MW M we have
T P

t
6 , 6

from which we find the distance of the point of application of R

from B:
_3Wd+V(2b+a)-Hh
3(W+V)
This point of application of R may also be found graphically as
shown in Fig. 63.
The resultant R should always cut the base of the wall within
itsmiddle third (x>6/3) in order that the pressure may be distrib-
uted over the whole section of the base and there may be no tend-
ency for the joint to open, or no tensile stress developed at the inner
edge (A) of the section.
Crushing of Masonry. The unit stress at the toe of the wall (B)
must not exceed the safe crushing strength of the masonry. The
distribution of stress over the section depends upon the position of
the point of application of the resultant (R). When x = b/3, the

stress at A will be zero, and the stress at B, fc = -- -- =- -. If x be

less than 6/3, the pressure will be distributed over a distance 3x

 SOLID MASONRY WALLS 225

from the toe (B), and the maximum stress, fe = -

2(W -4-V)
oX
When
x is greater than 6/3 the maximum compression,

(TT+7)(46-6x)
Jc= ^2
....... (6)

ResistanceSliding depends upon the development of sufficient

to

friction in through the wall to overcome the pressure

any joint
parallel to the joint. Thus (Fig. 64) in order that no sliding occur
at the base of the wall, the frictional resistance in the joint B must be A
greater .than the horizontal component of the thrust R. This will
be the case when R makes an angle (|3) with the normal to AB
that is less than the angle of friction of masonry sliding upon masonry.
TT
Tan fi
= ,) must be less than the coefficient of friction of the

masonry.
In the construction of heavy walls, resistance to sliding may be
increased by breaking joints so that no continuous joint exists through
the wall. Joints inclined from the front to the back of the wall are
also sometimes used so as to bring the resultant pressure more nearly
normal to the joint.
127. Empirical Design. In the practical designing of retaining
walls, engineers have commonly used empirical rules given by certain
prominent authorities, or have assumed dimensions based upon their
own The uncertain and conflicting nature
experiences. of the
assumptions used in producing the formulas based upon the various
theories, and the lack of satisfactory experimental data has caused
the use of dimensions shown by experience to be safe and in very

many instances probably quite excessive.

Trautwine's rules have been extensively used for many years,
and are as follows J
for vertical walls :

When the backing is deposited loosely, as usual, as when dumped from carts,
cars, etc.,
Wall of cut stone, or first-class large ranged rub-
ble, in mortar ............................ 35 of its entire vertical height
Wall of good common scabbled mortar-rubble,
or brick ............ ..................... 4 of its entire vertical height
Wall of well-scabbled dry rubble ............... 5 of its entire vertical height

With good masonry, however, we may take the height from the
ground surface up, instead of the total height as above indicated.
1

When the wall has a sloping or offset back, the thickness above
1
Trautwine's Engineer's Pocket-Book.
226 RETAINING WALLS

given may be used as the mean thickness, or thickness at the mid-

height.
Baker's Rules. Sir Benjamin Baker, from an extended experience
in the construction of walls under many differing conditions, and
after numerous experiments upon the thrust of earth, gives 1 the
following statement of his views upon the design of retaining walls:

Experience has shown that a wall one-quarter of the height in thickness, and
battering 1 inch or 2 inches per foot on the face, possesses sufficient stability
when the backing and foundation are both favorable. The Author, however,
would not seek to justify this proportion by assuming the slope of repose to be
about 1 to 1, when it is perhaps more nearly 1 to 1, and a factor of safety to be
unnecessary, but would rather say that experiment has shown the actual lateral
thrust of good filling to be equivalent to that of a fluid weighing about 10 pounds
per cubic foot, and allowing for variations in the ground, vibrations, and con-
tingencies, a factor of safety of 2, the wall should be able to sustain at least 20
pounds fluid pressure, which will be the case if one-quarter of the height in
thickness.
been similarly proved by experience that under no ordinary conditions
It has

heavy backing is it necessary to make a retaining wall on a solid

of surcharge or
foundation more than double the above, or one-half of the height in thickness.
Within these limits the engineer must vary the strength in accordance with
the conditions affecting the particular case.

The rules of Sir Benjamin Baker give walls considerably lighter

than those of Trautwine, and the tendency in recent practice has been
to somewhat reduce the thicknesses for walls backed with good
materials and built under favorable conditions. Where from lack of
drainage or other cause, the backing is liable to get into soft condition,
it may be necessary to considerably increase thickness.

128. Using Formulas

in Design. The design of a wall to sustain
a bank of earth a comparatively simple matter once the earth
is

pressure has been determined. The difficulties met are those of

the character of the material and its probable pressure
judging
against the wall. It is probable that in most instances the full

pressures that theoretically might come upon the wall are not actually
developed. The design should be made for the worst conditions
which may reasonably be expected to occur, but the construction
of heavy walls to provide for bad conditions which are not likely to
occur, and which may be met by proper attention to drainage and
proper care in placing the backing, is unnecessarily expensive and
wasteful.
For walls with vertical or nearly vertical backs, Poncelet's for-
.

mulas, taking into account the friction of the earth on the back of
1
The Actual Lateral Pressure of Earth, Van Nostrand Science Series, and
Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. LXV, p. 183.
 SOLID MASONRY WALLS 227

the wall, give thicknesses for walls which agree fairly well with the
results of experience and not differing greatly from the rules sug-

gested by Sir Benjamin Baker.

in designing by this method, the pressure of earth is obtained by
the use of Formula (1), or from Table XVII, a section of wall is
assumed and its sufficiency investigated.
Example 1. A masonry wall, 22 feet high, is to support a bank
of earth whose surface has an upward slope of 1 to 3 from the top
of the wall. The backing is ordinary earth whose friction angle
may be taken at 35. Weight of masonry is 150 pounds and of earth
100 pounds per cubic foot. Find proper section for the wall.
Solution. Try a rectangular wall with thickness of 7.5 f et.
From Table XVII, we find Q = .33. Then
2
100X22X22X.33
PD = eh n -
-p-Q = -7:
- = 7986 pounds per foot of length of wall.
A -

As P makes angle of 35 with normal to back of wall,

H = Pcos 35 = 6770 pounds and V = P sin 35 = 4580 pounds.

W = 22 X 7 . 5 X 150 = 24,750 pounds.

From (5), we find

3X24750X3.75+4580X3X7.5-6770X22 =
2.64
3(24750+4580)
and the resultant (R) comes just within the middle third of the base.
The crushing stress on the masonry at the toe of the wall is (6)

_ (W+ V) (46 - 6or) _ (24750+4580) (4 X 7.5 - 6 X 2.64)

~ ~
lb /tt
fc
~W~ 7.5X7.5
' *

which would be quite safe for any ordinary masonry.

tan = = = <231> r = 13
T^Ty 24750"- 4580 '

and sliding could not occur.

The face of the wall may be battered, so as to
Battered Face.
diminish the width at top by one- third, using the same width of base
without decreasing its stability.
Battered Back. A wall with battered back may be used. Assume
a top thickness, a = 5.5, and base thickness, 6 = 9.5. The angle
made by the back of the wall with the horizontal 6 = 100 20'. From
eh2 Q 100 X 22 X 22 X47
Table XVII, we find Q = .47, then P = e = ^
228 RETAINING WALLS

= 1 1624 pounds. H = P cos (0+<j> - 90) = 8170 pounds, and V = P sin

((9+0
- 90) = 8270 pounds. W= 5 5+9'

SB
' 5
X 22 X 150 = 24750 pounds.
From (3),

_3X24750X3. 83+8270(2X9. 5+5. 5) -8170X22_ Q

3(24750+8270)
R cuts the base practically at one-third its width from the toe.

The crushing stress at the toe is fc = -- -- = 6950

2(W-\-V)
=-
pounds,

a little less than for the rectangular wall.

tan ft
= = -247, within safe limits but somewhat
o^yKfl i
0070
more than for the rectangular wall.

Example 2. A retaining wall 20 feet high is to support a hori-

zontal bank of eaHh carrying a railway track. If the maximum

train load is taken at 800 pounds per square foot of surface, and the

angle of friction of the earth at 30, find the thickness of wall required
by Poncelet's formula, w = 150 pounds and e = 100 pounds per
cubic foot.
Solution. Assume a thickness of wall of 9 feet. From Table
XVII, we have Q = 30. Then (3)

3Q=

H = P cos = 10800 X .866 = 9350

93 pounds,
and
V = 10800 X .5 = 5400 pounds.
JF = 9 X 20 X 150 = 27000 pounds.
Using (5),

_3X27000X4.5+5400X9X3-9350X20_ Q
3(27000+5400)
The resultant thrust cuts the base within the middle third, and a
little less width might answer.
The crushing stress at the toe of the wall is

C pounds. ..,.-:"

The minimum thickness allowable for a solid wall is that which

causes the resultant thrust (R) to cut the base at a distance x = l/3
from the toe of the wall. For a rectangular wall, the width bears a
direct ratio to the height for any particular values for weights of
 REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS 229

materials and angles of friction. Table XX

gives minimum values
of thickness ratio, by Poncelet's formula for walls in which the
3
weight of masonry is taken as 150 lb./ft. and the weight of earth
as 100 lb./ft.3

TABLE XX. MINIMUM THICKNESS OF WALLS BY PONCELET'S

FORMULA
Values of b/h, when w = 150 lb./ft.
3
and e = 100 lb./ft.
3

Slopes of Earth Sur-

face Vertical to
Horizontal.
230 RETAINING WALLS

zontal pressure of earth on EF is carried by the vertical stem CDEF

acting as a cantilever beam. The projecting bases and are FB AC
also cantilever beams, the one supporting the weight of earth resting

upon it, the other resisting the upward thrust of the foundation at
the toe of the wall.
A counterforted wall is shown in Fig. 66. The face wall CDEF
is connected with the base ACFB by narrow counterforts EFB,
spaced several feet apart. The counterforts are cantilever beams,
each carrying the horizontal earth thrust on the face wall EF for a
panel length of wall. The face walls CDEF are slabs holding the
earth pressure between counterforts and transferring the pressure

A /_ B

FIG. 65. Cantilever Wall. FIG. 66. Counterfort Walls.

to the counterforts. The base FB is a slab carrying the weight of

earth FEGB beween counterforts and holding down the ends of the
counterforts. The base AC at the front of the wall is a cantilever
carrying the upward thrust of the foundation at the toe of the wall.
The cantilever type is commonly used for moderate heights of
wall. For walls more than 20 or 25 feet high, the counterforted wall
is usually more economical. The quantities of materials required
for a counterforted wall are less and the amount of form work more
than for a cantilever wall.
130. Design of Cantilever Wall. In designing reinforced con-
crete walls, the thrust in the vertical section of earth passing through
the inner edge of the base may be computed by Rankine's formula,
as given in Section 123:
 REINFORCED CONCRETE WALI 231

eS 2 . cos i Vcos 2 z cos2<^ eS2

(2)
cos i +V
Values of K
may be taken from Table XVIII. This thrust is parallel
to the upper surface of the earth and its horizontal and vertical
components are
2
eS2
H = E cos = eS K cos
i i, and V = E sin i
2^
K sin i.

The method be illustrated by numerical examples.

of design will

Example 3. Design retaining wall to hold a level bank of earth

a
16 feet high. The base of footing is to be 3 feet below surface of
2
ground and the pressure on the soil is limited to 4000 lb./ft. The
backing is ordinary soil with angle of friction of 35. Earth weighs
100 pounds and concrete 150 pounds per cubic foot. Unit stresses
will be based upon use of 2000 pounds concrete and plain bars of
medium steel.

Solution. Assume the base under the wall 12 inches thick.

The height of the wall above the base is then 18 feet, and the hori-
K from Table XVIII,

--
zontal thrust, taking

E= eSzK = 100X18X18X27
2
- =4374 pounds per foot of length of wall.
_

The bending moment caused by this thrust upon the section at

the top of the base is M= 4374X6X12 = 3 14928 in.-lb.
From Table VII, for

fe = 650 and f, = 16,000, we find R = 108 and p = .0078.

Then
Rbd 2 = M becomes 108X12d 2 = 314928, and d=15.5 inches.

Assuming the steel to be embedded 1.5 inches in the concrete, the

total thickness of the vertical stem at the top of the base will be
17 inches.
The steel area required for a length of 12 inches of wall is

'pbd=. 0078X12X15.5 = 1.45

2
in.

From Table XV we find that f-inch bars spaced 5 inches apart will
answer the purpose.
If we assume 10 inches to be the minimum allowable thickness
at the top of the wall and make the faces of the wall plane surfaces,
the thickness at all intermediate points will be greater than required
for strength. At a point 12 feet below the top, the bending moment
232 RETAINING WALLS

is314928X8/27 = 93312 in.-lb., and the effective depth of beam is

13 inches. Then
qqqio

and from Table IX, we find p = .0032. The area of steel required
is 12 X 13 X. 0032 = 0.5 in. 2 per foot of length, or about one -third of
that at the base. Similarly at a section 6 feet below the top, no
steel would theoretically be required.
If ajl of the bars be carried up 6 feet, every third bar 12 feet and

every sixth bar to the top the reinforcement will be amply strong.
The lower ends of these bars should be turned up in the base for
anchorage.
The maximum shear in section at base is 4374 pounds, and

= V = 4374
= 27
"
P 12X. 874X15. 5
lb '
/m '

No diagonal tension reinforcement is necessary.

Overturning Moment. Assume the width of base at about 45
per cent of the total height, or 8.5 feet. Let the inner surface
of the vertical stem be vertical, and place the stem at a distance
equal to one-third the width of base (6/3) from the toe of the wall.
(See Fig. 67.)
The moment of the thrust about the toe at A tends to overturn
the wall, while the moments of the weights of the wall and earth
resting upon it resist overturning.
The weight of the vertical stem is

W i
= (18 X 150) = 3035 pounds.

The weight of the base is W = 1.0X8.5X 150= 1275 pounds.

2

The weight of the earth is G= 18X4.25X100 = 7650 pounds.

rro.
The earth thrust, Err = eS
2
K = 100 X 19 X 19 X. 27 = 4873
_ ,

2i
pounds.

The moment on the toe at A is

Af = 3035X3.65 + 1275X4.25+7650X6.4-4873X6.33 = 34610 ft.-lb.
The point of application of the resultant on the foundation soil is
equal to the moment about A divided by the vertical component
of the resultant, or

34610 _ 20fcc
"3035+1275+7650"
This brings the resultant within the middle third of the base.
 REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS 233

The factor of safety against overturning is

3035X3.65+1275X4.25+7650X6.4 2.12.
4873X6.33
Pressure on Foundation. The total vertical load on the foun-
dation is 3035+1275+7650=11,960 pounds. The pressure at the

E F

If?
"a
FIG. 67. Design of Cantilever Wall.

toe is twice the average pressure, 2X11960/8.5 = 2814 lb./ft.

2
,
which
is within safe limits.
Inner Base Cantilever. The length of the inner cantilever is

4.25 feet. It is subject to the action of three loads:

(1) The weight of the earth resting upon it (1800 pounds

per linear foot) ;

(2) Weight of the cantilever itself (150 pounds per linear

foot).
234 RETAINING WALLS

(3) Upward pressure of the foundation soil (which is at

the end D and 1400 pounds where the cantilever joins
the vertical wall at C).
The bending moment on the section at C is

= 13,396 ft.-lb. or 160,752 in-lb.

From Table VII, R = 108 and p = .0078. Then
108 Xl2d 2 = 160752 and rf=11.2 inches.

If the steel be placed 1.75 inches below the top surface the thick-
ness at C is 13 inches,

A =pbd = 0078X11.2X12= 1.05

. in.
2

From Table XV, we find that-f-inch bars spaced 5 inches apart,

the same as the vertical reinforcement will answer the purpose.
These bars should be anchored by bending or by continuing them
through the concrete on the front of the base to a length of at least
50 diameters (37.5 inches).
The shear in section at C is

7= 1800X4.25+150X4.25- 1400X4.25/2 = 5312 pounds,

and * = V = 5312

This value is rather large for use without diagonal tension reinforce-
ment. If we make

Iz.b in.

Using d=13 inches and embedding the steel 2 inches in the con-
crete, the total depth of base at C becomes 15 inches.
Outer Base Cantilever. The length of the outer cantilever is

2.83 feet. The forces acting upon it are its own weight acting down-

ward, and the thrust of the foundation soil acting upward (2814
lb./ft.
2
at A and 1876 lb./ft. 2 at B). The shear in section at is B
F = 2814+187_6 283 _ 150x283 = 62121b _

If the unit shear be limited to 40 lb./in.2 ,

V 6212

Making d= 15 inches, the total depth of base at B is 17 inches.

 REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS 235

The bending moment at B is

or 150,120 in./lb.

** ~ J^72 = 10\/10\/1 C = 55.6,

R/fs = 55.6/ 16000 = .0035.

From Table IX, p = .0038, and A = .0038X12X15 = .68 in. 2 per foot
of length of wall.
From Table XV, f-inch bars will answer if spaced like the other
reinforcement 5 inches apart. These bars must extend into the base
a distance of at least 50 diameters (31 inches) past the section at B.
Horizontal bars should be placed longitudinally through the
wall near the exposed face to prevent cracking due to contraction;
J-inch bars spaced 12 inches apart are sufficient for this purpose.
Example 4. A cantilever wall is to be 17 feet high above ground
and to support a bank of earth whose surface has an upward slope
of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical from the top of the wall. Angle of
friction for backing earth = 35. The soil under the base may be
safely loaded with 6000 pounds per square foot. Earth filling weighs
100 lb./ft. 3 and concrete 150 lb./ft. 3 Safe values of /c = 500 lb./in. 2
/,= 16,000 lb./in. and for diagonal tension v = 30 lb./in.
2 2
, n=15.
The base of the wall will extend 4 feet below the surface of the ground
and the toe of the wall cannot extend beyond its face.
Solution. Assume a depth of base of 24 inches and a width of
base of 12 feet. (See Fig. 68.)
Vertical Wall. The total height of the vertical wall is 19 feet.
The thrust on the back of this wall is

v= eWK 100X19X19X.39 =
E 7040 pounds.
^-=
This acts parallel to the surface of the earth and its horizontal com-
ponent T = 7040 cos 26 30' = 6300 pounds. The moment of this
about the base of the wall is (6300 X 19/3) X 12 = 478,800 in.-lb.
From Table VII, R = 72 and p = .005. 12d2 = 478800/72 = 6648, and
d = 24 inches.
The total thickness at base is 26 inches. Take top as 12 inches
thick, and make face of wall vertical. At base, A = 24X12X.005
= 1.44 in. 2 From Table XV, f-inch square bars 4| inches apart
will answer. All bars will extend to 12 feet below top, every third
bar to 6 feet below top and every sixth bar to top of wall.
236 RETAINING WALLS

Shear at base section is 6300 pounds and

6300

which is within limits without diagonal tension reinforcement.

Overturning Moment. The thrust on the vertical section at the
inner edge of the base is

Its horizontal
v=
E = -^-K
2
eS2

component
--
100X26. 5X26. 5 W

is
jr
Z
X .39 = 13,690 pounds.

H= 13,690 cos 26 30' = 12,250 pounds

and its vertical component
V = 13,690 sin 26 30' = 6100 pounds.

The weight of the base of wall

TFi = 12 X 2 X 150 = 3600 pounds.

Weight of vertical wall

W 2 =
^~Y^ X 19 X 150
= 4560 pounds.

Weight of earth on wall

<jU /3L8+!! X19+ X100=22785 pounds.

11X6.6J
The moment of E about the toe of the wall is

Mo = 12250 X 26.5/3 - 6100 X 12 = 35000 ft.-lb.

The moment of resistance is

M =3600X6+4560X.64+22785X7.0= 184000
r ft.-lb.

The factor of safety against overturning is 184000/35000 = 5.2.

The distance from toe to point of application of resultant pres-

sure on foundation
184000-35000
3600+4560+22785+6100
The maximum pressure on the soil at the toe of the wall is

/3600 + 45 60+22785 + 6100\ 2 =

\ LZ J
 REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS 237

Base Cantilever. The weight of earth resting upon the inner

base is

The weight
(q
9.8X19.6+-

of the base is
cv4 Q\
^p-jx 100
= 21610

9.8X2X150 = 2940 pounds.

pounds.

The upward
thrust of the soil is
CCK
X 9.8 = 24770 pounds.

FIG. 68. Cantilever Wall.

The maximum bending moment at junction with vertical wall

M= ^21610X5.1+2940X4.9-24770X^ X12 = 524,000 in.-lb.

= 24-6 inches. Make full depth 27 inches.

A=24.6Xl2X.005 = 1.43in. 2 ; f -inch square bars spaced 4J inches

apart as in vertical wall meet the requirement.
For this loading, the point of maximum shear occurs where the
intensity of the downward forces equals that of the upward forces.
This occurs at a point distant

5055 -(1960+300)
4.94 feet
516+50
238 RETAINING WALLS

from the back of the vertical wall. The shear at this point is

24 5 -
+ 22 V.86X100+2x4.86X150- 2508
-

X4.86 = 6663 pounds

and
V 6663

The reinforcing bars must be anchored and longitudinal bars

introduced to prevent cracking as in Example 3.
131. Design of Counterforted Walls. In walls of the counter-
forted type, the vertical curtain wall (See. Fig. 69) isa slab supported
against the horizontal thrust of the earth by the counter-
forts at frequent intervals. The counterforts are cantilever beams
held in place by the base, and each carrying a panel load of the thrust
against the vertical slab. The inner base is a horizontal slab, sus-
pended from the counterforts, and carrying the weight of earth resting
upon it. The outer base is a cantilever and carries the upward pres-
sure of the soil upon the toe of the wall as in the cantilever wall.
Example 5. A is to support a bank of
wall with counterforts
earth 23 feet high, carrying a double track railway as shown in Fig.
69. The base of the wall will extend 4 feet below the surface of
2
the ground, and the soil is capable of carrying a load of 7000 lb./ft.
The filling is to be of ordinary earth with = 35, e= 100 lb./ft.2 and ,

w=150 lb./ft.2 Maximum allowable /c = 650

2
. stresses are Ib./in. ,

/ = 16,000 Ib./in. and #=120 Ib./in.

2 2
s , ,
or without diagonal tension
2
reinforcement v 4Q ft =15.
Ib./in. .

Solution. For heavy locomotive loads, the surcharge should be

taken as L=1000 pounds per square foot of surface.
The distance apart of counterforts may vary with different con-
ditions and should be carefully examined in each instance as to its
effect upon the cost of the wall. In this problem, we will assume
a distance c. to c. of counterforts of 8 feet. Also try a thickness of
counterforts of 18 inches.
Vertical Walls. Assuming the base of the wall to be 2 feet
thick the height of the curtain wall is 23+4 2 = 25 feet. If we
divide the vertical slab into strips each 1 foot high, the horizontal
thrust against the bottom strip will be (taking from Table XVIII), K
(eh+L)K = (100X25+ 1000). 27 = 945 lb./ft.
2

This strip is then a horizontal beam supported at intervals of 8 feet,

 REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS 239

and carrying a uniform load of 945 pounds per linear foot. Con-
sidering it to be a partly continuous beam,

d =M = 72576

Make d = S inches, and the total thickness 10 inches. As 10 inches

isabout the minimum thickness allowable at the top of the wall,
make the thickness the same for the whole slab.
For the bottom strip with d = S inches, jg= = 95,
l^XoXoQ
R/fs = 95/16000 =.0059, and from Table IX, p = .0068.
A = .0068X12X8 = .65 in.
2
,

and from Table XV we find that f-inch round bars, spaced 5 inches
apart will answer.
For a strip 16 feet below the top of the wall,

,, 702X8X8X12
- . 53914
=53914 m.-lb.,

p = .0049, A = .47 in. and the

2
f-inch bars are needed 7 inches apart.
At 8 feet below the top,

= --
,, 486X8X8X12
M JQ
= 31104 .

m.-lb.,

R =49, p = .0034, A = .33 in. 2 and the f-inch round bars may be spaced
10 inches apart.
We will therefore use f-inch round bars spaced 5 inches apart for
the lower 9 feet, 7 inches apart for the next 8 feet and 10 inches apart
in the upper 8 feet of the curtain wall. These bars will be run 2 inches
from the face of the wall, and negative moments at the counterforts
willbe taken care of by short rods of the same diameter and spacing
extending 24 inches on each side of the mid-section of the counterfort.
The span for shear is the clear distance between counterforts.
Assuming the counterfort to be 18 inches thick, the maximum shear
is V = (4 - 0.75) X 945 = 3070 lb./in.
2
and the unit shear
,

3070

The 8-inch thickness is therefore sufficient without reinforcement

for diagonal tension.
240 RETAINING WALLS

Resistance to Overturning. Assume the width

of base at about
50 per cent of the total height or 13.5 feet, and place the middle
of the vertical wall over a point one-third the width from the toe.
Taking a foot of length of wall between counterforts, the

weight of certain wall = 150 X 25 X 10/ 12 = 3 125 pounds,

weight of base = 150 X 2 X 13 5 = 4050 pounds,
.

weight of earth = 100 X 25 X 8.6 = 21500 pounds,

weight of load upon surface =1000X8.6 = 8600 pounds.

Using Rankine's formula,

X.27= 17131 pounds.

The moment of E about the toe of the wall is

Mo = 17131 X9 = 154179 ft.-lb.,

and the moment of resistance

M = 3125X4.5+4050X6.75+(21500+8600)X9.2 =
r

The factor of safety against overturning is 322919/154179 = 2.09.

The distance from the toe of the wall to the point of application
of the resultant pressure is

322919-154179 _ ,
X '

>
3125+4050+30100
and is within the middle third of the base.
Pressure on Soil. As the resultant cuts the bottom of the base
at one-third the width from the toe, the maximum pressure at the
toe is

The pressure at the inner edge of the base will be practically nothing.
Inner Base Slab. The loading on the horizontal base slab is
the difference between thesum of the weights of earth and of the
base acting downward, and the soil pressure acting upward. The
maximum load will be at the inner edge, where the upward pressure
is a minimum. Taking a foot in width along this edge and neglect-
ing the upward pressure, the load will be 1000+25X100+2X150
= 3800 pounds per linear foot.
The thickness of base slab will probably be determined by require-
ments for shear. The maximum shear at edge of counterfort (taking
 REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS 241

counterforts as 18 inches thick) is = 3800(4 -.75) = 12350 pounds,

V
and if no reinforcement be used for diagonal shear, the depth

, V 12350

or the full depth must be 32 inches. If the assumed depth of 24

inches be used,
12350 ,.

This would require light reinforcement for diagonal shear for 8

inches from the edge of the counterfort and may be met by bending
up a part of the tension reinforcement to use for negative moment
over the supports.
The bending moment in the base slab is

and using the 24-inch depth

270480
"12X22X22"
p = .0032, and A = .0032X22X12 = .85
2
Table VII gives in. From
Table XV, we find that j-inch round bars spaced 6 inches apart are
needed. The negative moments at the counterforts are the same
as the positive moments and may be provided for by bending up
alternate bars on each side of the support, and extending these across
the counterforts to the quarter points in the next panel.
Counterforts. The counterforts act as cantilevers to carry the
horizontal thrust upon the curtain wall for panel lengths of 8 feet.
This thrust is

pounds?

and its moment about the section at the top of the base is

OK
M= 110700X^X12
o
= 11070,000 in.-lb.

Considering the counterfort to act as a T-beam, of which the

curtain wall is the flange, and the resultant of the compressive

stresses to act at the middle of the base of the curtain wall, we may
take this middle point as the center of moments for the tensions
in the steel in the back of the counterfort. If the center of gravity
242 RETAINING WALLS

of the steel is 3 inches from the surface of the concrete, its lever

arm is 8.1 feet, and the total stress in the steel is

pounds.
8.1X12

The required steel area is A = 114000 16000=7. 12 in.

2
1

11-inch round bars will answer.

These
Table X, we find that six
bars 2 inches and two
may be placed in two rows, four being placed
bars 5 inches from the surface of the concrete. These may be spaced

FIG. 69. Design of Counterfeited Wall.

4 inches apart and 3 inches from the sides in a thickness of counter-

fort of 18 inches.
At a section 16 feet below the top the moment =4718900
in.-lb.,and the steel required

4718000
= 4.54 in.
2
5.4X12X16000
At 8 below the top
feet M=
1327100 in.-lb. and A =2.46 in.
2 Two
bars may be stopped at 16 feet below the two at 8 fcvt and
top,
the others extend to the
top of the counterfort.
 REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS 243

The total shear in base section of counterfort is 110,700 pounds,

and

V 110700

At 16 below the top v = 45 lb./in. 2 Reinforcement for diagonal

feet
tension is needed from the base to a little above the section 16 feet
below the top. This may be provided by the bars to be used for
bonding the counterforts to the curtain walls and base slabs.
Bonding Bars. The curtain wall and the base slab must be tied
to the counterforts by horizontal and vertical bars capable of carry-
ing the reactions at the points of support. These will equal the sum
of the shears on the two sides of the counterfort. At the bottom
.75)945 = 6140
of the curtain wall the load per foot of height is 2(4
2
pounds and the area of steel required 6140/16000= .38 in. If these

bars be placed in pairs and at the same distance apart as the hori-
zontal reinforcement in the curtain walls, ^-inch round bars will
answer. These should be looped around the steel in the face of
the curtain wall, and extend into the counterfort at least 50 diameters
forbond strength.
For the base slab, the load upon the bonding bars per foot of
width 2(4 -.75)3600 = 23,400 pounds, and the area of steel required
A = 23400/16000 = 1.46 A pair of f-inch square bars spaced
in.
2

6 inches apart meets this requirement.

Base Cantilever. The projection of the base at the toe of the
wall is a cantilever, as in the cantilever wall, and carries the upward
thrust of the soil. The maximum shear is

F= / 5270 + 3830\ X 3.7-300X3.7 = 15725 pounds.

15725

This cantilever may be made 39 inches at the face of the curtain

wall and taper to 12 inches at the toe.
The maximum moment is M = 15725 X 2 X 12 = 377400,
377400
12X37X37

R/fs = 23/16000 = 0014, and from Table IX, p = .0015. A = .0015 X 12

X37 = .67 in.2 and from Table XV, |-inch bars spaced 5 inches
,

apart may be used.

244 RETAINING WALLS

ART. 36. CONSTRUCTION OF RETAINING WALLS

132. Foundations. As stated in Section 126, the most common

cause of failure of retaining walls is defective foundations. Careful
attention must always be given to the sufficiency of the foundation,
footings being arranged so that excessive pressure does not come upon
the soil upon which the structure rests.
On compressible soils it is important to equalize the pressures
so that settlement under the toe of the wall may not cause the wall
to tip forward. In constructing gravity walls this is accomplished
by using a footing under the main wall which extends sufficiently
beyond the base of the wall to cause the pressures to be equalized
over the foundation soil, and bring the resultant near the middle of
the foundation. Reinforced concrete walls must be given sufficient
base to prevent excessive pressures on the foundation soil.
The extension of the front base cantilever may often be used as a
means of securing good distribution of pressures upon the founda-
tion; when this is not feasible, widening the base at the back of the
wall may answer the same purpose.
When the soil is compressible, there is always some settlement, and
this is greatest where the load is greatest. In many instances, there-
fore, it may be advisable to extend the footing sufficiently to bring
the center of pressure back of the middle of the foundation so as to
make the pressure greater at the heel than at the toe of the wall, and
produce a tendency to tilt backward.
When soft materials are encountered, or when the pressures cannot
be safely distributed over the foundation soil, a pile foundation or
some other means of securing firm support for the wall must be em-
ployed. Methods of constructing such foundations, and the loads
which may be borne by soils are discussed in Chapter XII.
The depth of foundations should be sufficient to prevent freezing
in the soilunder the footing of the walls, or of the earth in front of the
wall at the depth of the bottom of the footing. This usually requires
that the footing extend from 3 to 5 feet below the surface of the
ground, depending upon local and climatic conditions.
133. Drainage and Back-Filling. Failures of retaining walls have
frequently occurred because of the lack of proper drainage, hence pro-
vision should always be made for the ready escape of water from the
earth behind the wall. If the water is held in and the back-filling
becomes saturated, the weight of the material is increased and ~the
angle of friction decreased, thus producing a much heavier pressure
 CONSTRUCTION OF RETAINING WALLS 245

against the wall. Freezing of wet material behind the wall may also
produce dangerous pressures against the back of
it.

To provide for drainage, weep-holes are commonly left through

the base of the wall at intervals of 10 or 15 feet. In concrete walls,
these are usually made by the use of drain tile about 3 inches in
diameter. In stone masonry walls, the stones are set so as to leave an
opening 2 or 3 inches wide through the course of masonry at the base
of the wall.
When the back-filling is of retentive material through which
water will not readily pass, a layer of cinders, gravel, or some other
porous material should be placed against the back of the wall to per-

FIG. 70. Gravity Wall of Concrete

mit the water to reach the drains without difficulty. It is always

important that water be not held in the back-filling.
The manner of placing the back-filling may sometimes have an
important effect upon the pressures against the wall. The layers in
which the filling is placed should slope away from the wall. With
some materials, there is a tendency for the earth to slide along the
surfaces between the layers in compacting and settling into place,
which may materially increase the pressure if inclined toward the
wall.
134. Gravity Walls. In constructing gravity walls it is common
to give the back of the wall a batter by stepping off the surface, thus
246 RETAINING WALLS

widening the base and making a smaller projection of footing neces-

sary. In walls of stone masonry, the steps are usually the height of
one or more courses while in plain concrete walls the steps are usually
of uniform height of 2 to 4 feet, to simplify the form work, and for
convenience in placing the concrete. Fig. 70 shows a typical section
for a wall of this kind, as used for carrying a railway embankment.
It is common to batter the back of a masonry wall at the top for
3 or 4 feet (see Fig. 70) to prevent injury if the backing becomes
frozen near the surface and is lifted by the expansion. This is
known as frost batter, and is commonly 2 or 3 inches to the foot.
Concrete quite largely replacing stone masonry in the construc-
is

tion of retaining walls. For high walls, reinforced concrete is econom-

ical and usually employed, while for walls less than 20 or 25 feet
high, gravity walls mayoften be less expensive than reinforced walls.
A larger quantity of concrete is required for the gravity wall, but
concrete of less rich character may be employed and no steel is needed.
For reinforced walls, about 1 to 6 concrete is usually used for the body
of the work, while 1 to 9 concrete may commonly be used for gravity

walls; footings being made of 1 to 11 or 1 to 12 mixtures. The cost

of forms does not vary greatly for the two types of wall.
 CHAPTER VIII

MASONRY DAMS
ART. 37. GRAVITY DAMS
135. Stability of Dams. A gravity dam, like a retaining wall,
depends upon the weight of the mass of masonry to resist the thrust
of the water against it. As the dam carries water pressure instead
of earth pressure, the loads to which the dam is subjected are defi-
nitely known, and the thrusts are everywhere normal to the surfaces
of contact.
Let A BCD, Fig. 71, represent a slice, 1 foot thick, of a gravity
dam sustaining a head of water as shown.

FIG. 71.

h = height of water above section AB;

H = horizontal pressure of water against the dam;
V = vertical pressure of water on back of dam;
W = weight of dam above section AB',
R = resultant pressure upon section AB',
k = horizontal distance from inner edge of base to line of action of V;
6 = width of base A B',
d = distance from outer edge of base to line of action of W;
247
248 MASONRY DAMS

x = distance from outer edge of base to point of application of

resultant R.

The conditions of stability for the dam are the same as for the
retaining wall:
Itmust not slide or shear on a horizontal section.
Itmust not overturn about outer edge of section.
The masonry must not be crushed by pressure upon the section.

Stability against Sliding. Taking the weight of water as 62.5

lb./ft.
3
,
the horizontal thrust against the dam above AB is # = 31.25
h2
. is the shear upon the section AB.
This If AB is a joint in the

dam, or the base of the dam, H must be resisted by the friction of the
masonry upon the masonry below, or upon the foundation under the
dam, and the value of H/(W+V) must not exceed the coefficient
of friction for the material. If AB is a section in a concrete dam, H
is resisted by the shearing strength of the concrete as well as by the
friction.
Continuous joints are not usually employed in construction of
masonry dams, and the interlocking of stones eliminates the tendency
to slide without shearing blocks of stone. The possibility of sliding
need usually only be considered at the foundation.
Stability against Overturning. The overturning moment about
the outer edge of the section at A, due to pressure of water, is

M = ~X
o

The resisting moment of the weight of wall is r M=

Wd, and the dis-
tance from the outer edge A
to the point of application of the resultant
pressure on the base is

W+V W+V
If the water face of the dam is vertical, V= and

W (2)

Assuming that pressures upon AB are distributed with uniform

variation from A to B, x should be greater than 6/3 in order that
no tension may be developed in the section, as in the gravity retain-
ing wall.
Stability against Crushing. The total pressure normal to the
section AB is TF+F, distributed over the section with center of pres-
 GRAVITY DAMS 249

sure distant x from A. The maximum normal unit pressure is

therefore (see Section 52)

/c
=
p ...... (3)

This is approximately the crushing stress in the masonry at the

outer edge of the section, or the maximum pressure upon the founda-
tion if A B is the base of the dam.
When the reservoir is empty and the water pressure is removed,
the pressure upon the section AB will be W, with center of pressure
distant d from the outer edge. The unit pressure at the outer edge
of the section will be

/.-
and at the inner edge,

In dams of unsymmetrical cross-sections it is necessary to con-

sider the pressurescoming upon the bases of sections when the water
pressures are removed, as when the reservoir is empty. In this case,
the weight of dam will be the only load, and the centers of pressure
due to this weight must always come within the middle third of the
base, and the crushing stress be within proper limits, so that removal
of the water pressure may produce no harmful effects upon the dam.
136. Graphical Analysis of Profiles of Dams. For low dams
carrying small heads of water, trapezoidal cross-sections may be
employed, and designs made in the same way as for retaining walls
using water pressure instead of earth pressure upon the back face of
the dam. As the depth increases such a section becomes increasingly
uneconomical and the form of cross-section should be modified so as
to make the thickness only that required to carry the load above,
and the such as to distribute the material to the best advan-
profile
tage.
Fig. 72 shows a method of graphical analysis applied to the sec-
tion of a gravity dam. ookk represents a section of a dam 100 feet
high. Take a slice of the dam 1 foot thick and of the section shown
and divide this by horizontal planes, a-a, b-b } c-c, etc., into a number of
horizontal layers (in this case, each 10 feet thick).
The weights of the layers, ooaa, aabb, etc., are now computed and
plotted to a convenient scale, in the vertical line 0-K. The distance
from to each of the several points, A } B, C, etc., represents the
total weight of masonry Wa, Wb, etc., above the corresponding sec-
tion a-a, b-b, etc., of the dam.
250 MASONRY DAMS

The line of action of the total weight of masonry above each

horizontal section must now be found. This may be done by taking
moments about a vertical line, or it may be done graphically as
follows:

FIG. 72. Graphical Analysis of Gravity Dam.

The center of gravity of each layer into which the section of

the dam has been divided is determined and marked (as shown by
the points enclosed by circles). From the point o\, lay off on the
line Oi-ki the distances from the centers of gravity of the layers to
f
any vertical line, as o-k (The scale used in laying off these distances,
.

oi ai, oi bi, etc., is here made larger than that used for the section
 GRAVITY DAMS 251

of the dam.) Assume a pole, P, and draw strings to the weight line
0- K, then from a point on the vertical through ki draw the equilib-
rium polygon as shown, finding the positions of the resultant lines of
action, Wk, Wi, Wh, etc. The distances of these lines from the
vertical through o\ are the same as the distances of the respective
centers of gravity from the line o-k' on the section of the dam.
Plotting these lines of action and drawing them to intersection with
the corresponding horizontal sections upon which they act, we find
the line of pressure for the dam with no water pressure against it.
When water pressure is against the dam to its full height, the
horizontal against any portion h feet in depth below the surface is
# = 31.25 h2 These pressures may be computed for each of the
.

horizontal sections, and each resultant pressure acts on a horizontal

line at one-third the height from the section to the surface of the

water, as shown,- Ha, Hb, etc.

On the horizontal line O-K', make the distances 0-A', 0-5',
etc.,equal the values of the water pressures Ha, Hb, etc., to the same
scale as used for the weights of masonry. The lines A- A', B-B',
etc., now represent, in direction and amount, the resultant pressures,
Ra, Rb, Re, etc., upon the various horizontal sections aa, bb, cc, etc.,
of the dam. Lines drawn parallel to these directions through the
intersections of the corresponding and H W
lines of action give the

points of application of these resultants upon the various sections,

and locate the lines of pressure with water against the dam to the
top.
137.Design of Profile. In designing a profile, for a dam we com-
mence at the top with the assumed thickness and find by trial the
required base thickness for each horizontal layer, making each thick-
ness such that the line of pressure remains everywhere within the
middle third of the section. This may be done by the use of the
formulas given in Section 135 or by the graphical method of Section
136.
The crushing stress upon the masonry must also be kept within
safe limits.
Let 6 = the width of the section;
x = the distance from the outer edge to the point of appli-
cation of R',

2/
= the distance from the inner edge to the point of appli-
cation of W.
The maximum crushing stress at the outer edge of the section is

given by the formula,

(5)
252 MASONRY DAMS

The maximum crushing stress at the inner edge is

, _W(4b-6y)

The allowable crushing stress depends upon the quality of masonry

used, and the conditions under which the dam is to be constructed.
In high dams, where the front face of the dam has considerable
batter, the pressure allowed at the outer face is often made less than
that at the inner face. The maximum pressure at the inner edge of
a section occurs when the dam carries no water pressure, and the
resultant pressure on the base is vertical. The maximum pressure
at the outer edge occurs when full water pressure is on the dam, the
batter of the outer face is greater than that of the inner face, and the
resultant pressure is inclined, only its vertical component being con-
sidered in determining the stress. For these reasons Rankine's
recommendation that the allowable unit crushing stress at the
outer edge be made less than that at the inner edge has been followed
by some designers. Pressures of from 8 to 15 tons per square foot
have been allowed in a number of large dams of massive rubble or
cyclopean concrete.
The from this method of design is somewhat
profile resulting
and may be modified by fitting it with more uniform batters
irregular
and smooth curves, thus giving a more pleasing appearance and better
profiles for construction purposes, without appreciably affecting its

stability.
Vertical Water Pressure. As the water face of the dam is nearly
vertical, it is usual to disregard the vertical component of the water
pressure, which is of small consequence in dams of less than about 180
to 200 feet in height. This component has the effect of diminishing
the stress upon the outer edge of the section while somewhat increas-
ing the total pressure. Its neglect is therefore a small error on the
safe side until a depth is reached at which the slope of the inner face
may make it of more importance.
The shape of the profile depends upon the top width given to the
dam, and the weight of the masonry used.
The top width must be sufficient to resist any probable wave action
and ice pressure, and should usually be made greater for high dams
than for low ones. This is a matter of judgment in each case, about
one-tenth of the height of dam being frequently used, with a minimum
of about 5 feet and a maximum of 20 feet where no roadway is carried
on top of the dam.
The dam should always extend to a sufficient height above the
 GRAVITY DAMS 253

normal water surface to prevent water passing over the dam due to
waves of floods for which wasteways might not be quite sufficient.
This may require the dam to be raised 5 or 10 feet above the eleva-
tion of the expected water surface. In designing the dam, water
should be assumed level with the top.
The weight of masonry used in dam construction commonly varies
from about 135 to 150 pounds per cubic foot. The heavier the masonry
is assumed to be, the less the required width of section until a depth

is reached at which the width is determined by the necessity of pro-

viding sufficient area to carry the weight of masonry above. Below

this point, usually about 200 feet below the water surface, the width

required is greater for the heavier masonry if the same unit com-
pression be allowed.
Uplift and Ice Pressure. If water under hydrostatic pressure
has access to the interior of the dam, the upward pressure will tend
to lift the masonry and diminish its effective weight in the moment
which prevents overturning. In this discussion it has been assumed
that the dam is constructed water-tight, but as this is not altogether
possible, in many instances it may be necessary to allow for upward

pressure in designing the profile, or make special provision for drain-

age a topic discussed in Section 140.

If iceforms on the surface when the reservoir is full, a consider-
able pressure may be brought against the top of the dam, which
should be considered in its design. This will be a concentrated hori-
zontal thrust at the surface of the water equal to the crushing strength
of the ice,and has been assumed in a number of important dams at
from 2500 to 4500 pounds per linear foot of dam. In storage reser-
voirs generally, heavy ice is not likely to occur with full reservoir,
and if water be low when freezing occurs no special allowance for ice
pressure is necessary. Local conditions must determine the necessity
of allowing for ice pressure in each instance.
138. Diagonal Compressions. The common method of analysis,
already described, considers only the stresses upon horizontal sec-
tions and resolves the diagonal thrusts into normal compressions and

parallel shears upon these This method does not give the
sections.
actual maximumcompressions, but by using proper unit stresses has
seemed to give satisfactory results in use. Several methods have
been proposed for computing more accurately the maximum unit
compressions.
Diagonal Compression upon Horizontal Section. In 1874 Bou-
*
vier used the actual diagonal pressure (R, Fig. 72) in computing the
1
Annales des Fonts et Chaussees, 1875.
254 MASONRY DAMS

maximum unit compression upon a horizontal section, claiming that

the unit compressive stresses produced by R parallel to its line
of action are greater than those normal to the section. He con-
sidered R to be distributed along A-B, so as to act upon successive
small sections normal to its direction as shown in Fig. 73. If /3 is the

angle made by R with the normal to section A B, and b is the width

of section, the area upon which R
acts is AC=b-coS'@, and the maxi-
mum intensity of the compressive stresses is

= fc
Jcd . .
(7)
b 2 cos 2 |8 cos2 0'

in which fCd is the unit compression at the outer edge of the section
parallel to R, and fc is that normal to the section at the same point.

FIG. 73.

Professor Unwin 1 has shown that the maximum unit compression

at the face of the dam occurs on a section normal to the face, and that
the maximum value of this compression at the outer edge of a hor-

izontal section through the dam is fcm = ^| ,

in which fc is the value
cos (/

of unit vertical compression and B is the angle made by the batter of

the face of the dam with the vertical.
A method of finding the maximum diagonal compression and its
direction at any point of a horizontal section of the profile of a dam is
2
given by Professor Cain, which agrees practically with Unwin's
results for the stress at the edge.

Compression upon Inclined Sections. The distribution of pressure

upon an inclined section is sometimes investigated and the maximum
unit stress at the outer face of the dam found to be greater than that
1
Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. CLXXII, Part II.
2
Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., September, 1909.
 GRAVITY DAMS 255

for a horizontal section.In Fig. 74 using the same profile employed in

Fig. 72, the pressure upon the inclined section k-n is that due to the
water pressure (H) upon the inner face 0-K of the dam combined
with the weight of masonry (W) above the section fc-n. The unit
compression at n is obtained in the same manner as for the horizontal
section. This stress for this profile is greater than for the same point
when obtained by using the horizontal section through n, and about
the same as that at the outer edge of the base section k-k.
Lateral Distribution of Stress. In the trapezoidal distribution
of stress, which considers the stresses to vary uniformly from the inner
to the outer edge of the section,
it is assumed that the whole
width of the dam acts together as
a single homogeneous body. It
is not probable that this is the

case in a wide section. The

middle portion of the section
carries more and the edges less
stress than the assumed distri-
bution shows, and for this reason
many designers have considered
that the ordinary method, with
low allowable stress upon the
outer edge, as proposed by Ran- FIG. 74.

kine, to be sufficiently exact. The

ordinary method, taking successive horizontal sections, provides an
easy way of determining an approximate profile. Careful study
should, however, be given to the possible diagonal stresses in a high
dam, and if such stresses exceed the allowable unit compression, the
profile should be widened so as sufficiently to reduce them.
139. Horizontal Tension. Experiments have been made by Sir
W. W. Brightmore upon models of dams made
1
J. Ottley and Mr. A.
of plasticine (a kind of modeling clay), and by Messrs. J. W. Wilson
and W. Gore 2 on models made of india rubber.
The distribution of stresses through the profile was determined in each
case by observing the horizontal and vertical displacement of points
in the section. These experiments seemed to confirm, in general, the
ordinary theory of the trapezoidal distribution of stresses, and to
justify the methods of design in common use.
At the base of the dam, where the profile section joins the founda-
1
Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. CLXXII, p. 89.
2
Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. CLXXII, p. 107.
256 MASONRY DAMS

tion, itwas found that a different distribution of stress occurs, ten-

sion being developed at the inner edge of the base by the immovability
of the foundation. Thus, in Fig. 75 the shear on A-B, due to the
horizontal water pressure causes horizontal or diagonal tension (T)
in the foundation at the inner edge (A) of the base. In the plasticine
models diagonal cracks (A-C) occurred at this point in the
foundation.
Various methods have been suggested for meeting or reducing this
tension by modifying the shape of the profile at the base or reinforc-
ing the foundation. This does not
seem necessary for dams as usually
-b constructed. Ahigh masonry dam
is usually on solid rock foundation,
and the strength of the rock is such
that no break in the foundation
is to be anticipated from this cause.

In most dams the foundation is

in rock at considerable depth below
FIG 75
the bed of the stream, .and the
lower part of the dam is enclosed on both sides by gravel or other
soil which usually may be considered to strengthen the dam, although
the full depth of water pressure should be assumed to act upon it. If,
however, this filling is soft material, which flows when saturated, it
may increase the pressure against the dam and may be considered as
a fluid heavier than water.
140. Uplift. If a dam be so constructed that water under pres-
sure may penetrate into the ulterior of the dam or under its base, the
effect of such pressure must be considered in its design. There is
considerable difference of opinion among engineers concerning the
necessity of providing for uplift in designing the profiles for dams.
1
Some allow for it in ah cases; while others claim that properly con-
structed masonry or concrete will be so nearly water-tight that the
effect of upliftmay be neglected.
Interior Pressure. It is always possible that some water may be
forced into imperfect joints in the masonry and, if it be prevented from
escaping at the lower side of the dam, have the full hydrostatic pres-
sure of the head in the reservoir. For this reason it is important that
the water face of the dam be made as nearly impervious as possible,
and that the interior of the dam be drained so that any water passing
into the masonry may escape without damage. It is evident that

uplift of the interior of the masonry can exist only where continuous
joints for considerable distances are filled with water under pressure.
 GRAVITY DAMS 257

If concrete be porous and its voids filled with water under hydrostatic
pressure, no uplift occurs until the pressure becomes sufficient to over-
come the cohesive strength of the concrete. In properly constructed
masonry dams, it is usually unnecessary to consider the effect of
uplift on sections above the base of the dam.
Upward Pressure on Base. The probability of uplift under the
base of a dam depends upon the character of the foundation. Care-
ful attention should always be given to the determination of the
character of the foundation material to considerable depths below
the base of the dam. The kind of material of which the foundation
iscomposed, and the existence of seams in the rock, or of strata of

permeable material must be accurately investigated.

When the foundation is of solid rock without seams, if care be
used in joining the base to the foundation and cut-off wall be used
under the inner edge of the base, there is little chance of appreciable
uplift under the base.
When the foundation is permeable and there is water against both
sides, as frequently the case in dock walls, the full hydrostatic head
is

is usually considered to act under the whole base. This is some-

what excessive, as it implies that the dam is floating upon a continuous
surface of water. Probably two-thirds of this pressure would repre-
sent about the maximum which could reasonably be expected in any
case.
When the foundation is stratified horizontally, so that water may
be expected to pass under the dam and escape below, a uniformly di-
minishing upward pressure from the inner to the outer edge of the
base may be assumed; the pressure at the inner edge being taken
at about two-thirds the hydrostatic head above the dam, and that
at the lower edge at zero.
The probability of upward pressure on the foundation should
always be carefully investigated, and the section, where necessary,
increased sufficiently to provide weight of masonry to overcome the
overturning moment of this water pressure. This subject is very
fully treated in the discussion of a paper by the late C. L. Harrison
in the Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers for

December, 1912. Mr. Harrison's conclusions are:

1. For any stable dam, the uplift in the foundation cannot act

over the entire area of any horizontal seam, and in the masonry it
cannot act over the entire area of any horizontal joint.
2. The intensity of uplift at the heel of the dam can never be
more, and isgenerally less, than that due to the static head. Also,
this uplift decreases in intensity from the heel to the toe of the dam,
258 MASONRY DAMS

where it will be zero if the water escapes freely, and will be that due
to the static head if the water is trapped.
3. The minimized by a cut-off
uplift in the foundation should be
wall, under-drainage, and grouting when applicable; and in the dam
itself by using good materials and workmanship, and by drainage
when advisable.
4. The
design should be based on the conditions found to exist
at each site after a thorough investigation by borings, test-pits, and
otherwise, and modified if found necessary after bed-rock is uncovered.

ART. 38. DAMS CURVED IN PLAN

141. In constructing dams across narrow

Curved Gravity Dams.
valleys, often desirable
it is to curve the dam in plan, so as to make it
form a horizontal arch, convex upstream. When so arranged, a
portion of the water pressure may be transmitted to the sides of the
valley by arch action, thus diminishing the overturning moment
which would exist in a straight dam of the same section.
In certain locations, the shape of the valley and depth of suitable
foundations make the use of the curved form economical in saving
materials, although the length of dam is increased by the curvature.
The curved form for gravity dams has not usually been adopted for
the purpose of securing the arch action, although the advantage of
the curved form is recognized and the added security obtained by the
possibility of the dam acting as an arch is worth
upper part of the
considering does when
not materially increase the cost.
it

In order to develop free arch action in any horizontal slice of a

dam, would be necessary that the section be free to move horizon-
it

tally when
the pressure comes against it. As each section is rigidly
connected with these above and below it and the base is attached to
a practically immovable foundation, the arch action is very imper-
fect. Near the top of a gravity section, deflection of the section
may be sufficient to permit a portion of the water pressure to be
resisted by the arch, but in the lower half of the dam such resistance
is inappreciable.
There is no satisfactory way of determining how much of the

pressure is borne by the arch in a curved gravity dam. In an analy-

sis of the stresses in the Cheeseman dam, Mr. Silas H. Woodward

roughly the amount of water pressure carried by the

1
estimated
arch action, by determining the deflection at various points in the
mid-section of the dam, considering the resistance of horizontal slices
1
Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LIII, p. 108.
 DAMS CURVED IN PLAN 259

of the darn by arch action, and the resistance of a vertical slice as a

cantilever beam, fixed at the bottom to the foundation. He concluded
that in the Cheeseman dam, the arch carried about half the water

pressure at the top and about 6 per cent at the mid-height of the
middle section.
Mr. Woodward's analysis seemed to indicate that, while added
security might be obtained through arch action at the top of the
dam, the lines of pressure of the gravity section were only slightly
modified by considering part of the load carried by the arch. His
conclusion was that no diminution of the gravity section would be
justifiedbecause of dependence upon arch action.
The use of curved plans for gravity dams may be of advantage
in affording a possibility of motion when expansion and contraction
take place, without cracking the masonry. The advantages to be
gained by using curved plans, however, do not seem sufficient to
make them worth while when they involve increase in cost. In
constructing gravity dams across narrow valleys where arch action
might be developed, the sides of the valley may also offer considerable

support to a straight dam, causing horizontal slices of the dam to act

as beams supported at the ends. In any such dam the actual stresses
are probably considerably less than those obtained by considering
the gravity resistance only.
142. Arch Dams. Dams are sometimes constructed which depend
for stabilitymainly upon arch action, and are designed as horizontal
arches. A number of dams of this type have been constructed
across narrow valleys, with sections much lighter than could be used
for gravity dams. In some, the lines of pressure fall quite outside
the bases when considered as gravity sections.
Let A-B, Fig. 76, represent a horizontal slice, 1 foot thick,
through a circular dam.

R = radius of water face;

t= thickness of section;
P = water pressure per foot of length;
/c = unit compression on the masonry;
h = height of water surface above section;
w = weight of water per cubic foot.
If the slice be supposed to act freely as an arch and carry the

water pressure to the abutments,

_PR_whR
*-' >
t
260 MASONRY DAMS

If a limiting value of fc be assumed, the thickness of section required

at any depth will be
PRwhR

For a dam of constant radius (R) the required thickness varies

uniformly with h, or the vertical section of the dam is triangular.
As the ends of the arch at A and B are built into the sides of the
valley and not free to move toward the center when subjected to the
water pressure, the lines of thrust of the arch will not be exactly axial
as assumed in Formula (8), and bending stresses will develop in the
arch, giving a maximum compression somewhat greater than the
average value. This effect will usually be small as compared with
the stress due to arch action, although French authorities recommend

FIG. 76.

that the line of thrust be assumed at the outer edge of the middle
third at the crown, thus making the maximum compression double
the average. The use of vertical expansion joints through the

dam, dividing it into voussoirs, has the effect of largely eliminating

the bending stresses. In practice the bending stress is commonly
neglected, very conservative values for fc being used.
When the length of the arch is small as compared with its thick-
ness, it becomes a curved wedge which acts as a beam between the
abutments supporting its ends, and should be considered as a curved
beam a condition frequently occurring near the bottom of a curved
dam, where the valley is narrow and the thickness of the dam con-
siderable. The thickness obtained by considering such a section as
an arch is always sufficient.
A masonry structure cannot be considered to act as an arch when
the thickness of the arch ring is more than from one-quarter to one-
 DAMS CURVED IN PLAN 261

third of the radius of its outer surface. The exact limitations within
which such action may take place are not definitely known and are
seldom of importance in a dam.
Resistance of Vertical Cantilever. As a dam is rigidly fastened to
the foundation, it is evident that complete arch action cannot take
place, and that in the lower part of the dam, the arch can carry very
little of the load. A vertical section of the dam may be considered
as a cantilever fixed at the bottom as in a gravity dam, and the resist-
ance of the cantilever to deflection will limit the extent to which arch
action may occur.
Attempts have been made by estimating the relative deflections
of the horizontal arch and the vertical cantilever at various heights
upon the mid-section of the dam, to determine what portion of the
load is resisted by each. Such studies have been made by Mr. Silas
H. Woodward 1 for the Lake Cheeseman dam, which is a curved dam
of gravity section (see Section 141) and by Mr. Edgar T. Wheeler 2
for the Pathfinder dam, which was designed as an arch, and has a
section considerably lighter than could have been employed in a
gravity dam. The section of the dam has a width of 10 feet at the
top, a batter of .25 on the downstream and .15 on the upstream face.
These analyses, with accompanying discussions, are interesting
as throwing light upon the probable action of such dams when sub-
jected to water pressure, but afford no means of determining the
actual stresses occurring. The vertical cantilever has the effect of
reducing the stresses in the arches, but it is not proposed to consider
the combined actions in designing dams, or to attempt to use the
actual stresses, as limited by the cantilever resistance in proportioning
the arches. In practice, the arches are given sections which would
enable them to carry the whole water pressure, and the vertical
resistance is considered as a source of additional security.
Horizontal Shear. As the dam is fixed at the bottom to the foun-
dation and the various horizontal not free to act independ-
slices are

ently of each other, the thickness at any point should be sufficient to

carry the total water pressure above as horizontal shear. If S be the

safe unit shear per square foot, the thickness should not be less than
7 rt

i= . Such shearing stresses can exist only near the bottom of the
2o
dam, where it is rigidly attached to the foundation, and can never
reach the assumed value if the water pressures toward the top of the
dam are carried by arch action.
1
Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LIII, p. 89.
2
Engineering News, August 10, 1905.
262 MASONRY DAMS

Weight of Masonry. Each horizontal slice of an arch dam must

carry the weight of the portion of the dam above as a vertical com-
pression. This compression is computed as in the gravity section
when the dam is empty, and must not exceed a safe unit stress
on any part of the section. The weight of masonry above also
produces a distortion of the horizontal section. The value of Poisson's
ratio for concrete may be taken as approximately one-fifth of the
unit horizontal compression produced through the mass of masonry,
if prevented from expanding laterally is approximately one-fifth of
the unit vertical compression which causes it. The effect of this
horizontal compression is to cause an expansion of the horizontal
section, increasing the length of the arch ring, and deflecting the
crown of the arch upstream. When water pressure is brought
against the dam, a portion of the pressure, sufficient to produce com-
pression in the arch equal to the unit horizontal pressure due to the
vertical load, will be used to bring the arch back to its initial position,
and no deflection due to arch action will occur until this pressure has
been passed.
When the crown of the arch has been deflected upstream by the
weight of masonry, stress is brought upon the vertical cantilever by

itsresistance to bending in that direction. If water pressure be now

brought against the dam, the vertical cantilever action will offer no
resistance to downstream motion until the pressure upon the arches
becomes sufficient to bring the dam back to its original unloaded
position.
The existence of this initial distortion due to the weight of masonry
may depend upon the manner in which the dam is constructed. In
order to produce this effect it is necessary that the horizontal layers be

completed and hardened in position before the load above is applied.

If portions of the work be carried up in vertical sections, or if vertical

contraction joints be left, to be afterward grouted, the deflection due

to weight of masonry may take place only to a very limited extent.
Constant-angle Arches. Arch dams are usually constructed across
narrow gorges which can readily be spanned by an arch of moderate
radius. The gorges vary in cross-section, being usually much nar-
rower at bottom than near the top of the arch. The arch at bottom
will therefore be much shorter than at the top and if the same radius
be used at top and bottom, or the centers lie in the same vertical line,
the central angle included by the dam will be greater at top that at
bottom. It has been shown by Mr. Lars R. Jorgensen 1 that a
dam with a constant central angle of 133 34' requires, theoretically,
1
Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LXXVIII, p. 685.
 DAMS CURVED IN PLAN 263

the minimum amount of masonry in its construction, and that angles

from 110 to 150 vary but little from the minimum. It has therefore
been proposed to vary the radius from the top to the bottom, so as to
keep within these ranges of central angles. This makes the radius
of the dam vary with the width of the gorge at different elevations.
Several dams have been constructed in which this principle has been
approximately applied. The topography of the site must be care-
fully studied in every instance and the dam fitted to its location,
keeping in mind the general principles involved.
Temperature Stresses. Comparatively little is known concerning
the changes of temperature to be expected in a mass of masonry like
a dam, but it is evident that distortions produced by such changes
may sometimes be of importance, and careful attention should be
given to their probable effect. Temperature above the normal at
which the masonry was placed cause deflection upstream through
expansion, which may bring bending stresses upon the vertical section
when the water is low behind the dam. Contractions due to tem-
peratures below the normal, causing tensile stresses which the masonry
or concrete is not calculated to bear may cause cracks, or prevent the
arch action through shortening the arch near the top. It is desirable
that masonry which may be injuriously affected by low temperature,
be placed when the temperature is low, thus giving a low normal and
1
probable small range below. Mr. Wisner urges that reinforcement
be used on the faces of the upper portion of arched dams to prevent
cracks; vertical rods on the downstream face to take up the possible
vertical tensions due to expansion, and horizontal rods on the up-
stream side to prevent contraction cracks.
143. Multiple-Arch Dams. Dams consisting of a series of con-
crete arches supported by buttresses are sometimes used for moderate

heights where suitable foundations are available and the cost of

gravity dams would be greater. The amount of concrete required is
much less than for gravity dams, and where concrete materials are
expensive considerable savings in cost may result from their use.
The form work required and the thin sections of concrete, make the
unit costs much more than for gravity dams, and under favorable
conditions for cheap concrete work gravity sections may be cheaper
to construct. As the buttresses must carry the thrust of the water
pressure, it is essential that they be established upon very substantial
and unyielding foundations. Usually this is solid rock, although some
dams of this type have been built upon gravel or fissured rock.
Where the foundation is stable but of character which may permit
1
Engineering News, August 10, 1905.
264 MASONRY DAMS

water to penetrate it, this type of dam has advantages over a gravity
dam on account of the less importance of possible uplift.
Two types of multiple-arch dams are in use; (1) those in which
the axes of the arches are vertical, the water pressures coming hori-
zontally against the faces and being transmitted as horizontal thrusts
against the buttresses; (2) those with inclined axes, the water pres-
sures acting normal to the sloping axes and bringing vertical as well
as horizontal thrusts upon the buttresses.
Let Fig. 77 represent an inclined arch dam. A slice of the arch
ring normal to the axis carries a water pressure which varies from
the crown to the springing line, and also carries a portion of its own
weight to the buttress. If a slice of the arch ring be divided into
voussoirs as shown, the water pressures upon each voussoir (Pi P$)
varies with the depth (hi-hs) below the surface of the water. The

FIG. 77. Inclined Multiple-Arch Dam.

weights of the voussoirs (Gi-Gs) may be considered as divided into

components, (N=Gcos6) normal to the section and (W=G sin 6)

parallel to the section. The normal components are carried as longi-

tudinal thrusts to the foundation, while the parallel components
(Wi Ws) are carried by the arch ring to the buttress. Having
determined these loads, an approximate line of thrust may be drawn
by the method used for voussoir arches (see Section 162), from which
stresses may be determined.
In designing such an arch, the required thickness at various depths
may be approximately determined by finding the thickness for a
horizontal arch at the same depth, then using this thickness in the
analysis, modifying it as required. Practically an assumed thickness
is given the ring at the top and tapered to the required thickness at
some point below.
 DAMS CURVED IN PLAN 265

When the arch axis is vertical, the arch carries only the water
pressure, which is uniformly distributed over the face. The weight
of the arch, in this case, is normal to the arch section and is carried

vertically to the foundation. The thickness required for the arch

ring may be found from Formula (8), (Art. 138).
The stresses upon the buttresses of a multiple-arch dam may be
found by the methods used for gravity dams. In Fig. 78 E-F is
a section through the crown of an inclined arch; A BCD being the
side projection of the buttress. The form of the buttress must be
such that the resultant thrust upon any horizontal section A-B will
act approximately at the middle of the section. The loads acting
are:

FIG. 78.

(1) Thehorizontal water pressure ( = ^wh2 L) due to the depth

H
of water above the plane A-B, upon a length of dam (L) equal to the
distance between the middle points of adjacent arches.
(2) The vertical water pressure (V= H-tan-O). The center of
pressure for the vertical water pressure is at the center of gravity of
a horizontal section of the water face of the arch at two-thirds the
depth below the surface of the water.
(3) The weight (Wi) of the two half arches upon each side of the
buttress. The center of gravity for the weight of the arch is at the
center of gravity of the center line of a horizontal section of the
arch ring which passes through the center of gravity of the vertical
section (E-F) of the crown of the arch. If the centers of gravity of

the center lines of the arch ring be determined for horizontal sections
at the top and bottom of the arch, all intermediate centers will lie
upon the line joining these points.
266 MASONRY DAMS

(4) The weight of the buttress itself, acting through its center of
gravity.
The resultant (R) of these loads should cut the base A-B near
itsmiddle point, in order to secure uniform distribution of pressure
over the section.
Buttresses, for dams of this type, are usually made very thin
in comparison with their widths, and are therefore stiffened laterally

by the use of horizontal struts from buttress to buttress, or by the

use of cross walls. The design of these struts is purely a matter of
judgment on the part of the designer.
In the design of multiple-arch dams, the general lay out is a matter
which must depend upon local topography. Each dam is a problem
by itself, and must be made to fit its location. It has been found that
in some instances, where the conditions are favorable to the con-
struction of masonry dams of moderate height, multiple-arch dams
may be built at much less cost than gravity structures. Forty to
60 or 70 feet between centers of buttresses are commonly found
economical distances. Arches with axes making angles of 30
or 40 with the vertical are apt to show some saving of material as
compared with vertical axes, but this is not always the case. The unit
cost of construction is usually somewhat greater for inclined arches.
In constructing gravity dams, a cheaper grade of masonry may be
employed, and the form work costs less than for multiple-arch dams.
Careful studies of local conditions, and tentative trial designs are
necessary in each case for best results.
Temperature Stresses, due to temperatures lower than those at
which the arches are constructed, are to be expected in all structures.
These produce shortening of the arch and give tensile stresses which
may result in cracks when the dam is empty. Horizontal reinforce-
ment near the downstream face at the crown and near the upstream
face at the springing line is desirable to resist this tendency to crack.

ART. 39. REINFORCED CONCRETE DAMS

144. Reinforcement inArch Dams. Several designers have used

steel reinforcement in arch dams, where it has seemed desirable to
prevent the possible development of cracks, or to give additional
security where the uncertainty concerning stresses made tensions seem
possible under certain conditions. Cracks which may result from
changes of temperature when dams are empty are frequently guarded
against by using reinforcement, as has been mentioned in the previous
articles. The stresses in most of these cases are practically indeter-
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DAMS 267

minate, and the reinforcement is placed according to the judgment

of the designer.
These structures are sometimes called reinforced concrete dams in
published reports, but are not designed as reinforced structures and
are not properly so classed. No fully reinforced arch dams have as
yet been constructed, and no dams have been designed in which the
stresses have been determined by the use of the theory of the elastic
arch.
145. Flat Slab and Buttress Dams. For dams of moderate
height reinforced flat slab and buttress construction has frequently
proven economical. In this type of construction the buttresses are
usually placed from 12 to 18 feet apart, and the slabs extending be-
tween buttresses are inclined at an angle of 40 to 45 with the ver-
tical so that the resultant of the normal water pressures passes near
the middle of the base of the buttress. Most of the dams of this type
in use have been constructed under the patents of the Ambursen

Hydraulic Construction Company.

Fig. 79 shows a dam of this type in section through the inclined
slab. The loads carried by the slab consist of the normal water pres-

FIG. 79.

sure and the normal component of its own weight. The slab may be
designed by the ordinary method for reinforced concrete beams, but
the values used for allowable stresses should be very conservative.
The buttress should be made of sufficient width to cause the
resultant thrustupon its base to pass approximately through its
middle point when fully loaded, and must have sufficient base area
268 MASONRY DAMS

to keep the pressure upon the foundation within reasonable limits.

Lateral stiffness of the buttresses may be provided by giving them
and using reinforcement on the sides, or it may
sufficient thickness,
be obtained by ties and struts between buttresses.
In many dams of this type, cellular construction is adopted, in
which the spaces between buttresses are divided into cells by hori-
zontal floors, openings through the buttresses providing opportunity
to pass under the dam throughout its length. Sometimes vertical
walls provide rooms which may be utilized for power house or other
purposes.
Slab and buttress dams, like any other masonry dams, require
firm foundations. For locations where substantial foundations may
be obtained for buttresses on porous material, they possess an advan-
tage over gravity dams which would be subjected to upward pressure.
In these cases it is necessary to provide cut-off walls at the heel of the
dam to prevent water passing under and washing out the foundation.

ART. 40. CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRY DAMS

146. Foundations. Masonry dams are ordinarily applicable only

to situations where foundations of solid rock may be obtained.
Careful examinations of the character of the rock should always be
made to considerable depths below the foundation in order to make
sure that no seams or strata of porous materials exist, which might
cause slipping of the foundation when subjected to pressure of water
behind the dam.
Nearly all of the failures of masonry dams which have been
recorded have been due to defective foundations, causing settlements
through washing out the foundation materials, or sliding of base of
dam, and foundation on seams or soft strata through which water
under pressure found its way.
Where the depth to solid rock is considerable and the rock or
gravel near the surface is of a character to give substantial support
to the structure, masonry dams may sometimes be used without
carrying the base of the dam into the solid rock. In such cases,
curtain walls at the heel of the dam should be carried down to the rock
to shut off leakage and possible washing of the foundation.
When the rock is seamed or fissured, it may frequently be made
tight by grouting, which is done by drilling into it and forcing grout
(usually of neat cement and water) under pressure into the fissures
until the cracks become sufficiently filled to force grout to the surface

through adjacent drill holes.

 CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRY DAMS 269

When a high dam is to be constructed, the geological structure of

the valley should be studied, and core drill borings made over the
site of the dam so as to determine fully the stability of the foundation
and the probability of leakage around or under the dam.
The placing of the foundations of a dam is usually the most diffi-
cult part of the work of construction. Commonly it is necessary
to divert the water of the stream to be damned, and seepage water
must be handled in making the excavations and placing the masonry.
The methods used in such work are described in Mr. Chester W.
Smith's "Construction of Masonry Dams," New York, 1915.
147. Masonry for Dams. Several types of masonry are some-
times used in dams of massive construction.
Heavy rubble masonry has commonly been employed, in which the
large stones are set in mortar beds, and the vertical joints filled with
mortar and small stones carefully placed by masons. The stones
are put into place by derricks and must be held and lowered so as
to seat evenly upon the mortar bed, being set with careful attention
to bond, so that no continuous joints exist in any direction. The
complete filling of all joints is
important.
Cyclopean masonry, in which the large rubble stones are set in
beds of concrete and the joints filled with soft concrete, has recently
been used to considerable extent. The joints are made thicker
than mortar joints, and the labor required in setting the stones and
making good joints is much
than in the ordinary rubble.
less
Rubble concrete is masonry in which rubble stones are distributed
through a mass of concrete. In some cases, boulders of considerable
size are used in such work. This differs from cyclopean masonry
mainly in the smaller amount of large stone used and larger quantity
of concrete. It uses more cement, but is more rapidly constructed
and requires less hand labor.
Plain concrete is now
frequently used, without large stone, for
massive work, as well as for the dams of thin sections. The plant
required is less, as derricks are needed for handling the heavy stone,
and usually more rapid progress is possible in placing the concrete.
The nature and location of materials and character of labor available
determine the relative costs of the different methods of construction.
The rapidity of construction is usually greater as the quantity of
large stone becomes less.
148. Overflow Dams. When water is to flow over the top of a
dam or spillway, the section must be modified to provide for the pass-
ing of the water with the least disturbance possible, and to take into
account the additional head of water above the dam.
270 MASONRY DAMS

If the water falls freely over the dam, its crest should be given
such form as to eliminate the possibility of causing a vacuum behind
the sheet of falling water. The effect of the impact of the falling
water must also be taken into account, and provision made for pro-
tecting the toe of the dam against erosion, which is frequently done
by providing a water cushion into which the stream may fall.

In overflow weirs of considerable height, the downstream face of

the dam is given approximately the form of the curve that the water
would take in falling freely over the weir under maximum head. The
water may then follow the surface of the dam, and, by reversing the
curve in the lower part of the section, be turned to horizontal direc-
tion at the toe of the dam. In designing such a section, the weight
of the water on the downstream face is neglected, the pressure on the
upstream face being taken as that due to the full head at greatest
expected flood. Special attention should also be given to the possi-
bility of uplift or of scouring at the toe.
 CHAPTER IX
SLAB AND GIRDER BRIDGES

ART. 41. LOADINGS FOR SHORT BRIDGES

149. Highway Bridges. Sidewalks of bridges in towns may be

considered as carrying a live load of 100 pounds per square foot
of sidewalk area. In the more crowded districts of cities, larger
loads are sometimes employed, but in general this is ample for all

probable occurrences.
Roadways of highway bridges should be able to carry the heaviest
motor trucks which may reasonably be expected to come upon them.
In the development of truck transportation there is a tendency to in-
crease the weights carried by a single truck, and careful attention
should be given to this possibility in designing bridges intended to
last a long time. A motor truck weighing 20 tons, with 6 tons on one
and 14 tons on the other, the distance between wheels being 6
axle
and between axles 12 feet, may reasonably be assumed as a
feet
maximum load for a bridge upon an important country highway or
street of a town. This load is a very exceptional one for ordinary
highways and probably in most cases a truck weighing 7 to 10 tons is
as large as is likely to be met under present conditions, and possibly
a road roller may be a more probable maximum load. The use of
maximum loads not likely to be exceeded in the near future is always
desirable in such work.
For country bridges under moderate or light traffic, a truck weigh-
ing 8000 pounds on each of two axles, 10 feet apart, may be used as
a probable maximum load under present conditions, or a 15-ton road
roller, 6 tons on the front wheel, which is 4 feet wide, and 4.5 tons on
each of the rear wheels, each 20 inches wide.
Street Railway Track. When the bridge is to carry a street
railway, the load of a car weighing 50 tons on four axles spaced 5, 14,
and 5 feet apart may be assumed as a probable maximum load. This
load may be considered as distributed over an area of bridge floor
about 35 feet in length and 10 feet in width, giving a maximum uni-
form load of about 300 pounds per square foot.
271
272 SLAB AND GIRDER BRIDGES

For light traffic roads, a car weighing 35 tons on the same wheel
distribution may be used, giving a uniform loading of about 200
pounds per square foot.
150. Distribution of Concentrated Loads. Investigations of the
distribution of concentrated loads upon have been made by
slabs
Mr. Goldbeck for the U. S. Office of Public Roads. These tests l
seemed to indicate that for a slab whose width is greater than its
span, the effective width of distribution of a concentrated load might
be taken at about eight-tenths of the span.
From a series of tests at the University of Illinois, Mr. Slater
2
concluded that for a slab whose width is greater, than twice the
=
span, the effective width (e) might be assumed as e %x+d, where
x is the distance from the concentrated load to the nearest support
and d is the width over which the load is applied. As the ratio of
width to span decreases, the effective width becomes less, the coeffi-
cient in the formula becoming about 1.2 when the span equals the
width.
From Highway Department of the State of Ohio 3
tests for the
Professor Morris recommends for a concentrated load applied to the
concrete floor of a highway bridge that e = Q.6S+1.7, where e is the
effective width in feet for a slab whose width is greater than its
span, and S is the clear span in feet. This agrees well with the
results of Mr. Slater if the load be placed at the middle of the span

(x = S/2).
When the load comes
upon the floor of the bridge through a pave-
ment or fill, it be considered as distributed lengthwise over
may also
a certain area. For earth fill, the length of distribution may be
taken as twice the depth of fill. For gravel or macadam road sur-
face, three or four times the depth of surface may be used.
In T-beam construction, when a slab is continuous over several
girders and a load comes upon the slab immediately over one of the
girders, the whole of the load will not be borne by the girder under
the load, but a portion of it will be transferred by the slab to adjacent
girders. In the Ohio tests mentioned above, this distribution was
investigated and the following conclusions reached :

(1) The percentage of reinforcement has little or no effect upon

the load distribution to the joists, so long as safe loads on the slab
are not exceeded.
(2) The amount of load distributed by the slab to other joists than

1
Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, 1915, p. 858.
2
Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials, 1913, p. 874.
3
Bulletin No. 28, Ohio State Highway Department, 1915.
 DESIGN OF BEAM BRIDGES 273

the one immediately under the load, increases with the thickness of
the slab.
(3) The outside joists should be designed for the same live load
as the intermediate joists.
(4) The axle load of a truck may be considered as distributed
uniformly over 12 feet of roadway.
151.Railway Bridges. For short spans, railway moving loads
may be considered as uniformly distributed by the track and ballast.
If the heaviest locomotive load per foot of length be distributed

over a width of about 10 feet, the result will be well on the safe
side. When the bridge is covered by a fill under the tracks, the
width of distribution may be increased by twice the depth of fill.
The weights for maximum
locomotive loads may vary from about
8000 to 10,000 pounds per linear foot of track, or from 800 to 1000
pounds per square foot when distributed over a width of 10 feet. For
bridges longer than about 35 feet, it may be preferable to use actual
locomotive wheel loads, or to somewhat reduce the load per square
foot.

ART. 42. DESIGN OF BEAM BRIDGES

152. Slab Bridges. When the span of a bridge is not more than
12 to 15 feet, the simple slab spanning the opening and resting upon
the abutments at its ends is usually the most economical form to use.
Under heavy loading, the economic limit of length may be only 10 to
12 feet, while for lighter loads, slabs 16 to 20 feet in length may be
desirable. The design of a bridge slab will be illustrated by a
numerical example.
Example 1. Design a highway slab of 11 feet clear span, and
width of 18 feet to carry a macadam road with the loading given in
Section 149.
Solution.
Assume weight of road material = 80 pounds per square foot.
Weight of slab = 145 pounds per square foot.

Total dead load = 225 pounds per square foot.

Live load is auto truck with 14,000 pounds on each of two wheels
6 feet apart. From Section 150, effective width, e = .6$-fl.7. As
.68 is more than the distance apart of wheels, the loads would over-
lap, and we consider both loads distributed over e
= .6-fl.7+6 =
14.3 feet. The liveload per foot of width is 28000/14.3 = 1950
pounds. This load may be considered as applied over a length of
274 SLAB AND GIRDER BRIDGES

1.7 feet = 20 inches. The effective length of the beam is distance

between centers of bearings, or 1 foot more than the clear span.

(11 + 1 = 12 feet.)

Bending moments,
M = 1950/2 (72-5)
(live)
= 65325 in.-lb.

M (impact) =25 per cent of live = 16330 in.-lb.

M (dead) = 225 X 12 X 12 X 12/8 = 48600 in.-lb.

Total moment, M = 130255 in.-lb.

Taking fc = 650, /.= 16,000, n=15, Table VII (p. 163) gives
# = 108, p = .0078, j = .874. 12d = 13025/108 =1206, and d=10
2

inches.
Maximum shear occurs when center of live load is 1.7/2 feet
from support, in which case,

V = 1950X 10.65/12
(live)
= 1722 pounds.
V (impact)
= 25 per cent of live = 430 pounds.
V (dead) =225 X 11/2 = 1238 pounds.

Total shear V =3390 pounds.

Depth required for shear,

, V 3390

Make d=10 inches, then allowing concrete to extend 1.5 inches

below steel, weight of beam is 12X11.5X150/144=144 pounds per

square foot, which is within the assumed weight.

Reinforcement. The area of steel required per foot of width,
A =pbd=. 0078X12X10 = .936 From Table XV (p. 199), we
in.
2

see that f-inchround bars spaced 5.5 inches apart, or f-inch square
bars 5 inches apart will answer. For the latter the maximum unit
bond stress is
V 3390 _ .

Fig. 80 shows the slab in longitudinal section. For lateral rein-

forcement J-inch round bars, 12 inches apart, are used. To prevent
cracking due to negative moment where the slab joins the abutments,
^-inch round bars 12 inches apart are placed in the ends of the slab
at the top. Expansion joints, usually tar paper, are often placed on
the top of the abutment under the slab, thus preventing the develop-
ment of negative moment and allowing for temperature changes.
 DESIGN OF BEAM BRIDGES 275

153. T-Beam Bridges. When the length of the bridge is too great
for a simple
slab, found economical to use girders to support the
it is

slab. If the head room is sufficient and the span not too great, T-

beam construction may be used. This consists of a series of T-beams

extending from abutment to abutment, girders being placed under the

:&#B^^^
^~%square bar5-5"c-c.
276 SLAB AND GIRDER BRIDGES

over 2 feet of length. The slab is continuous and taking the moment
of the concentrated load as four-fifths of the moment for a
simply
supported beam, we have

M = (3415/2) (24 - 6)f

(live)
= 24588 in.-lb.
M (impact) =25 per cent 24588 of = 6147 in.-lb.
M (dead) = 180X4X4X 12/12 = 2880 in.-lb.
Maximum moment, M =33615 in.-lb.

12 d = 33615/108 = 311, and d = 5.1 inches.

2

The shear is a maximum when the load is placed next to the

support, and assuming width of girder at 12 inches,

V. (live) =3415X2.5/4 =2134 pounds.
V (impact) =25 per cent of 3415 = 533 pounds.
V (dead) = 180X3/2 = 270 pounds.

Total shear, V =2937 pounds.

and the depth required for shear is

V 2967

Using d = 7.0 inches,

~~
_M_ 33615
16000 X. 875X7"
_ _n <u 2

From Table XV (p. 199), f-inch square bars spaced 5 inches apart
will answer.
When the concentrated load is at the middle of a span, adjacent
unloaded spans will be under negative moment throughout their
lengths. Maximum negative moment is approximately the same as
positive moment, and f-inch square bars 5 inches apart will therefore
be put through the top as well as the bottom of the slab.
With concrete extending 1 inch below the steel, the total depth of
slab is 8 inches and the weight of slab = 8X150/12 =100 pounds per
square foot as assumed.
Girders. The maximum stresses in the girder occur when a pair
of wheels are directly over the girder. A portion of this load is dis-
tributed by the slab to adjacent girders. This rolling load consists
of one wheel carrying 14,000 pounds and one carrying 6000 pounds,
12 feet apart. Assuming this distributed over a width of 6 feet (see
Section 150), the load carried by one girder covers 4 feet of width and
the loads are 14000X4/6 = 9333 and 6000X4/6 = 4000 pounds.
 DESIGN OF BEAM BRIDGES 277

Assuming the stem of girder to weigh 250 pounds per foot, the
dead load is 180X4+250 = 970 pounds per linear foot of girder.
The position of moving load for maximum moment is that in which
the heavier wheel is as far to one side of the middle of the beam as
the center of gravity of the two loads is to the other, and the moment
(taking length of beam as 25 feet) is :

M V = 13333(12.Zo5- 1.8) x 12 = 732736

2

(ii e) in.-lb.

M (impact) =25 per cent of 732736 = 183184 in.-lb.

M (dead) = 970 X 25 X 25 X 12/8 = 909375 in.-lb.

Total moment, M = 1825295 in.-lb.

Maximum shear occurs when the heavier load is adjacent to the

support, and the center of gravity of the loads (considering the loads
distributed over 2 feet of length) is 5.1 feet from the center of support.

V (live) = 13333(25-5.1)/25 = 10133 pounds

V (impact) =25 per cent of 10133 = 2533 pounds.
V (dead) = 970 X 25/2 = 12125 pounds.
Total V =24791 pounds.

The depth required for shear with 12-inch width of stem is

1 V
* 24791
**- lt/-L + S^

The girder is a T-beam with flange 48 inches wide and 8 inches

thick, and stem 12 inches wide and 20 inches deep.

.
^= 20/8 = 2.5, and g." -
From Diagram I (p. 184), we see that the neutral axis is in the flange.

1825295
2
_ "
bd 48X20X20
From Table VII (p. 163), we see that for /,= 16000 and # = 95,
/c = 600 and p = .0068. Then A = .0068X48X20 = 6.53 inches. From
Table X (p. 166), it is found that four If -and two IJ-inch round bars
will answer. These are placed in two rows, two 1J- and one 1J-
inch bars in each row, making the total depth of the beam 24 inches.
The weight of stem is then =16X12X150/144 = 200 pounds per
foot, which is less than the assumed weight.

Diagonal Tension. The maximum shear at the middle of the

278 SLAB AND GIRDER BRIDGES

girder occurs when the moving load is at one side of the middle of
the beam, or V(middle) = 9333 XI 1.5X25 = 4293 pounds; with
CO(\(\
impact this becomes 5366 pounds and v (middle) =
LZ X . o7o X ^~
Z(j
= 25.5 pounds. The maximum unit shear varies from 25.5 lb./in.
2

2
at the middle to 120 lb./in. at the supports. Stirrups are necessary
from the support to the point where the shear is 40 lb./in. 2 Using
Formula 13 of Section 108, if U-shaped stirrups of |-inch round
steel be used, the spacing at the ends should be

2A cfs 2X.39X16000 =
S= :

-W~ 120X12
Use this spacing for eight then change to 12 inches spacing
stirrups,
and continue to middle of girder. Two
of the horizontal rods may
also be turned up near the abutment.
154. Through Girder Bridges. For spans of considerable length,
or where the head room under the roadway is too contracted to permit

VZOW 17-0
/
L
I
round stirrupa 6-g square bars
FIG. 82. Through Girder Bridge.

the use of T-beam construction, through girders may be used at the

sides of the roadway, the slab floor being hung from the bottoms of
the side girders. The floors in such bridges may be simple slabs,
extending from one girder to the other, or the floor slab may be
carried by T-beams across the bridge from girder to girder.
Fig. 82 shows a bridge of this type. The method of design is the
same as for the other types. If the loading of Example 2 be used, the
T-beam cross-girder would carry the two loads of 14,000 pounds each,
6 feet apart, or if the width of the bridge and importance of traffic
are sufficient, two passing trucks might give a loading of four such
wheels spaced 6, 2, and 6 feet apart. In a bridge for heavy traffic,
where passing loads might come upon it, each girder should be able
to carry the whole weight of a truck as a rolling load in addition to
the dead weight of one-half the bridge. On a country highway, design-
ing for the passing of a single truck is usually sufficient, as the meeting
 DESIGN OF BEAM BRIDGES 279

of two unusually heavy loads on the bridge is a very remote contin-

gency.
When sidewalks are to be carried at the side of the roadway, the
through girder may be placed between the roadway and sidewalk, and
the sidewalk carried by cantilever beams attached to the girders.
These cantilevers should be continuations of the cross-girders, the
main girder and being anchored
tension steel extending through the
into the cross-girders.
Example 3. Design the principal members for a bridge of 35 feet
clear span, 17 feet wide between girders, to carry roadway and loads
as in Example 2. Also to carry sidewalks 5 feet wide, loaded with
100 pounds per square foot.
Solution. Assume the spacing of cross-girders at 4 feet c. to c.
and the road slab as in Example 2; slab 8 inches thick, d = 7 inches,
f-inch square steel 5 inches c. to c. top and bottom.
Cross-beams. The dead load upon the T-beams, assuming weight
of stem at 150 pounds per linear foot will be 180 150 = 870 pounds
X4+
per linear foot. The live load is composed of two 14,000 pounds
wheel loads, 6 feet apart. As these are distributed over 6 feet of
width, 14000X4/6 = 9333 will be carried by the 4 feet width of beam.
The effective length of beam is 18 feet, and

lo

M (impact) =25 per cent of 700000 = 175000

_
in.-lb.

MMTU(dead) = 870X18X18X12
-j\
o
= 422820 m.-lb.
Total moment, M = 1297820 in.-lb.

Assuming that the nearest wheel load may pass 18 inches from
the side girder, maximum shear in the cross-beam is

V
T7 ,..
(live)
, = -18666(18-5) = 13480 pounds.
lo
V (impact) =25 per cent = 3370 pounds.
V (dead) =870X9 = 7830 pounds.

Total shear, V =24680 pounds.

Assuming width of stem of T-beam to be 12 inches, we have the

required depth,
V 24680
280 SLAB AND GIRDER BRIDGES

By Table VII (p. 163), for fs = 16000 and

1297820
48X19.5X19.5
we find fc = 500 and p = .005. Then
A=p6d=.005X48Xl9.5=4.68in. 2
Use six f -inch square bars, four in lower row, two in upper.
The total depth of beam is 22 inches, and the weight of the stem
is 12X14X150/144=175 pounds per linear foot, 25 pounds more
than assumed.
Using U-shaped stirrups of J-inch round bars, the spacing at end
of beam is

2X. 39X16000 =
9 inches.
120X12
Place eight stirrups with this spacing then space 12 inches apart
to middle of span.
The sidewalkslab carries 100 pounds per square foot moving

load, on 4-foot continuous spans. We will make it 3 inches thick,

reinforced with f-inch round bars 6 inches apart. The sidewalk
supports are cantilever beams carrying 4 feet of sidewalk with its
load and 4 feet of handrail at the end.
Side Girders. The sidewalk with its load weighs about 800
pounds per foot of girder. One-half the weight of bridge floor and
T-beams is 1900 pounds per foot. Assume weight of girder as 1600
pounds per foot, and the total dead load is 4300 pounds per linear
foot.
The maximum moving load is the weight of a truck whose nearest
wheels are 18 inches from the girder. These loads are

2 8000X(18-5)
= 202()0 and 12000X(18-5) =87()olb> 12 fe
lo lo

Take effective length of girder as 36 feet and we have

M = 289
(live) J*~ (1
X 12
1 -
8)2 = 2528200 in.-lb.
ob
M (impact) -25 per cent of 2528200 = 632050 in.-lb.

M (dead) = 4300X 36X36 X 12 Q

= 8359200 in.-lb.

Total M =11519450 in.-lb.

J-J-OlcMOU
bd2 =
T 70
r = 106666.
-tnnnnr*
 DESIGN OF BEAM BRIDGES 281

Assuming 6 = 20 inches, we find d = 73 inches.

Table X shows that nine If -inch square bars may be used, or six
If -inch square bars will answer. These can be spaced four in the
lower and two in upper row. The maximum bond stress for the
latter is
V 106250 ..

Shear. Considering the live loads to be applied over a length

of 2 feet,

V (live)
= 28900(36 - 5. 1) /36 = 24800 pounds.
V (impact) =25 per cent of 24800 = 6200 pounds.
7 (dead) =4300X17.5 = 75250 pounds.

Total 7 = 106250 pounds.

The maximum shear at the middle of the beam occurs when the
heavier load is just past the middle point, or

7 = 28900(18-4. 6)/36 = 10760 pounds,

and
10760 n ..
=
9 lb./in. 2
20 X. 875X73
2 2
The maximum shear varies from 83 lb./in. at the support to 9 lb./in.
at the middle of the girder. Reinforcement for diagonal tension
2
is needed where v is more than 40 lb./in. If U-shaped stirrups
be spaced 12 inches apart, at the abutment,

_6t_20X83X12
~ "
.
2

~2fs 2X16000
By Table X, f-inch round bars are needed. The tops of these bars
should be turned into hooks to secure ample bond. Seven stirrups
will be used spaced 12 inches apart, three spaced 18 inches and
two spaced 30 inches, at each end of the girder.
Hangers. To prevent the T-beams breaking loose from the
girders, bars passing under the steel in the stem of the T-beam, and
extending up into the girder are used to carry the reactions at the
ends of the T-beams. These reactions equal the maximum shear
upon the T-beams, and the area of steel required is A h = 24245/16000
= 1.52 in.2 By Table X, we find 1-inch round bars to be needed.
These should extend upward a distance sufficient to develop a. bond
strength equal to the tensile strength of the bars, or at least 50
diameters.
 CHAPTER X
MASONRY ARCHES
ART. 43. VOUSSOIR ARCHES

155. Definitions. A masonry arch is a structure of masonry

spanning an opening and carrying its loads as longitudinal thrust,
which exert outward as well as vertical thrusts upon the abutments.
A voussoir arch is one in which the arch ring is composed of a number
of independent blocks of stone or masonry.
Parts of an Arch. The principal parts of an arch are as follows :

FIG. 83.

The under or concave surface of an arch is called the soffit. The outer
or convex surface is the back.
The crown is the highest part of the arch ring (E-F, Fig. 82).
The skewbacks are the joints at the ends of the arch where it
rests upon the abutments (C-A, B-D, Fig. 83).
The intrados is the intersection of the soffit with a vertical plane
perpendicular to the axis of the arch (A-E-B, Fig. 83).
The extrados is the intersection of the outer surface with a vertical
plane perpendicular to the axis (C-F-D, Fig. 83).
The springing lines are the intersections of the skewbacks with
the soffit.
282
 VOUSSOIR ARCHES 283

The span is the distance between springing lines.

The rise is the perpendicular distance from the highest
point of
the intrados to the plane of the springing lines.
The voussoirs are the wedge-shaped stones of which an arch is
composed.
The keystone is the voussoir at the crown of the arch (E-F) .

The springers are the voussoirs next the skewbacks.

The haunch is the portion of the arch between the keystone and
springers.
The arch ring is the whole set of voussoirs from skewback to skew-
back.
The ring stones are voussoirs showing on the face of the arch.
The arch sheeting is the portion of the arch ring not showing at the
ends.
Backing masonry above and outside the arch ring.
is

The
spandrel is the space between the back of the arch and the

roadway above. The walls above the ring stones at the ends of the
arch are spandrel walls and the filling between these walls is spandrel
filling.
Kinds of Arches. A full-centered arch is one whose intrados is a
semicircle. A segmental arch is a circular arch whose intrados is less
than a semicircle. A pointed arch has an intrados composed of two cir-
cular arcs which intersect at the crown. A three-centered arch com-
posed of arcs tangent to each other is sometimes called a basket-
handled arch.
A right arch is one whose ends are perpendicular to its axis. An
arch whose ends are oblique to its axis is called a skew arch.
Hinged arches are those in which hinged joints are used at crown
and skewback. Those without hinges are called solid arches.
156. Theory of Stability. A voussoir arch is supposed to be
composed of a number of independent blocks
in contact with each other and held in place |W
by the pressures between them. In Fig. 84,
let A BCD represent a voussoir at any part of
an arch ring. If P
is the pressure received from

the voussoir above and W the external load

carried by the voussoir, the resultant, R, of _
these forces will be the pressure transmitted to
the voussoir below. If the line of action of this resultant should
pass outside of the joint A-D, the arch will fail by the voussoir
rotating about the edge of the joint.
If the point of application of R is outside the middle third of
284 MASONRY ARCHES

A-D, there will be a tendency for the joint to open on the opposite
side, and the area of contact between the voussoirs will be reduced.
If R makes an angle with the normal to the joint
the line of action of
A-D greater than the angle of friction for the surfaces upon each
other, the voussoirs may slide upon each other, causing failure of the
arch.
For stability of the arch:
(1) The
resultant pressures between voussoirs should act within
the middle third of the joints.
(2) The components of the resultant pressures parallel to the

joints (R sin a) should be less than the frictional resistance of the

voussoirs to sliding upon each other.
(3) The unit pressures at the surfaces of contact should be less
than the safe compressive strength of the material of the voussoirs.
If 6 represents the width of the joint AD, x the distance of the

point of application of R from the nearest edge and a the angle made
by R with the normal to the joint, the maximum unit compression
will be represented by

fe = ws a. (See Section 126.)

Usually the angle a is so small that cos a. may be taken as 1 with-

out sensible error, or R may be considered as equal to its normal com-

ponent.
Line of Pressure. If an arch ring be divided into a number of
voussoirs, and the points of application of the resultant pressures
upon the joints between these voussoirs be determined, the broken
or curved line joining these points of application is known as the line
of pressure for the arch. In Fig. 85 the line abcdef is called the line of
pressure for the half arch, when H
is the crown thrust and PI, Pz, etc.,

are the external loads coming upon the several divisions. The true
line of pressure, or of resistance, is a curve circumscribing the poly-
gon abcdef. The larger the number of divisions of the arch ring, the
more nearly will the polygon approach this curve.
In determining the line of pressure, the arch ring is divided into a
convenient number of parts, usually six to sixteen on each side of the
crown, and the external loads (pi-ps, Fig. 85) coming upon the vari-
ous divisions are found. It is now necessary to know certain points
through which the line of pressure must pass in order to draw it. If
the arch be hinged, the line of pressure must pass through the centers
of the hinges and may be drawn without difficulty. In a solid arch,
the points of application of the pressures upon the various joints are
 VOUSSOIR ARCHES 285

not definitely known, and certain assumptions must be made concern-

ing them. Any number of different lines may be drawn as these
assumptions are varied.
Hypotheses for Line of Pressure. If Fig. 85 represent half of a
symmetrically loaded arch, the crown pressure H
will be horizontal.

Assuming its point of application, a, and that its line of resistance

passes through a definite point on one of the other joints as /, the

amount of H
may be found by taking a center of moments at / and
writing the moment equation for aU the loads upon the half arch
equal to zero. H
is then known in amount, direction and point of

application and the line of pressure may be drawn, as shown.

Several hypotheses have been proposed for the purpose of fixing
the position of the line of thrust. Professor Durand-Claye assumed

FIG. 85.

that the true line of resistance is that which gives the smallest abso-
lute pressure upon any joint. This method is outlined in Van
Nostrand's Engineering Magazine, Vol. XV, p. 33. Professor
Winkler suggested that "for an arch ring of constant cross-section,
that line of resistance is approximately the true one which lies nearest
to the axis of the arch ring, as determined by the method of least
squares." No practicable method of applying this principle to ordi-
nary cases of voussoir arches has been devised. Moseley's hypothesis
was that the true -line of resistance is that for which the thrust at the
crown is the least consistent with stability. This occurs (Fig. 85)
when H is at the highest and R at the lowest point it can occupy on
the joint. This hypothesis is the basis of Scheffler's method of
drawing the line of resistance.

Scheffler's theoryassumes that H

is applied at the upper edge of

the middle third of the crown joint, and that the value of is such as H
286 MASONRY ARCHES

to cause the line of pressure to touch the lower edge of the middle
third at one of the joints (as d, e, or /) nearer the abutment. The
joint atwhich the line of pressure is tangent to the lower edge of the
middle third is known as the joint of rupture. The joint of rupture
may be found by taking moments about the lower edge of the middle
third of each of several jointsand solving for H. All loads acting
between the joint considered and the crown should be used in obtain-
ing the moment, and the one giving the largest value of H
is the joint

of rupture. The value of H

so determined is the least consistent
with stability, as a less value causes the line of pressure to pass out-
side the middle third at the joint of rupture.
Should it be found that the line of pressure passes outside the
middle third on the upper side of any of the joints between the joint
of rupture and the crown, the point of application of H
may be
lowered without violating the hypothesis. This leads to the usual
statement that "if any line of pressure can be drawn within the middle
third of the arch ring the arch will be stable." This is justified by
common experience.
When the loading upon the arch is not symmetrical, this method
of finding thecrown thrust cannot be used, and in this case it is usual
to select three points through which to pass the line of pressure,
one at the crown and one near each abutment. A line of pressure is
then passed through these three points, and if the line so found does
not remain within the middle third of the arch ring the positions of
the points may be changed and new lines constructed. This may
be repeated until it is determined whether any line of pressure can
be drawn within the middle third.

ART. 44. LOADS FOR MASONRY ARCHES

157. Live Loads for Highway Bridges. For the floors of open
spandrel arch bridges, live loads should be considered in the same
manner as for slab bridges (see Art. 41). In investigations of arch
rings, live loads are usually taken as uniformly distributed. The
loading which should be used in any design depends upon the location
of the bridge, the character of traffic, and the length of span.
A heavy (20-ton) motor truck may bring a load of about 140
pounds per square foot upon a bridge of short span (about 40 feet).
Bridges 60 to 100 feet span subjected to traffic of motor trucks and
heavily loaded wagons may be considered to carry about 100 pounds
per square foot. For longer bridges this load may be lessened, bridges
over 200 feet being designed for about 75 pounds per square foot.
 LOADS FOR MASONRY ARCHES 287

For bridges less than 100 feet in length carrying street railways,
a load of 1800 pounds per foot of length for each track may be taken.
For spans of 200 feet or more, this may be reduced to 1200 pounds per
foot of track. These loads are considered as distributed over a
width of about 9 feet, giving loads of 200 and 133 pounds per square
foot respectively. For spans between 100 and 200 feet, the loads may
vary according to the length of span.
For light traffic lines on country roads, a load of 1200 pounds per
foot of track may be used for arches less than 100 feet in length and
1000 pounds per foot for those 200 feet or more in length. Fre-
quently bridges must be built for special service, or where the traffic
conditions are unusual and should be designed for any loads that may
reasonably be expected to come upon them. Traffic conditions are
constantly undergoing important changes, and in determining the
loading to be used in any particular instance, it is desirable to con-
sider the possible effect upon future traffic of the rapid increase in
the use of heavy auto-trucks and traction engines. As masonry
arches are structures of permanent character, the probable future
development of traffic should be considered and liberal loadings used
in design.
158. Live Loads for Railway Arches. Standard locomotive load-
ings are used in the design of floor systems for open spandrel arches,
as in beam bridges, and are also sometimes employed in investiga-
tions of arch rings. Equivalent uniform loadings may, however,
commonly be used in arch-ring design.

Loadings should correspond with the heaviest locomotive and

train loads to be expected. For spans less than about 60 feet, a load
of 8000 pounds per foot of track, or 1000 pounds per square foot of
road surface is frequently used. When the span is 80 feet or more
a load of 5600 pounds per foot of track, or about 700 pounds per
square foot, is used, which are approximately the same as Cooper's
E 40 loading. Impact is not taken into account in the arch-ring
investigation.
A concentrated load upon a be considered as distributed
fill may
downward through the fill at an angle of 45
with the vertical, the
top of the distributing slope being taken from the ends of the ties.
Wheel loads are taken as distributed over three ties and then trans-
mitted to the filling.
159. Dead Loads. In arch bridges, the dead weights of the arch
ring and of the filling or structure above constitute the principal
loads upon the arch rings. The live loads are much less in amount,
and are important mainly as producing unsymmetrical loading when
288 MASONRY ARCHES

the load does not extend over the whole arch. In computing the dead
load upon an arch ring, the actual weights of the materials to be
used should be taken when they are accurately known. It is common
to assume the weight of earth filling as 100 pounds per cubic foot, and
that of concrete of other masonry as 150 pounds per cubic foot.
In open-spandrel arches the dead weights act vertically through
the columns or walls supporting the floor of the roadway, and may be
readily computed. When the spandrels are filled with earth, each
section of the arch ring is assumed to carry the weight of the filling
and roadway vertically above it.
The earth pressures upon the inclined back of the arch ring
are not actually vertical, but may have certain horizontal com-
ponents. For arches of small rise, these horizontal pressures are
small and may be neglected, but when the rise of the arch is large,
the horizontal earth thrusts may be considerable, and should be taken
into account, although their omission is usually an error on the safe
side. While the amount of horizontal earth pressure cannot be exactly

determined, it is usual to use Rankine's minimum value for unit

horizontal earth pressure in terms of the unit vertical pressure,
which is
rr 1 sin 6

in which H is the horizontal and V the vertical unit pressure, and

the angle of friction for the earth. For ordinary earth filling, this
would make the unit horizontal pressure at any point approximately
one-fourth of the unit vertical pressure at the same point, the prob-
ability being that a horizontal pressure of at least this amount may
always be developed.
The methods used for determining pressures upon retaining walls
evidently are not applicable to this case. The actual horizontal
earth pressure may vary within rather wide limits, and cannot be
accurately determined. In retaining-wall design, the maximum
earth thrust which may come against the wall is computed, while
for the arch we need to know the minimum horizontal pressure which

may be relied upon to help sustain the arch. That the actual pres-
sure may sometimes be considerably more than the computed mini-
mum is quite probable.
When an arch carries a continuous masonry wall, as in an opening

through the wall of a building, or the spandrel wall at the end of an

arch bridge, the wall itself would arch over the opening and be cap-
able of self-support if the arch were removed. The load upon the
 DESIGN OF VOUSSOIR ARCHES 289

arch would therefore be only that due to a triangular piece of wall

immediately above the arch as in the case of a stone lintel. (See
Section 53.)

ART. 45. DESIGN OF VOUSSOIR ARCHES

160. Methods of Design. In designing masonry arches, the form
and dimensions of the arch ring are first assumed and the stability
of the arch, as assumed, is then investigated. The graphical method
of investigation is commonly employed, a line of pressure (see Sec-
tion 156) being drawn and the maximum unit compression computed.
Stability requires that the line of pressure remain within the middle
third of the arch ring and that the unit compression does not exceed
a safe value. If the first assumptions are not satisfactory the shape
or dimensions of the arch ring may be modified and the new assump-
tions tested as before.
Arches subjected to the action of moving loads should be tested
for conditions of partial loading, which may cause unsymmetrical
distortion of arch ring, as well as for full load over the whole arch.
For ordinary loadings and spans of moderate length, it is usually suffi-
cient to draw the line of pressure for arch fully loaded and with live
load extending over half the arch, but in large and important struc-
tures, or those with unusual loadings, it may be desirable to test
the arch ring with live loads in other positions which seem likely to
produce maximum distortions of the line of pressure.
161. Thickness of Arch Masonry. The choice of dimensions for
the trial arch ring is necessarily based upon judgment founded upon

knowledge of the dimensions of existing arches, which are found to

differ widely, and rules have been formulated by several authorities
for the purpose of aiding in selecting the dimensions.
Crown Thickness. Several different formulas have been proposed
for determining the thickness at the crown. Trautwine's formula
for the depth of keystone of first-class cut-stone arches, whether
circular or elliptical, is

Depth of key
. ,
in feet = VRadius+half span
-+.2 foot.
j

For second-class work this depth may be increased about one-

eighth part; or for brick or rubble about one-third.
Rankine's formula for the depth of keystone for a single arch is

Depth in feet = v. 12 radius.

290 MASONRY ARCHES

This gives results which agree fairly well with Trautwine's

formula. For an arch of a series, Rankine also recommends

Depth in feet = V.17 radius.

These formulas make the thickness depend upon the span and
rise of the arch without regard to the loading. They agree fairly
well with many examples of existing arches, but make the thickness
rather large for arches of moderate span.
Douglas Formulas. In Merriman's American Civil Engineer's
Pocket Book, Mr. Walter J. Douglas gives the following rules for
thickness at crown:

THICKNESS IN FEET AT CROWN FOR HIGHWAY ARCHES

Kind of Masonry.
 DESIGN OF VOUSSOIR ARCHES 291

arches in a series he suggests a thickness at top of three and one-half

times the crown thickness, but places an abutment at every third or
fifth span.
Trautwine gives a method for design of abutment, approximately
as follows (see Fig. 86) :

Thickness at springing line in feet

Radius Rise
a-b = - n
, . .
f
+2feet.
10

= rise, and span

Layoff a c c

Continue bd downward to bottom of abutment, and upward a

distance be = rise/2. From e
draw a tangent e f to the
extrados.
It is also required that
the thickness at bottom of
abutment gh, shall not be
lessthan two-thirds of the
height ag.
If the abutment is of
rough rubble, 6 inches is

added to the thickness to in-

sure full thickness in every
part. h
These rules usually give
FIG. 86.
arches which are amply strong
for heavy railway service and heavier than necessary for highway

bridges. For structures of small span, however, when voussoir or

plain concrete arches are used, the saving effected by paring them
down is small, and rather heavy work is common practice.
162. Investigation of Stability. After assuming dimensions for
the arch ring and abutments, the stability of the arch is investigated
by the methods outlined in Section 156. The stability of the abut-
ment is tested by continuing the line of thrust and determining
whether it cuts the base of the abutment within the middle third.
The sufficiency of the foundation for the abutment must also be
examined and footings provided which will properly distribute the
pressure over the soil upon which it is to be placed. The following
example will outline the method of procedare.
Example. A highway arch is to have a span of 40 feet and a rise
of 10 feet. It is to carry a moving load of 200 pounds per square foot.
292 MASONRY ARCHES

The depth of fill at crown is 2 feet. The weight of earth fill is 100
and of masonry 150 pounds per cubic foot.
We
will try a segment al arch. By the Douglas rule, the thickness
at crown would be 1.4 feet. By Trautwine's formula, it would be
1.95 feet. Make the crown thickness 18 inches. By the Douglas
rule the thickness at springing would be between 1.5 and 2 times the
crown thickness. We
will try 30 inches. Draw the arch ring as
shown in Fig. 87, and divide it into equal parts by radial lines. The
line z-t represents the roadway and verticals from the points where
the radial divisions cut the extrados divide the earth fill into parts

resting sections of the arch ring.

upon the These loads, including the
weights of the sections of arch ring, are now computed, and their
vertical lines of action determined.
In finding the loads, it is often convenient to draw the reduced
load contour, which is obtained by reducing the height of the sections
go that the volume contained by them may be considered to weigh
the same per unit as the arch ring. Thus if the earth fill weighs 100
pounds and masonry 150 pounds per cubic foot, the height ax is
made two-thirds of az, and the other verticals are reduced propor-
tionately, giving the volume a-x-u-g, which has the same weight at
150 pounds as the earth fill at 100 pounds. In the same way x-^y^v-u
represents the live load which would come upon half the arch ring
reduced to 150 pounds per cubic foot. In the example, the loadings
given represent live load extending over the left half of the arch,
dead load only upon the right half.
The horizontal thrusts against the arch ring are sometimes com-
puted by assuming that the unit horizontal thrust bears a definite
proportion (usually about one-quarter) to the unit vertical thrust.
Thus in Fig. 87, if the vertical load upon the section a-b is 5085 pounds
the horizontal component of the load on the section is

5085 ap
4
X-r = 1550 pounds.
pb

In the example, the horizontal components upon the two lower divi-
sionson each side are used, those upon the upper divisions being too
small to affect the results appreciably. The horizontal components
of the loads are not usually considered in a problem of this kind unless
the rise of the arch large as compared with the span.
is

Having computed the loads, a line of pressure may now be drawn

through any three points in the arch ring. Assume that it is to pass
through the lower third point of the joint a on the loaded side, the
DESIGN OF VOUSSOIR ARCHES 293
294 MASONRY ARCHES

middle point at the crown, and the upper third point at the joint n
on the unloaded side.
The load line is first plotted on a convenient scale by laying off the
loads which come upon the various sections in succession, n-m, m-l,
etc. ;
na is now the resultant of all the loads upon the arch ring. A
f
pole O is assumed and the strings O'a, O'b, etc., drawn.
The equilibrium polygon, shown in broken lines, may now be
drawn. Starting from A, the lower third point on joint a, with a line
parallel to the string O'a to an intersection with the line of action of
the load upon the section a-b. From this intersection, draw a line
parallel to O'b to intersection with the line of action of the load on
6-c, and continue it until a parallel to O'n is intersected in N' upon a
linethrough N
parallel to the resultant n-a.
Connect N' with A, and from 0' draw a line parallel to N'-A
to intersection J with the resultant n-a of the loads, thus dividing
the resultant into two reactions, n-J and J-a, which would exist at
the ends of the span if the horizontal thrust of the arch be neglected.
Join the points A and N
and from J draw a line parallel to A-N.
A pole lying upon this line will give an equilibrium polygon passing
through A and N.
The distance of the pole from J must now be determined to cause
the equilibrium polygon to pass through the middle of the crown
joint. The line g a in the force polygon, is the resultant of the loads
upon the left half of the arch. From the middle of the crown section,
draw G-G' parallel to g-a, to intersection with the trial equilibrium
',

polygon. Connect A-G' and A-G. From 0' draw O'k parallel to
G'A to intersection with g-a in fc, and from k draw k-O parallel
to AG. The point where KO intersects JO is the new pole.
From A, the new line of thrust may now be drawn with sides par-
allel to the strings, Oa, 06, etc. This passes through the points G
and N.
By inspection we see that the line of thrust, as thus drawn, is

everywhere within the middle of the arch ring. The thrust upon
the joint at a is represented by the length of the line 0-a = 27000
pounds, and the maximum unit compression is

The unit compression upon any other joint may be found in the same
manner.
The resultant pressure R upon the base of the abutment is found
by combining the weight W of the abutment with the thrust 0a of
 THE ELASTIC ARCH 295

the arch against the abutment. The footing under the base of the
abutment should be so designed as properly to distribute the load over
the foundation soil.

ART. 46. THE ELASTIC ARCH

163. Analysis of Fixed Arch. Reinforced concrete arches are
commonly constructed as solid curved beams firmly fixed to the
abutments. Inan-
alyzing them, it is
assumed that the
abutments are im-
movable and the
ends of the arch
firmly held in their
original positions.
Let Fig. 88 repre-
sent the left half
FIG. 88.
of an arch, fixed
in position at the end G-H, and carrying loads which produce
thrusts and bending moments throughout the arch ring.
The arch may be considered as made up of a, number of small
divisions. Suppose A BCD to be one of these divisions, small
enough so that its ends are practically parallel and its section area
constant. The loads upon the arch bring a bending moment upon
the division A BCD, which causes the end CD to take the posi-
tion EF.
Let M bending moment on the division;
s = length of division, AD = BC;
e = distance from center of section to outside fiber;

ds = elongation of fiber distant e from neutral axis;

/ = Unit stress upon fiber distant e from neutral axis;
nt

k = angle of distortion, COE;-

E modulus of elasticity of material ;
7 = moment of inertia of section;
x and y = horizontal and vertical coordinates of center of
section, 0, with reference to center of crown sec-
tion, J.

The unit fiber elongation in the division A BCD is = .

s s

Unit stress, fm = also U--B--E.

S S
296 MASONRY ARCHES

Equating these and solving,

If the crown of the arch be free to move, the deflection of A BCD

into its new form ABEF will bring the middle point of the arch ring
J", to the new position K. Let dx and dy be the horizontal and ver-
tical coordinates of Kwith respect to J. Then from similar tri-
angles, JK/OJ = dy/x = k, and
Mxs
dy = xk=^j-
7
........ (2)

Similarly,
Mys
dx = yk=-
J jr . ..... k . . (3)

As the end section GH

is fixed in position, the summation of all

the angular distortions k, for the left half of the arch gives the dis-
tortion at the crown section. The summation similarly of those
for the right half must give the same result with opposite sign, or
indicating the left and right sides of the arch by the subscripts L
and R respectively, and indicating summation by the sign 2, we have

2k L = Sfc, also 2dyL = 2dy R and 2dxL =

- 2dxB .

Substituting for these distortions, their values as found above, we

have for a symmetrical arch :

M s__
*~ L ~ 2
MR s
'
-* 4

M MRXS
~ LXS_ '~~'
:
' *

and
MLys MRys
If the length of the divisions of the arch ring be made directly

proportional to the corresponding values of the moment of inertia,

o O

T = constant, the terms -^j

JbL
in Equations (4), (5), and (6) are con-
l
stant and may be eliminated, and we have,

....... (7)

(8)

..... (9)
 THE ELASTIC ARCH 297

Fig. 89 represents a symmetrical arch divided into parts the

lengths of which are directly proportioned to the moments of inertia
of the cross-sections at their middle points. s/I = constant. Sup-
pose the arch to be cut at the crown and the separate halves supported
by introducing the stresses acting through the crown section as
exterior forces. These may be resolved into a horizontal thrust,
a vertical shear and a bending moment.

H c
= horizontal thrust at crown;
V = vertical
c shear at crown;
M c
= bending moment at crown.
Vc is considered to be positive when acting in the direction
indicated by the arrows. Moments are taken as positive when they

FIG. 89.

produce compression on the upper and tension on the lower side of

the section.

Let ML = bending moment on mid-section of any division

in half of arch;
left
MR = bending moment on mid-section of any division
in right half of arch;
WIL= moment at middle of any division in left half, caused
by external loads between that division and the
crown section:
WR= moment at mid-section of any division in right
half, caused by external loads between that
section and the crown
section;
X and y = coordinates of middle point of any division with
respect to middle of crown section.

The bending moment at any section of a beam is equal to the

moment at any other section plus the moments of the intermediate
loads about the center of the section. Therefore,

ML = M +V x+H y-mL
c c c , (10)

MR = M -V x+H y-mR
c c c (11)
298 MASONRY ARCHES

Substituting these values in Equations (7), (8) and (9), we have,

..... (12)

(13)

= Q. . . .
.(14)

Solving for the thrusts and moments at the crown

TT _ , .

2 2
2n2y -2(2y)

c
_
~

In analyzing an arch by this method, the arch is first divided into

a number of parts in which s/I is a constant. The loads upon the
divisions are then found and mL and mR computed for the several
centers of division. ,
M
The values of H c Vc and c may then be found
from Formulas (15), (16) and (17), after which the line of thrust
may be drawn beginning with the known values of Hc and Vc at the
crown. The moment M
c is due to the eccentricity of the thrust at

the crown, and the point of application for H c may be found by divid-
ing M
c by H c . This gives the vertical distance of H c from the center
of gravity of the crown section. For M
c positive, H
c is above, and

for M
c negative, Hc is below the center of section.

The thrust at any section of the arch may be obtained from the
thrust diagram as in the voussoir arch. The bending moment at
any section is the moment of the thrust upon the section about the
center of gravity of the section. The bending moment at any section
may also be obtained by the use of Formula (10) or (11).
In analyzing an arch bridge subject to moving loads, it is necessary
to assume different conditions of loading and find the thrust and mo-
ments resulting from each. For a small arch, it is usually sufficient
to make the analysis for arch fully loaded and for moving load over
one-half the arch. The maximum stresses will be more accurately
determined by dividing the moving load into thirds, and determining
the stresses with span fully loaded, one-third loaded, two-thirds
loaded, center third loaded, and with two end thirds loaded. If

complete analysis be made for the arch under dead load alone, for
live load over one end third, and live load over the middle third, the
results of these three analyses may be combined to give the five
conditions of loading above mentioned.
 THE ELASTIC ARCH 299

164. Effect of Changes of Temperature. A rise in temperature

tends to lengthen and a fall in temperature to shorten the span.
If the ends of the arch ring are rigidly held in position, the tendency
to change in length is resisted by moments and horizontal thrusts
at the supports, which produce moments and thrusts throughout the
arch ring.
If the arch ring were not restrained, a rise in temperature of
t degrees would cause an increase in length = CtL L being the length
;

of span and C the coefficient of expansion of the material. The

moments throughout the arch ring are therefore those which cor-
respond to an actual change in length of span = CL, or from For-
mula (3)

From this, for a symmetrical arch ring

MLys _ MRys _ ClL

and

As there are no exterior loads, mLj and Vc are each equal to zero,
and Formula (10) becomes L= M M
c -\-H c y. Substituting this in
(18) and (19) and solving, we have

EI CtLn
nc = s
*0^-v..2 0/V.A2 \"W

H
The line of thrust consists of a single force c and is applied,

on a horizontal line at a distance, e = 2y/n, below the middle of the

crown section. The bending moment at any section due to c is H

The direct thrustupon any section of the arch ring is the com-
ponent of c H
normal to the section.
For temperatures below the normal, H c will be negative and may
be found from Formula (20) by giving t the negative sign.
165. Effect of Direct Thrust. Axial thrusts on the arch ring
produce compressive stresses on the various sections and also tend
to shorten the arch ring. As the span length does not change, this
300 MASONRY ARCHES

tendency to become shorter causes stresses in the arch ring in the

same manner as does lowering temperature. If fe lb./in. 2 be the
average unit compression due to axial thrust, the arch ring if unre-
strained would be shortened an amount dx=fcI/E, from which,

rr I fcLn
ii c =-- ^ o
s 2n2y2
and
M'=n?" I "/'. (23)

As the unit stress fc is not uniform through the arch ring, a value
obtained by finding the stresses at several points and averaging
them may be used.
The stresses due to shortening of the arch ring are comparatively
small and are often neglected in the analysis of ordinary arches;
in some instances, however, they may be considerable.

ART. 47. DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH

166. Selection of Dimensions. In designing an arch, it is neces-

sary to assume dimensions for the arch ring, and then investigate
first

for the strength of the arch and the suitability of the assumed dimen-
sions to the conditions of service. The methods of investigation
usually employed are indicated in Art. 46. The investigation will
show whether changes in form or thickness should be made in the
arch ring. The shape of the arch should be such as to fit as closely
as possible the lines of pressure, and the thickness should be such as
to give allowable stresses under all conditions of loading.
Example. As an illustration of the method of investigation, we
will assume an arch of 60 feet clear span and 12 feet rise, to carry
a live load of 100 pounds per square foot of road and a solid spandrel
filling, 2 feet deep over the crown, weighing 100 pounds per cubic foot.
For ordinary arches with solid spandrel filling, a three-centered

intrados, with radii at the sides from three-fifths to three-fourths that

at the crown, is apt to give better results than a segmental intrados.
We will use an intrados composed of three arcs tangent to each other
at the quarter points with radii of 52.5 feet and 31.25 feet respect-

ively (see Fig. 91).

= V/ L W W
^+TTJ + ^T^+TT^
Weld's formula l for the crown thickness is t

in which
Engineering Record, Nov.
l
? 4, 1905.
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH 301

= the crown thickness in inches;

t

L = clear span in feet;

TF = live load in pounds per square foot;
W = weight of fill at crown per square foot.

Applying this formula, we find a crown thickness of 16 inches. The

thickness of the arch ring should increase from the crown to the spring-
ing line; the thickness at the quarter point may be made a little
greater than that at the crown (about 1J to 1J times). We
will
assume a thickness at the quarter point of 21 inches, and at the spring-
ing line of 45 inches. The extrados will now consist of three arcs
tangent to each other at the quarter points and giving the desired
thicknesses. Fig. 117 shows the arch ring as assumed.

FIG. 90.

The reinforcement may be assumed at from .4 to .7 per cent of the

area of the section at the crown, to be placed at both extrados and
intrados. We will use f-inch round bars spaced 7 inches apart.
167. Division of Arch Ring. Having chosen the form and dimen-
sions of the arch ring, necessary to divide the ring so that the
it is

lengths of the divisions shall be directly proportional to the moments

of inertia of their mid-sections, s/I = constant. This may be done
by assuming a division next the crown, determining the value
trial,
of s/7 for the assumed division, and finding the corresponding lengths
of other sections toward the abutment. Then changing the first
assumption as may seem necessary to make the division come out
properly at the abutment.
More easily, the division may be made graphically as shown in Fig.
90. The line a-k is laid off equal in length to half the arch axis (34.52
feet). The moments of inertia are then computed at several points
302 MASONRY ARCHES

along the arch axis, and their amounts laid off normally to the line
a-k, and the curves of moment of inertia drawn through the points
so located.
A trial diagonal is then drawn from A to intersection with the
curve in the point B. A vertical from B is drawn to intersection
with the upper curve, and a second diagonal parallel to A-B, cutting
the lower curve in C. Continue successive diagonals and verticals
until the end k is reached. If these do not come out accurately at the
end k the inclination of the diagonals may be varied until the division
of a-k is made into the correct number of parts. This divides a-k
into lengths which are proportional to the average of the moments of
inertia at the ends of the divisions.
The lengths of the divisions, a 6, b c, etc., are now transferred
to the arch axis. The axis of the arch in Fig. 91 is thus laid off
into ten divisions on each side of the crown section. The con-
stant ratio s/I is found to be 5.1, all measurements being taken in
feet.
The middle point of the arch axis in each division is now located,
and the values of x and y are determined with reference to the middle
of the crown section. These values and their squares are tabulated
in Table XXI for use in the computations.
168. Analysis. If vertical lines be drawn through the points of

division of the arch axis, the weight of the portion of masonry and

spandrel filling included between each pair of lines may be considered

as the dead load resting upon the included division. The live load is
similarly divided for the portion of the arch over which it is considered
as acting. In Fig. 91 the live load is taken as extending over the left
half of the arch, and the loads are as indicated. The values of m^
and mR are now computed and placed in Table XXI, and include in
each instance the moments of all loads between the division con-
sidered and the crown section about the center of division. The
quantities mL x, m Rx, mLy, and m R y may now be computed and placed
in the table, and the summations of the various columns obtained.
These substituted in Formulas (15), (16) and (17) give,

Hc ~
_ 10(2375207+ 1989744) -(512291 +425771) 17.09
2X10X80.85-2X17.09X17.09

T/ 10408051-8686133
Fc= =+487 pounds,
2X1769.5
DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH 303
304 MASONRY ARCHES

I
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH 305

Having obtained the thrusts and moment at the crown, we may

now proceed to find the thrusts and moments at any other section
desired. The thrusts are obtained graphically by drawing the line
of pressure. The load line is first constructed, as shown by the ver-
tical line a-u. H
Vc and c are laid off from the mid-point k of this
line,thus locating the pole 0. The force diagram is then completed
by drawing connections from to the extremities of the various loads.
The equilibrium polygon is now drawn, beginning with the crown
thrust (0-K), the point of application of which is at a point e =

=+0.05 foot above the center of the crown section. The

7
thrust upon each section is now shown in amount by the length of the
line from to the division in the load line, and its line of action by the
corresponding line in the equilibrium polygon (or line of pressure).
The bending moment at any section may be found by multiplying
the thrust upon the section by its perpendicular distance from the
center of section, or it may be computed by the use of Formula (10)
or (11). Usually the formula is employed and the measurement of
the eccentricity used as a check.
169. Computation of Stresses. At the crown, the stress due to
direct thrust is

, thrust 26715
^
for the moment,
/c=
This gives
124+21 = +145 lb./in.
2
at the extrados
and
124-21 = +103 lb./in.
2
at the intrados.

At the left support, by Formula (10),

Mz,= 1247+26715X11.7+487X31.25-349930 = -20899 ft.-lb.

and the measured thrust = 40300 pounds, giving an eccentricity

of -20899/40300 =-.5 foot. This may be checked by measure-
ment. Then for thrust,

and for moment,

r 20899X12X21 2
/c= 79098
-671b/m. ,

giving at the extrados

fe = 80- 67 = + 13 lb./in.2
306 MASONRY ARCHES

and at the intrados

fc = 80+67= +147
2
lb./in.

At the right support, by Formula (11),

MR = 1247+26715X11.7-487X3125-303226= -4632 ft.-lb.

The measured thrust is 39,200, and the eccentricity

4632
-.12 foot.
39200
39200
For thrust, fc = .
= 78 lb./in. 2 and,
for moment, fc 15 lb./in. 2

This gives at extrados fc = 63 lb./in.

2
,
and at intrados fc = +93 lb./in.
2

At point SL,

ML = 1247+26715X2.25-487X15.88-70608=- 1520 ft./lb.

Thrust = 27600 pounds

, 27600

-1520X12X10.5 =
For moment, /c =
.

10964
^/m. 2 ;

this gives at extrados fc = 93 lb./in.

2
and at intrados fc = 127 lb./in. 2
,

At point SR in the ,
same manner, we have at extrados, /c = 58
lb./in.
2
and at intrados fc = 150 lb./in.
2

Full Load. When the live load extends across the whole span
of the arch, the loading is symmetrical and the values given in
Table forC m
R become equal to those for mL . We then have

-.
2X10X2375207-2X512291X17.09
85-2X17. 09X17. 09

The force diagram is now drawn for one-half of the arch, and the
equilibrium polygon may be drawn as in the case of partial load-
ing. To avoid confusion it is not drawn in Fig. 91. The stresses
in the crown section due to this loading are

29030 1662X12X9
~ -- =
and /c =
.
, 2 ,-. 2
/ +281b./m.
 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH 307

This gives at extrados, total fe = 131+28=

2
+159 lb./in. ,
and at
intrados, total fe
= 131 - 28 = 103 lb./in. 2
At section 8, M= 1662+29030X2.25-70608= -3629 ft.-lb.

The thrust is30,350 pounds, and the resulting unit stresses at extra-
dos fc = 120 -36 = 84 lb./in. 2 and at intrados fe = 156 lb./in.
2

At the support in the same manner, the thrust is 42,600 pounds,

and the moment, M=
1662+29030X11.7-349930= -8617 ft./lb.
from which at extrados, fc = 84 27 = 57 lb./in. 2 and at intrados ,

fc
= 111 lb./in.
2

Temperature Stresses. If we assume that a rise in temperature

of 20 above the normal may take place, Formula (20) gives

288000000
" X .0000055X20X62.5X10
Hc=
2X10X8Q. 85-2X17. 09X17. 09
and (21),

M = --3770X17.09 =-6448
,
c
- ft.-lb. e= ~
6448
= -1.71 ,
feet.

The equilibrium polygon is a horizontal line 1.71 feet below the

center of the crown section, and the bending moment at any section
of the arch ring is equal to 3770 tunes the vertical distance from
the center of section to the line of thrust. At point 8 the moment
due to change of temperature is

3770 X (2.25- 1.71) = +2037 ft.-lb.

and at point a,
M = 3770X (11.7- 1.71) =37,696 ft.-lb.

The stresses at the crown section are, at extrados

fc = 17 -112 =-95 lb./in

2
,

and at intrados
fe =
2
17+ 112 =+129 lb./in.

The normal thrust on section at point 8

is the component of

H c normal to the diagram in Fig. 118, =3345

section, given in
pounds. At section a, thrust = 2510. These thrusts and moments
give at 8, for extrados fe = 14 +24 = 38 lb./in.
2
for intrados, ;

/ = 14 -24 =-10 lb./in.

2
at support; extrados fc 127 lb./in. 2 =+ ;

intrados, /= - 113 lb./in.2

For a fall in temperature the stresses are equal and opposite
to those for rising temperature.
Arch Shortening. The effect of direct thrust in shortening the
span of the arch, taking average unit compression as 100 lb./in. 2
308 MASONRY ARCHES

average of stresses at crown, point 8 and support under one-half

live load by Formula (23),

J_ 100X144X62.5X10 = 17 10 pounds.
>.l' 1033

This is applied on the same line as the temperature thrust and the
stresses are therefore equal to 1710/3770 = .45 of those for falling
temperature.
Table XXII shows the computed stresses upon the sections at
crown, at point 8 and at supports. Examination of this table shows
that the unit compression is nowhere excessive. Tension of 34 lb./in. 2
occurs at the intrados in the crown section at low temperature. This
istoo small to cause cracking in the reinforced section. The tension
of 150 lb./in.2 at the extrados of the support section would possibly
crack the concrete. The compression at the intrados under the same
conditions would be 331 lb./in.2 and the reinforced section would be
,

capable of bearing the load if the steel be assumed to carry all the
tension. It might be desirable, however, to introduce additional
reinforcement at this point to lessen the unit tension in the steel and
prevent cracking, and these negative stresses might also be eliminated
by slightly modifying the form of the arch, increasing the radius at
the crown and decreasing those at the ends, although the form as
shown agrees fairly well with the lines of thrust.

TABLE XXII. STRESSES IN ARCH SECTIONS, LB/IN. 2

 TYPES OF CONCRETE ARCHES 309

ART. 48. TYPES OF CONCRETE ARCHES

170. Arrangement of Spandrels. In ordinary bridges of short
span, solid arches with filled spandrels arecommonly employed, as
shown in the example of the last article. In such arches, spandrel
walls are used to retain the filling above the arch ring. These are
usually light reinforced walls and must be designed to resist the
side pressure of the filling with its live load. When the depth
of filling is considerable, a thin wall with counterforts is often

employed.
For larger bridges, and where heavy
filling would be required, open

spandrels are often used. In these, the floor is usually carried by

slabs and the loads are brought vertically upon the arch ring by cross
walls. In such arches, the dead loads with their lines of action are
definitely known, and the use of influence lines gives an accurate
method of determining the effect of moving loads at any point of the
road surface.
In a large open spandrel arch, the arch ring, instead of being solid,
is frequently composed of two ormore longitudinal ribs. The bridge
floor is supported by beams and slabs, and the load transferred to the
ribs by a series of columns. The determination of stresses is made
in the same manner as for the solid arch, the whole section of the arch
rib being used to carry loads brought by the columns, instead of
determining loads and sections for a 1-foot slice of the arch ring. The
loads must be brought upon the ribs axially, so as to produce no
horizontal bending moment, and the width of the rib must be suffi-
cient to enable it to act as a column between points of support. The
width may increase from the crown to the support so as to maintain
a proper relation between width and depth.
171. Methods of Reinforcement. There are several methods of
arranging the reinforcement in concrete arches. Numerous patented
systems are more or less in use, while many designers place reinforcing
bars in any way that seem to best meet their needs without following
any particular system.
The Monier system was the earliest type invented, and consists
in placing wire netting near the surfaces of the arch at both
intrados and extrados. This system has been quite largely used in
Europe.
The Melan arch has steel ribs, consisting of bent I-beams, or of
built-up lattice girders, spaced 2 or 3 feet apart, extending from abut-
ment to abutment, they are self-supporting, and may sometimes be
used to carry the forms in placing the concrete for the arch ring.
310 MASONRY ARCHES

Many Melan arches have been constructed in the United States,

most of those built previous to 1900 being of this type.
In the Thacher system, steel bars are used in pairs, one immediately
above the other, near the extrados and intrados, the bars being inde-
pendent of each other. Several modifications of the Thacher system
have been patented, in which the rods alternate in position or are
connected in some way.
In other systems, attempts are made to use single tension bars,
bent to pass from the extrados at certain points to the intrados
at others as the occurrence of tensions may require.
When upon the concrete in an arch are kept within
the stresses
proper limits, the unit stresses upon the steel are very small, and
more steel must be used than would be necessary to carry the tensions
if reasonable unit stresses for the steel could be allowed. The steel
is not therefore economically used in carrying stresses. It is rather
intended to give added security against unforeseen contingencies,
preventing cracks in the concrete, and guarding against distortions
due to slight settlement of foundations or structural defects.
172.Hinged Arches. Hinges are frequently used in arches for the
purpose of making the stresses more nearly determinate, they give
definite points through which the line of pressure must pass.

Three-hinged Arches. Three hinges are usually employed and

have the advantage of fixing the line of pressure so as to make it
statically determinate. It is assumed that the hinge acts without
friction and the line of pressure passes through the center of the

hinges. Making this assumption, the horizontal and vertical com-

ponents of the thrusts at the supports may be determined by means
of moments about the hinge centers. In large arches the hinges have
the advantage of eliminating the temperature stresses. Slight settle-
ment of the foundations may occur in hinged arches without sensibly
changing the stresses, while the
accuracy of the computed stresses
in a solid arch dependent upon
is the rigidity of the supports. Hinges
are usually expensive to construct, and the form of the arch, if eco-
nomically designed, is not so graceful as that of a solid arch.
Two-hinged Arches. Two hinges are sometimes used at the
supports without the crown hinge. Two points upon the line of
pressure are thus fixed and the vertical components of the end
thrusts may be found by moments about the hinges. As the span
of the arch remains unchanged upon the application of the loads,
Formula (14) of Section 163 applies to this case, or

= (14)
 TYPES OF CONCRETE ARCHES 311

Let RL = vertical component of the thrust at left support;

Mw = moment at crown of all loads between crown and left
support;
L/2 = half span of the arch axis;
h = rise of the arch axis.

Then using the same notation as for the solid arch,

M = RLL/2-H h-mw
c c (23)

Substituting this in (14), we have for arch with vertical loading,

rr _ 2mLy + 2mRy +2m w

2
22y -2h
The thrusts and moments may now be determined in the same
manner as for the solid arch.
173. Unsymmetrical Arches. The formulas of Art. 46 apply only

FIG. 92. Unsymmetrical Arch.

to arch rings which are symmetrical with respect to the crown sec-
tion. It is frequently necessary or desirable to construct arches
which for topographical reasons are not alike upon the two sides of the
crown. In these arches if s/I is made constant for the whole arch
a division may not come at the crown section, the values of x and y
will not be the same upon the two sides of the section nearest the

crown, and the formulas produced as in Section 164 become quite

complicated.
For this case, the origin of coordinates may be taken at the middle
of the lower support, as in Fig. 92.

Let M = bending moment at mid-point of any division ;

ML = bending moment at support left ;

VL = vertical component of thrust at left support;

HL = horizontal component of thrust at left support;
312 MASONRY ARCHES

x and y = coordinates of mid-points of divisions from center

of left support;
m moment at any mid-point of division of all exterior
loads between the division and the left support.
Then, using the method of Section 167, we have 2M = 0, 2Mx = 0,
2My = Q, and
M=ML +Vtx-HLy-m ...... (25)

From this by substitution we obtain

nML +VL 2x-HL 2y-2m = 0;

- 2mx = 0.
Combining these and solving, we find

2 2
Jn^x -(^x) ][^m^y-n^my]-[n^xy-Zx^y][^m^y-n^mx] ,

-
=

(2g)

Having found the values of HL ,VL and Lj the moment at anyM

section may be calculated by Formula 25, and the line of pressure
may be drawn, beginning at the left support.
The line of thrust due to change of temperature will be parallel
to a line joining the ends of the arch axis.
If L = the horizontal span of the arch axis, and J = the height
of its right end above its left end, using the notation of Section 168,

we have

71

and
e rtJ.vt

(30)

174. Arches with Elastic Piers. In the ordinary theory of the

elastic arch, the supports are supposed to be rigid and unyielding.
This can never be strictly true, but it is practically correct where
good foundations are obtained and a sufficient weight of abutment
is used.
 TYPES OF CONCRETE ARCHES 313

In the construction of a series of arches, light piers are sometimes

employed to carry the vertical loads, the arches being depended
upon to carry the horizontal reactions. In such systems, the tops
of the piers are subject to lateral motion which may materially affect
the stresses in the arch rings.
The bases of the piers must always be designed so that the result-
ant of the loads fall within their middle thirds, so that the bases will
remain in contact with the foundations throughout. When this is
the case, the piers become cantilevers held firmly at their bases and
fixed between the arches at their upper ends.
When the structure is composed of nearly equal spans, and the
thrust against the pier does not differ greatly on the two sides under
dead load, the effect of the flexibility of the pier may be investigated
for moving loads by a method
of approximation. In Fig. 93,
TL and TR are the thrusts of
the spans upon the left and
right respectively and R is their
resultant acting upon the pier.
The maximum load is supposed
upon the left span and dead
load only upon the right. The
difference of the horizontal
components of TL and TR ,
HL-HR ,
is the horizontal com-
ponent of R.
This is applied at the top of
the pier, causing the pier to act
FIG.
as a cantilever fixed at the bot-
tom. If we assume that the top of the pier is firmly held by the

ends of the arch, so that no rotation takes place, the top of the pier
will have only a horizontal motion. The effect of this motion is to
lengthen the span of the arch upon the left of the pier and decrease
that of the arch upon the right, which will decrease the value of HL
and increase that of HR .

Let Q = the horizontal motion at top of pier;

/i= the height of pier;
Iv = average moment of inertia of horizontal sections of pier.
The crown thrust for the span on the left then becomes,

H = nQEI/s
c (31)
314 MASONRY ARCHES

and for the span upon the right,

~ nQEI/s
c 2 2
2n2y -2(2y)
^_(HL -HR W
12EIP
The formulas for Vc and M
c are unchanged by the motion of the top

of the pier, and are the same as for the arch with fixed ends.
If values of H L and H R be found by the formula for fixed supports,
and the value of Q corresponding to their difference computed, the
actual value of Q will be less than the computed value, and a trial
value may be used in obtaining new values of L and R until the H H ,

values of the three quantities are in fair agreement.

The above is inaccurate in neglecting possible bending at the
top of the pier. If the top of the pier in Fig. 93, be held against
rotation, a bending moment will be produced in section A-B equal
to M J>=(H L -H R )h/2. The actual bending moment in the section
A-B is that produced by the eccentricity of the resultant of the
thrusts of the arches against the pier, or M p
= Re. In order that
no tendency to rotate exist, Re should not be less than (H L-H R )h/2.
The error due to this cause may usually be made insignificant by
careful design.
Methods of analyzing arches with elastic piers may be found
in the works of Melan 1 and Hool. 2 In a paper by A. C. Janni
in the Journal of the Western Society of Engineers, May, 1913, a
graphical method of analysis is outlined, by the use of the ellipse
which may be applied to a system of arches with elastic
of elasticity,

piers. These methods are complicated and cannot be discussed

here they all involve assumptions which make it necessary to exercise
;

care in their application.

ART. 49. OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS

175. Analysis by Influence Lines. In important structures, other
conditions of loading than those mentioned in the preceding para-
graphs may be desirable, and a more complete analysis may be ob-
tained by determining the effect of individual loads at the various
points of loading, which is accomplished by using influence lines to
determine the effect of a unit load at each load point. In open span-
drel arches, when the loads are brought upon the arch ring at defi-
1
Plain and Reinforced Concrete Arches, by J. Melan, translated by D. B
Steinman, New York, 1915.
by George A. Hool, New York,
2
Reinforced Concrete Construction, Vol. Ill,
1915.
 OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS 315

nite points, by vertical walls or columns, this method may be easily

applied.
Fig.94 represents an arch 80 feet long, 16 feet rise; depth at
crown, 2 feet; at springing line, 2.8 feet. It is reinforced with 1.6
2
in. of steel per foot of arch, placed 2.5 inches from both extrados

and intrados. The loads are assumed to be applied through cross

walls at points 10 feet apart.

FIG. 94.

The arch ring is divided into ten parts on each side of the crown,
so that the ratio s/I is constant; s being the length of division and /
the moment of inertia at the middle of the division. Using the
notation of Section 167, the values of x and y for centers of the
various divisions are as given in Table XXIII.

TABLE XXIII
Points.
316 MASONRY ARCHES

Values of mL , rriLX and m Ly are now computed for unit load at each
load point and tabulated in Table XXIV.
TABLE XXIV
 OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS 317

R = 10X426. 5-40. 2X42.0

1317:2
Load at C.

c
= 10X124. 7-10. 8X42.0
3928
345. 5 _
Load at D. Kc
~893O"^
M = -10.8-2X0.20X42.0
-20-

The thrusts and moments at any given section

of the arch ring,
due to each load, may now
be found graphically (see Fig. 94). For
this purpose, draw the force polygon, laying off .K=1.0, the unit
load. From K, the value of Vc is measured vertically, K-v = VCy
for each load, and H
c horizontally, v-A, v-B, etc. The distance
M Hc/ C) measured vertically from the
middle point of the crown sec-
tion, gives the point of application of the crown thrust, k-A, k-B,
etc. The equilibrium polygon in each case consists of two lines inter-

secting on the line of action of the loads and parallel to the correspond-
ing lines in the force polygon.
The thrusts upon any section of the arch ring due to each unit
load may now be taken from the force polygon, while the moment is
found by multiplying the value of H
c for the given load by the

vertical distance from the center of section to the equilibrium polygon.

Moments and thrusts at any section due to dead or live load at
each load point may now be found by multiplying the values found
for unit load by the amount of the load. If these be tabulated and

combined, the maximum and minimum stresses may be obtained.

176. Analysis Using Arbitrary Divisions. The method of analysis
given in Art. 46 requires that the arch ring be so divided as to make
s/I constant for all divisions. This simplifies the formulas used in
obtaining values for c H , ,
M
Vc and c but makes the lengths of divi-
,

sions vary greatly where the thickness of the arch ring increases from
crown to springing line, and frequently gives very long divisions near
the ends of the arch, which may sometimes introduce considerable
error into the results.
A method of analysis based upon the principle of work in deflec-
318 MASONRY ARCHES

tion is sometimes employed. This is demonstrated by Professor

Hudson l and is applied to the analysis of the stresses in a conduit
2
by Professor French under the name of the method for indetermi-
nate structures. Practically the same formulas may be produced by
the method of Art. 46 by leaving the term s/I as a variable in the for-
mulas.
If the constant E be eliminated from Formulas (4), (5), and (6)
of Section 163, we have

and
j

Combining these with Equations (10) and (11) of the same section,
and solving we find
O
2 -
. .
(33)

(34)

'.,.. .
M=
c
--
In the same manner for a
:

2S
7

rise in
- ........
||!i
we have
--;'
(35)

temperature,

c
S\ 2
J
/ S S

and

As an illustration of the use of this method of analysis we will

1
and Statically Indeterminate Stresses, New York, 1911.
Deflections
2
American Sewage Practice, by Metcalf and Eddy, Vol. I, New York, 1914.
 OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS 319

compute the values of c H V

,c and Mc for the arch ring given in the

example of Art. 47 with the loading employed in Section 168. Fig.

95 shows the arch with divisions of equal length and the loads upon

377* 274*294*308*324*332*338*340*341* 342*

FIG. 95.

each division. Table XXV gives the coordinates of the centers of

divisions, the value of s/I for the mid-section of each division, and

TABLE XXV COORDINATES AND a/I FOR CENTERS OF DIVISION

Points.
320 MASONRY ARCHES

TABLE XXVI. MOMENT COMPUTATIONS

 CHAPTER XI
CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

ART. 50. CULVERTS

177. Types of Culverts. The term culvert is usually applied

to structures intended to provide small waterways through earth
embankments. Such structures are usually constructed according
to certain standard plans, depending upon the size of opening re-
quired. For the smaller openings, pipe culverts of vitrified clay,
plain or reinforced concrete, cast iron or corrugated iron, are fre-
quently used.
For openings larger than 24 or 30 inches in diameter, box culverts
or arch culverts of stone or brick masonry or of concrete, either plain
or reinforced are commonly employed. Concrete for this purpose
has recently been gradually replacing the older types of construction,
on account of its ease of application in most localities, and its low cost
as compared with other types of equal strength and durability.
Wooden culverts have been largely used in the past upon highway
work, but are now rapidly giving way to more permanent structures,
for, while cheaper in first cost than the other types, they are very
uneconomical on account of their rapid deterioration and high cost of
maintenance.
All culverts require walls of masonry or concrete at the ends to

prevent the possible penetration of water around the culvert, and to

sustain the bank of earth and hold it from falling into and clogging the
waterway. For small culverts, such walls are usually parallel to the
roadway they should be long enough
;
to permit the earth to stand at
a slope of about to 1 without reaching the waterway of the culvert
1i

and sufficiently high to sustain the earth fill above the culvert.
178. Area of Waterway Required. The waterway provided for a
culvert must, for safety, be sufficiently large to pass the maximum flow
of water that is likely to occur, while for economy it should be as
small as possible. There are at long intervals, in most localities,
records of storms of extraordinary character, to provide for which
would need large increase t of capacity in the culverts and add greatly
321
322 CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

to their cost, and while these unusual storms can hardly be taken into
account in the design of the structures, effort should be made to pro-
vide for any flow of water that may reasonably be anticipated. The
maximum flow of a stream depends upon a number of local conditions,
most of which are very difficult of accurate determination. Among
these are the maximum rate of rainfall, the area drained by the stream,
the shape and character of the surface drained, and the nature and
slope of the culvert channel.
The maximum rate of rainfall varies widely in different locali-
ties, the heaviest occurring over very limited areas and short periods
of time, and are therefore important only for small culverts. For
larger areas, the maximum rainfall of sufficient duration to permit
water from all parts of the tributary area to reach the culvert gives
maximum results.
The amount of water reaching the culvert
depends upon the per-
and the amount of veg-
meability of the soil, its degree of saturation,
etation. The rapidity with which water reaches the culvert from the
far portion of the watershed depends upon the slope and smoothness
of the surface and whether it is covered with vegetation. The shape
of the area to be drained is important in that it determines the
distance the water must
travel in reaching the culvert.
The quantity of water which will pass through a culvert in a given
time depends upon the smoothness of its interior surface, the dis-
turbance of flow at entrance to the culvert, and the freedom with
which the water flows away after passing the culvert. If the culvert
is so constructed that water may stand against its upper end, causing

it to discharge under pressure, its capacity will be considerably

increased.
The determination of the area of waterway required in any in-
stance isa matter of judgment, and there is no way in which it may
be accurately computed. A number of formulas have been pro-
posed for the purpose of aiding in estimating the probable quantity of
water from a given area or the size of opening required for a given
area. The formula of Professor Talbot has been used to consider-
able extent in the Middle West with good results. This formula is:
Area of waterway in feet = C'V/ (drainage area in acres) 3 in which
,

C is a coefficient depending upon local conditions. For rolling

agricultural country subject to floods at time of melting snow, and
with length of valley three or four times its width, C = J. When the
valley is longer, decrease C. If not affected by snow and with greater

lengths, C may be taken at i, or even less.

,
For steep side slopes,
C should be increased. Where the ground is steep and rocky, C
 CULVERTS 323

may vary from f to 1. Table XXVII gives roughly the sizes of

openings required for different areas, computed from the formula
of Professor Talbot.

TABLE XXVII. AREA IN SQUARE FEET OF WATERWAY

REQUIRED

Area Drained,
Acres.
324 CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

The joints should be filled with Portland cement mortar a require-

ment particularly necessary where the pipe is likely to flow full, or
under pressure, as it will prevent the water being forced out and the
earth being washed from around the pipe.
Vitrified pipes cannot safely be used where they are directly

exposed to the shocks of traffic, and many failures of such culverts

have been due to this cause. In highway work they should be pro-
tected by at least 2 feet of filling, the roadway being graded so that a
vehiclemay pass smoothly and without shock over the culvert. In
railway work a fill of about 5 feet over the culvert is usually neces-
sary. The use of vitrified pipe for railway culverts is desirable only
under favorable conditions, when danger from shocks of traffic can
be avoided, and good foundations make breakage from settlement
improbable.
The cost of vitrified pipe varies widely with tne conditions of
trade, and with the expense for freight and haulage to the site of
the work. The cost of laying the pipe depends upon local conditions
and the way the work is handled. Table XXVIII gives areas,
weights, and rough averages of costs in a number of localities in the
Middle West before the War.

TABLE XXVIII. APPROXIMATE DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS AND

COSTS OF VITRIFIED PIPE CULVERTS

Inside Diameter, Inches. . .

 CULVERTS 325

Culverts of cast-iron pipe have been used to considerable extent

in railway work for sizes from 1 to 4 feet in diameter. The present
tendency, however, is to use concrete for the larger openings, on

FIG. 96. Vitrified Pipe Culvert.

account of its relative cheapness and the occasional cracking of the

large iron pipes. Ordinary water pipe is sometimes used, but heavier
pipe made for the purpose is more commonly employed.

TABLE XXIX CONCRETE END WALLS FOR PIPE CULVERT

Diameter of Pipe Inches

326 CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

The life of a culvert of this kind

depends upon the ability of
the metal to resist rust. is much better than steel
Wrought iron
in this respect, but must be selected with special reference to its

resisting qualities. Pipes made of nearly pure iron have given good
results, although numerous failures have resulted from the use of

improper material.
Concrete Pipe Culverts. Reinforced concrete culvert pipes
are sometimes made from 18 to 48 inches in diameter, and in lengths
from 4 to 8 feet. They usually have a hoop reinforcement, as shown
in Fig. 97, passing near the interior surface at top and bottom and

FlG. 97. Concrete Culvert Pipe.

near the exterior surface at the sides, the reinforcement being bent
to circular form and the pipe made in oval form with the larger
diameter vertical. Concrete pipe is also sometimes made with a
double reinforcement, one line near each surface. Table gives XXX
dimensions recommended by the Iowa State Highway Commission
for circular pipe with double reinforcement.

TABLE XXX. CONCRETE CULVERT PIPE

Diameter,
Inches.
 CULVERTS 327

above the culvert, and the live load carried by the roadway considered
as distributed through the fill. For pipes in trenches the weight of
filling is partly borne by the sides of the trenches. A study of pres-
sures on pipes in trenches has been made by Professor Marston at
the Iowa State College, and the very interesting results published in a
bulletin of the Engineering Experiment Station of the College.
A uniform horizontal earth pressure over the whole width of a
pipe produces positive bending moments at the top and bottom sec-
tions and negative moments at the ends of the horizontal diameter
which are each equal to M
= Wd/16, where W
is the total load and

d the diameter of the pipe. The pipe must be uniformly supported

over its whole width in this case. If it is supported only at the middle,
as when laid in a flat trench, the moments at top and bottom will be
about doubled. In laying pipe the bottom of the trench should be
rounded to fit it, being cut a little deeper under the middle, so that the
bottom is free, not quite touching the soil, and letting the pipe rest
upon the soil at the sides. Depressions should also be dug for the
sockets to prevent the pipes being supported at the sockets and thus
subjected to longitudinal bending.
Pipe should be laid from the down stream end with the sockets
upstream. It is also desirable to give a slight crown to the grade of
the culvert to provide for possible settlement.
180. Box Culverts. Rectangular culverts are commonly used
for sizes too large for pipes. These may be open boxes consisting of
a slab top resting upon sidewalls, or closed boxes, in which a bottom
slab connects the bases of the side walls and distributes the load over
the foundation soil.

Stone box culverts have been extensively used in the past, but
are now being superseded by reinforced concrete; but where suitable
stone is available, they may often be found satisfactory and eco-
nomical.
The side and end walls should be built of stone at least 6 inches
thick, laid in cement mortar, and with frequent headers extending
through the wall. The walls should extend downward sufficiently
to obtain good foundations and to be safe from frost. The floor of
the culvert between the side walls should be paved with stone, unless
it is of material which will resist erosion.

The width of opening for stone box culverts is limited by the

dimensions of the cover stones available and is never more than 4 or
5 feet.The cover stones should have a thickness at least one-quarter
of thewidth of opening, and should have a bearing of about 1 foot
upon each wall.
328 CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

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 CULVERTS 329

Concrete box culverts are sometimes constructed with a reinforced

slab top resting upon side walls which may or may not be reinforced.
The design of short bridges of this type has been discussed in Chap-
ter IX. Where many culverts are to be constructed, it is common to

adopt and work out standard forms and dimensions

specific loadings
to be used. Such standards have been adopted by many railways and
State highway departments. Table XXXI shows dimensions suit-
able for ordinary highway culverts 5 to 8 feet in span, to carry the
loadings used in Section 156. The steel is to be placed 1J inches
from the lower surface of the slab.
-Closed box culverts of reinforced concrete are frequently used for
small openings, as they I
require less headroom than
1

arched openings and are

easily applied when open-
ings are too large for
convenient use of pipes. a
The stresses in such a
culvert cannot be ac-
r
curately determined on
account of the indeter-
minate character of the
loads. A load applied up-
on the top of the culvert
produces an equal upward
thrust upon the bottom of the culvert, as shown in Fig. 98, which
causes a moment tending to bend the top and bottom slabs inward
and the sides outward.
Let 6 = width of culvert;
h = height of sides;
w = uniform load per foot;
If 1= bending moment in top and bottom slabs;
M 2 = bending moment at middle of sides;
M 3 = bending moment at corners;
11 = moment of inertia of sections of top and bottom;
/2 = moment of inertia of sections of sides.
Ifwe assume the load to be uniformly distributed over the top,
the moments will be as follows :

6/37i +h/I 2
330 CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

If the sectional area of the sides be made the same as those of the
top and bottom, we have
,, wtf b/3+h

For a square opening this becomes

Mi
and

2
For sizes of culverts commonly used wb /12 may be considered
the limiting value to which the moment may approximate. The
moments in top and bottom slabs are decreased and those in the
sides increased as the ratio of height to width is lessened.
The pressure of earth against the sides of the culvert produces
moments in the top, bottom and sides of the culvert of opposite
sign to those produced by the load upon top of the culvert, and
therefore tend to reduce the effect of the top load upon the culvert.
Such pressures always exist to some extent, but are not accurately
known. assume that unit horizontal pressure, when
It is usual to

considered, about
is one-third the unit vertical pressure. The mo-
ments caused by the side pressures will always be much less than those
due to the vertical loads and not sufficient to overcome those moments.
If the side pressures be supposed to exist when the vertical loads

are not on the culvert, as may be the case with moving loads, the
sides will be subject to positive moments and need reinforcing at
the inner surfaces.
The existence of side pressures tends to increase the negative
moments at the corners, and a box culvert can act as a whole only
when the corners are reinforced sufficiently to carry these moments
without cracking at the corners.
In case the fill upon the culvert is not sufficient to distribute the
load over the whole top of the culvert, the moment will be increased.
For a concentrated load at the middle of span, the moments will be
about double those for the same total load distributed over the span.
In highway culverts which are covered only with the thickness of
the road surface, the distribution of the load may be considered as
in Art. 41. In such culverts, the live load should be increased 25
per cent to allow for impact.
When, as is sometimes the case, the corners of the culvert are not
reinforced for negative moment, the top becomes a simple beam,
resting upon the sides but not rigidly attached to them, and the sides
carry only the horizontal earth pressure as simple beams. Such
 CULVERTS 331

construction is shown in Fig. 99, which represents a standard section

for a highway culvert de-
signed to carry a 20-ton
auto truck. The section %' round bars, 7"c-c.
in Fig. 98 is designed for
the same loading.
181. Arch Culverts.
For locations where suf- 9
headroom avail-
^-^ round bars, 7*c-c.
ficient is

able, arch culverts are

often preferable to those
with flat top. Very pleas-
ing and artistic effects

may frequently be ob-

FIG. 99. Section for Highway Culvert.
tained by careful design
of arches for such use. Under fills of considerable height, arch
commonly be more
culverts will
economical to construct than
slab top culverts. Fig. 100
shows a section for a standard
highway culvert for use under
automobile traffic.

The
analysis of stresses in
arch culverts may be made in
the same manner as is given for
arch bridges in Chapter X.
F IG 100
The horizontal earth pressures
on the sides of the arch are
usually taken as one-third of the vertical pressures at the same
point. These pressures are of greater relative importance than in

10

FIG. 101. Concrete Barrel Culvert.

332 CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

bridges of longer span. For short spans, plain concrete is com-

monly employed, while for spans greater than about 8 feet, rein-
forcement is usually introduced for greater security, although not
necessary to carry moments.

ART. 51. CONDUITS

182. Types of Conduits. Conduits for carrying water may be de-

signed either for gravity flow or for internal pressure. Brick masonry
was formerly largely used in the construction of gravity conduits,
particularly for larger sewers, but is now being replaced for the most
part by the use of concrete. For conduits to carry water under
pressure, reinforced concrete or steel pipe is usually employed.
A
conduit consists essentially of two parts, the invert, which forms
the channel for the water, and the top, usually arched, which covers
the channel and carries the weight of earth or other loads which may
come upon it. The shape of the invert depends upon the require-
ments of the service. In sewers, special forms of invert are frequently
needed to prevent deposits at times of minimum flow. The designs
of sections for various uses may be found in works upon water supply,

irrigation, and sewerage.

Sewage may sometimes cause disintegration of concrete, and the
inverts of conduits intended to carry sewage are therefore commonly
lined with vitrified brick a method particularly desirable where the
sewage is stale or impregnated with chemicals from manufacturing
plants. In conduits carrying water for irrigation, injury to concrete
may result from alkalis in the soil unless special precautions are
taken.
The
inverts of carefully constructed concrete conduits usually
resistthe abrasion of flowing water fully as well as those with brick
or stone lining such resistance depending upon the alignment of
the conduit and the amount of sediment carried by the water. With
clearwater and an undisturbed flow, very high velocities may pro-
duce no appreciable damage, while the impact caused by changes in
the direction of flow cause rapid wear, particularly when sand and
gravel are carried by the stream.
No conduit is absolutely water-tight, and careful attention should
always be given to reducing leakages to a minimum. Usually the
most serious leakage occurs at joints where one section joins another,
although there will generally be some porous spots through which
small -quantities of water may pass. The leakage may commonly
be reduced to very small proportions by careful design and construe-
 CONDUITS 333

tion, reinforcing so as to prevent cracks and using dense and uniform

mixtures of concrete. This subject is discussed in Art. 23.
Conduits of small size are sometimes made rectangular in section
and designed same manner as rectangular culverts. Larger
in the
conduits are usually of curved form with arched tops.
183. Design of Gravity Conduits. After determining the size
and general shape of conduit required for a given service, the design
depends upon the character of the soil upon which it is to be placed
and the external loads that it must carry. When the invert rests upon
a firm foundation, capable of supporting the structure without sen-
sible yielding, the invert may be considered as fixed in position and
the arch may be designed with ends fixed upon the sides of the invert.
The design of such arches may be made by the ordinary method used

Horseshoe section. Semi-elliptical section.

FIG. 102. Typical Sewer Sections.

for arch bridges or culverts.Actual loads, in so far as they can be

determined, should be used in such designs. Where the loads are
light, such conduits may often be built of plain concrete; usually,
however, it is preferable to reinforce arches of more than 4 or 5 feet
span. Fig. 102 shows typical forms of standard sewer conduits.
The horizontal earth pressure to which the side of a conduit may
be exposed cannot be accurately determined. It is customary to
use Rankine's minimum value,

1 sin
unit horizontal pressure = w
</>

l+sin0'

in which w is the unit vertical pressure and <t> is the angle of friction
of the earth. Taking = 30 for ordinary earth, this makes the unit
horizontal pressure at any point equal to one-third of the unit vertical
334 CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

pressure at the same point. In some instances it may be necessary

to consider the possible effect of variations in horizontal pressures.

FIG. 103.

As the tendency of such a structure under vertical loading is to deflect

outward upon the sides, it is reasonable to assume that at least this
minimum horizontal pressure may always be depended upon, or a
CONDUITS 335
336 CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

greater passive pressure if needed. In case of soft, wet earth, the

horizontal pressure will be much greater, reaching a maximum when it
is and exerts normal pressure at all points.
practically fluid
Conduits to be supported upon compressible soil are often designed
to act as a whole, assuming that all parts of the structure, including
the invert, are equally subject to distortion under the loads. Fig.
103 represents a half-section of a conduit of this character. If we
assume the middle of the invert, m, to be fixed in position, the mo-
ments and thrusts in a slice of the conduit 1 foot thick may be found
in the manner used Chapter X. The axis of the
for the elastic arch in
conduit ring is divided into lengths as shown. The lengths of the
divisions, coordinates of the centers of divisions with reference to the
crown, and thicknesses of concrete at centers of division, are given in
Table XXXIII.
The loads given (Table XXXII), are those due to the pressure of
20 feet of earth above the crown of the arch. The weight of the
earth is taken at 100 pounds per cubic foot, and the intensity of the
horizontal earth pressure at one-third that of the vertical pressure at
the same point. In computing the loads, the unit pressures at the
middle of the extrados of the division are considered as acting upon
areas equal to the horizontal and vertical projections of the extrados
of the divisions. The upward pressures upon the base are considered
as acting vertically and uniformly distributed horizontally. The
computations of loads and their moments about the centers of divi-
sion are shown in Table XXXII.
The moment and thrust at the crown section, a, may be obtained
by the use of the formulas of Section 176. As the loading is sym-
metrical about the crown, mL and m R are equal, Vc = 0, and Formulas
(33) and (35) of Section 176 become

and

Table XXXIII. gives the computation of the terms needed in

these formulas. As the sections are rectangular, no reinforcement
3
being considered in the computations, the value s/t may be used
in the formulas in place of s/I.
 CONDUITS 337

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t^* ^^
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338 CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

Substituting in the formulas, we have

4841440X14.48-621536X71.43
2
=6710 pounds.
617X14.48-(71.43)

M c 9830

The load diagram is now drawn as shown, and the equilibrium

polygon (or line of resistance) constructed, beginning with H c at a

distance, e=1.46 feet, above the middle of the crown section.

The thrusts acting upon the ends of divisions as found from the
load diagram may be resolved into normal thrusts and shears as
shown by the broken lines. These are tabulated in Table XXXIV.
The moments at the centers of sections at the end of divisions may be
obtained by multiplying the normal thrust upon the section by the
distance from the center of section to the point at which the equilib-
rium polygon cuts the section, or they may be computed by Formula
10 of Section 163, which becomes for symmetrical loading

M = M +H y-m.
c c

Table XXXIV, gives the thrusts and moments with the resulting
stresses at the extrados and intrados of the sections. These results
show that there are tensions at the intrados of the crown section and
in the invert, and at the extrados of sections /, g, and h which must be
cared for by reinforcement. This reinforcement should be sufficient
to carry the tensions in the section without materially changing the
position of its neutral axis. or the compression upon the concrete.
To do this, the stress in the steel should be limited to about fifteen
times that shown for the rectangular section, or about 6000 lb./in. 2
at sections a and g and 9000 lb./in.2 at ra. Computing the total
tension in these sections, we find that an area of about 2 in. 2 of steel
2
per foot of length is required at a and g and about 4 in. at ra. One-
inch square bars spaced 6 inches apart near the intrados at sections
a and then crossing to the extrados at e and extending along the
b,
extrados to section i, with If -inch square bars spaced 6 inches apart

near the intrados of the invert would answer the requirement.

The maximum shear occurs at section j, the unit shear being about
50 lb./in. 2 which is not excessive.
,
 CONDUITS 339

CQ

3
p
340 CULVERTS AND CONDUITS

It seems probable that this analysis represents the conditions

giving the maximum stresses possible in the structure. For a depth

as great as 20 feet, the full pressure of the earth would probably not
be borne by the structure. For greater depths, these pressures
need not be increased, unless the earth is unstable.
The deflection of the conduit under the loads is outward upon the
sides, and, if the earth is well packed around the sides of the conduit
the earth will resist that deflection and the horizontal earth pres-
sures will probably be greater than those used in the analysis. This
will diminish the bending moments at all points and reduce the need
for reinforcement.
Longitudinal reinforcement is needed to prevent cracking of the

concrete. Usually J-inch bars, 12 inches apart, are sufficient for

this purpose. Where the support of the soil under the conduit may
not be uniform, it is desirable to guard against longitudinal deflection
by the use of heavier reinforcement near the bases of the side walls.
187. Pressure Conduits. Conduits to carry water under pressure
are usually made of circular or oval form. The stresses caused by
internal pressure are all tensile and should be taken wholly by the
steel reinforcement.

Let P = the internal pressure per square inch;

D = the internal diameter of the conduit in inches;
/s = the stress in the steel;
As = the area of steel per inch of length.

Then we have, A s = PD/2fs Low values of fs are desirable in

.

order to minimize the possibility of cracks in the concrete. Satis-

factory results have been obtained in a number of instances with
stressesfrom 10,000 to 15,000 pounds per square inch. The likeli-
hood be reduced by using reinforcement giving me-
of cracks will
chanical bond, such as expanded metal, diagonal mesh or deformed
bar, rather close spaced.
The thickness of concrete, except for small conduits under light
pressure, should be at least 6 inches. When the pressure is consider-
able, it may be possible to reduce the possible leakage by use of a
greater thickness with double lines of reinforcement and low tension
in the steel.
Pressure conduits must be capable, like gravity conduits, of
carrying any exterior loads which may come upon them when empty.
They may be analyzed in the same manner as pipes or gravity con-
duits for exterior loadings.
Longitudinal reinforcement is required in conduits to prevent
 CONDUITS 341

cracking due to changes in temperature and shrinkage of the concrete.

When the conduit is divided into sections by use of expansion joints,
light reinforcement may be sufficient between joints, although closer
spacing is desirable than required for longitudinal reinforcement
is

in bridges or culverts. When prevention of leakage is important,

and the probable changes in temperature not too great, continuous
closely spaced longitudinal reinforcement may give better results
than the use of expansion joints.
 CHAPTER XH
FOUNDATIONS
ART. 52. FOUNDATION MATERIALS

185. Examination of Soil. The stability of any structure requires

that be adequately supported by the ground upon which it rests,
it

hence the nature of the soil upon which the structure is to be placed
is the first subject for consideration in designing a foundation, and the

local conditions under the surface of the ground must be determined.

Numerous instances might be cited of the failure of structures due to
lack of adequate investigation of soil conditions, and every effort
should be made to obtain an accurate knowledge of the underlying
strata.
For shallow foundations, open excavations may be made to a depth
somewhat greater than that of the substructure, which will give the
advantage of permitting the examination of the soil through and into
which the substructure must be built and observing its condition.
When the excavation is in wet material, pumping may be required
to keep down the water and perhaps sheeting to prevent the sides
caving in an expensive procedure if excavating is carried to con-
considerable depth.
Soundings are sometimes made with a rod, or small pipe about
an inch in diameter, which is driven into the ground with a maul.
When the material near the surface is soft, the depth to rock or other
hard material may usually be determined in this manner if it is not
more than 20 or 30 feet. Soundings serve to indicate whether resist-
ance increases or decreases, and the depth at which hard material
stops further progress. A
number of soundings are usually neces-
sary. A sunken log or boulder may stop the rod, and mistakes in
interpreting the results of such soundings are easily made.
Borings with earth augers may be easily made for small depths
with good results. Ordinary wood augers about 2 inches in diameter
have also been used for this purpose, borings 100 feet deep having
been made in this manner, though for ordinary work to more moderate
depths, the use of earth augers of larger diameters give better deter-
342
 FOUNDATION MATERIALS 343

minations. An auger 6 inches in diameter may readily be driven to a

depth 25 or
of 30 feet by two men with levers. It is held in vertical
position by pipes or rods in sections, which may be coupled together
as the hole becomes deeper, and is turned by hand with handles at the

top 2 to 4 feet long, which are adjustable in position on the rods. The
auger is screwed into the soil sufficiently to fill it with earth, and is
then brought to the surface and the material examined, giving a good
determination of the character of the soil at any depth, but not show-
ing its degree of compactness. When the hole passes through material
which will not retain its shape, a casing somewhat larger than the

auger driven, through which the boring may be done.

is When the
depth to which the boring must extend is considerable, a block and
fall, supported by a tripod, may be used to draw the auger from the
hole.
Washborings may be rapidly driven through soft soil or clay by
sinking a casing, with a small pipe or hollow rod inside which carries
a jet of water at its lower end. The jet cuts the soil at the bottom
and brings up the excavated material through the annular space
between the jet pipe and casing. It is usual also to have the bottom
of the inside pipe fitted with a bit or chisel, which may aid in cutting
into hard material. Both jet pipe and casing are rotated as they
descend. When hard material is met, it may be necessary to cut it
with the bit by churning the inside pipe. The bottom of the casing
is also sometimes flared slightly and fitted with teeth for cutting.

When the depth is not great and only a small amount of work is
to be done, ordinary water pipe about 2 inches in diameter is sunk as
a casing, a smaller pipe f-inch in diameter being used inside. Hand
appliances may be used in handling these pipes, a tripod with block
and fall, levers for turning the pipes, and a hand pump for applying

pressure to the jet. On more important work hollow rods for holding
the jet and bits, special casings, and pipes with flush joints are
necessary. These may be controlled by hand, or machine outfits
similar to those used in drilling wells may be employed.
Examination of the materials brought up by the water shows the
nature of the underlying strata. It does not, however, reveal the
moisture or compactness of the material. It may therefore be desir-
able to obtain cores of the materials as they occur at certain points in
the test holes, which may be done by substituting a cylinder for the
jet and bit upon the end of the rod and pressing or screwing the cylin-
der into the soil at the bottom of the hole until it is filled with a
sample of the material, which is then drawn to the surface and
examined. This may sometimes prevent mistakes in judging of
344 FOUNDATIONS

subsurface conditions where the wet method of excavation is em-

ployed.
Core drills are used in testing rock strata. These consist of hollow
circular bits, which are rotated so as to cut an annular channel into
the rock, leaving a circular core on the inside of the core barrel to
which the bit is attached. This core is removed at intervals for
examination, and furnishes definite information concerning the
character of the material. The core barrel is attached to hollow rods
through which water may be supplied to cool the bit.
Several types of bits are used for this purpose in some the cutting
;

edge is formed of black diamonds or bort; in others, chilled shot are

used under a hollow soft steel bit; or steel bits with teeth may be
employed. When diamond drills are used, the cores are commonly
from 2 inches in diameter; the other types are usually somewhat
1 to

larger, varying from 2 to 4 inches in diameter.

Chopping bits are often used in connection with core drills, cores
being taken at intervals and the intermediate cutting being done
by the chopping drills. In any such work, complete drilling machines
are necessary and they should be operated by men experienced in the
work.
186. Bearing Capacity of Soils. Definite values of bearing
capacity for various soils cannot be stated with accuracy, because
of the variations in character and condition of the same kind of
soils and the consequent difficulty in classifying them. The ability
of the soil to sustain loads depends not only upon its character, but
also upon the amount of water it contains and the degree to which it
is confined in position. The location and drainage of the foundation
as well as the character of the soil must therefore be considered in
determining its bearing capacity.
Solid rock makes the best and most substantial foundation, and
usually is capable of carrying any load that the masonry may bring
upon it. The loose and decayed portions of the rock upon its surface
need to be cut away, and the surface should be trimmed so that there
will be no tendency for the structure to slip upon it.

Clay soils vary widely in character. They may be found in any

condition from soft, wet clay, which will squeeze out laterally under
light pressure, to hard, indurated clays capable of bearing heavy
foundations without yielding. The supporting power is mainly
dependent upon the amount of moisture contained in the clay. The
tendency of clay to retain water which it may absorb and to soften
as the amount of water increases is its most important property.
Clays differ considerably in the readiness with which they absorb
 FOUNDATION MATERIALS 345

water. Compact, hard clays may by proper drainage usually be kept

dry and capable of bearing heavy loads, frequently 8 to 10 tons per
square foot, while wet clay may not safely carry more than 1 ton per
square foot.
Sand or and sand makes a good foundation when confined
gravel
laterally so that there is no danger of it being washed out, compact

gravel and sand being capable of carrying heavy loads without sen-
sible settlement. Water will not soften it, and it is but slightly
affected by frost. Loads of 8 or 10 tons per square foot seem to be
conservative for such material under favorable conditions. Fine
sand when saturated becomes soft and mushy and is easily dis-
placed; it must be confined laterally to form a good foundation.
Dry clean sand may carry loads of 2 to 4 tons per square foot, and
when cemented with clay and protected from water it may safely
carry loads of 4 to 6 tons per square foot.
When the top soil is loam or made land, foundations should go
through such materials to natural subsoil beneath.
The thickness of the layer of material in which the foundation is
placed and the nature of underlying strata are important factors in
determining the supporting power, as well as the character of the
foundation material itself. Foundations in hard clay which is soft
underneath may sometimes safely carry 1 J or 2 tons per square foot.
For the foundations of buildings, local conditions usually lead to
a standard practice, and the building codes of the various cities are
designed to insure safety under the particular circumstances of each
place.
The depth of the foundation below the surface of the ground is

important in plastic material, the weight of the earth being relied

upon to confine the material, and prevent it squeezing out and lifting
the surrounding area. Corthell in his "Allowable Pressure on Deep
Foundations" has cited a large number of instances showing working
loads upon foundations under varying conditions.
The pressures allowed upon foundations by the specifications of
various authorities differ quite widely. The values in Table XXXV
represent the range of maximum pressures commonly given.
The character of the structure to be carried by a foundation may
frequently have an influence upon the choice of a limiting value for
the bearing capacity. Where a slight settlement in the foundation
may be serious in its effect upon the structure, very conservative
pressures should be adopted.
187. Tests for Bearing Capacity. Direct tests of the capacity of
the soil to support the loads coming upon a foundation are frequently
346 FOUNDATIONS

desirable, they should be supplemental to the examination of the

site and cannot replace such examination. They are intended to give
a more accurate idea of the actual bearing capacity than can be
derived from observation of the material upon which the foundation
is to be placed and its underlying strata, and should therefore be

made in the excavation at the level upon which it is proposed to place

the base of the foundation.

TABLE XXXV. SAFE BEARING CAPACITIES OF SOILS

Material,
 SPREAD FOUNDATIONS 347

careful observations of the character of the materials underlying

the foundation, give a basis upon which to form a judgment of safe
bearing capacity.

ART. 53. SPREAD FOUNDATIONS

188. Distribution of Loads. When bedrock is at considerable

depth, it frequently becomes necessary to spread foundations over
large areas near the surface of the ground by the use of footings at the
bases of columns or walls. The method to be employed in such work
depends upon the area of soil required to support the loads and the
extent of the footings necessary beyond the bases of the walls or
columns. When the extensions are small, masonry footings may
often be employed to advantage, and this is the most common type
of foundations for light buildings upon firm soil. When footings
must extend to greater distances beyond the bases of the walls or
piers, grillage or reinforced concrete footings occupy less space and
are more economical.
In foundations of this type some settlement is usually to be ex-
pected, and the object should be to make this settlement as small and
as uniform as possible. The loads to be carried by the different
parts of the foundation should be ascertained and the footings so
proportioned as to bring uniform pressure upon the soil under the
foundation. Inequalities in the settlement of the foundations of
buildings are apt to crack the walls, injuring the appearance when
not sufficient to impair the stability of the structure. To pro-
duce uniform pressure it is necessary that the center of pressure
of the load pass through the center of area of the base of the
foundation.
In determining the loads which may come upon the footings in the
foundation of a building, the dead loads and live loads are separately
computed. The dead load is always upon the foundation,
entire

may vary, and only such portion as may reasonably

while the live load
be assumed usually to exist should be used in estimating the load
distribution upon the footings, which will depend upon the character
of the building. In hotels, office buildings, etc., while the floors of
each portion should be designed to carry the maximum live load which
could come upon it, only a small percentage of the total of this live
load can reach the footings at once, and it is common to neglect it
altogether. In churches, theaters, etc., the maximum floor loads are
more apt to occur, and a larger percentage should be used in design-
ing the foundations. The building codes of the various cities com-
348 FOUNDATIONS

monly prescribe the loads to be used in designing foundations for

buildings.
When the exterior walls of a building carry much of itsweight, the
center of pressure should be somewhat inside the center of the footing,
thus avoiding any tendency to tip outward and crack the walls of
the structure; a tendency to tip inward will be resisted by the interior
walls and floors. The rigid connection of a lightly loaded interior
wall with a heavily loaded exterior one often causes an eccentricity
of loading in the foundation which produces serious cracks. When a
series of openings one above the other through the wall of a building
cause the loads to be brought to the foundation through piers between
the openings, the footings should be disconnected and properly cen-
tered for each pier, unless the foundation has sufficient stiffness in
itself to distribute the loads over its whole base. The walls of many
buildings are cracked over the openings by the use of continuous
foundations in such cases.
189. Masonry Footings. For light loads, footings of brick or
stone masonry or of concrete are commonly employed. Where
suitable stone is available, stone
masonry is often the most economi-
cal, but concrete is now usually
preferred. Brick footings are less
desirable on account of the likeli-
hood of the deterioration of the
bricks when used under ground.
In placing stone footings, the
stones must be carefully bedded
so as to bear evenly upon the
foundation soil. The projection
of the footing, when of consider-
FIG. 104.
able extent, is stepped off as shown
in Fig. 104. The width of a step should not ordinarily be greater
than two-thirds of the height of the course, and a stone should not
project more than one-third of its length beyond the course above.
Footing stones under walls carrying heavy loads should be large and
roughly squared, and should be set in a thick bed of mortar to
give even bearing upon the soil beneath.
Plain concrete footings are usually stepped off in the same manner.
As the concrete footing is a monolithic structure and capable of
carrying small tensile stresses, the projecting step may be considered
as a cantilever carrying the upward thrust of the soil upon its lower
surface.
 SPREAD FOUNDATIONS 349

Let i =the thickness of the footing at any point;

o = the projection of the footing beyond the point where the

thickness is t\

p = the pressure in pounds per square foot on the bottom of

the footing;
/ = unit stress upon the concrete due to bending.

Then the allowable projection for any given thickness is

Thus, if the safe tension on the concrete to be 60 lb./in. 2

we assume ,

and the pressure upon the foundation soil as 2 tons per square foot,
o = .85tj or the projection should not be greater than .85 of its thick-
ness.
The projections for cut stone in which each stone is the full height
of the course may be estimated by the above formula, provided the
stones be considered as firmly held in place under the wall.
may
When placed upon compressible soil, however, the pressure will not
be uniformly distributed over the base of the stone, and there is like-
lihood of tipping the block if the projection is too great.
Under brick walls, a bed of concrete is usually employed at the
base and the brickwork stepped off on top of this to give the required
extensions. The offsets in such work should not be more than three-
quarters of their heights, which may be composed of two courses of
brick.
190. Grillage Foundations. When a foundation must be spread
over an area which islarge compared to that of the column or wall
resting upon it, a masonry footing becomes uneconomical and a foot-
ing possessing greater transverse strength and requiring less height
becomes desirable. For such foundations, grillages of timber or
steel or reinforced concrete slabs are commonly employed.
Steel I-beam grillages are now very frequently used under heavy
buildings. The construction of foundations of this type was begun
in Chicago about 1880. In founding heavy buildings upon the clay
subsoil, it was necessary to spread the footings over considerable
areas, and room was not available for masonry footings, as the sub-
soil was soft at greater depths. A footing consisting of several layers
of old steel rails encased in concrete was devised and used for some
time. This was soon replaced by I-beams of sufficient depth to
carry the loads in a single layer, thus saving space and giving better
economy in the use of the metal.
A grillage footing as applied to the foundation of a single column is
350 FOUNDATIONS

shown in Fig. 105. Such foundations rest upon a bed of concrete

,
and are enclosed by a filling and
surfacing of concrete for the pro-
tection of the steel. Under heavy
loads, bed of concrete is
the
usually about 12 inches thick and
the protective coating from 3 to
6 inches thick. The beams
should be held by spacers at least
3 inches apart in the clear in
order to permit filling the spaces
with concrete. Under a contin-
uous wall, a block of plain con-
crete is usually employed instead
of the upper series of I-beams.
In designing a grillage footing,
the loads to be carried and the
areas of the walls or piers are
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
ji| |?r
known and the grillage must be
"-
^-. .; .v^" *.*''.:**'''''? .-** 'vv-'f so placed as to bring the center of
FIG. 105. itsarea in the line of action of the
resultant load. The total load

may be considered as distributed uniformly over the base, giving

uniform upward pressure upon the beams, while the downward

<-2.75-r* 10.5 4.25

3000 OO I b. 400000. 1 b.

3 -*
r F 2.5

FIG. 106.
 SPREAD FOUNDATIONS 351

thrust of a pier is taken as uniformly distributed over its section.

Usually a grillage is centered under each column or wall, proportioned

to the load to be carried, bat two or more loads may be carried by a
single grillage when it seems desirable.
shows a footing supporting two piers each 2.5 feet square,
Fig. 106
one carrying a load of 300,000 pounds and the other 400,000 pounds,
spaced 10.5 feet between centers. The soil pressure is limited to
4000 lb./ft.2 and an area of 175 ft. 2 is required. If this area be
assumed as 17.5 feet by 10 feet as the center of gravity of the loads is
4.5 feet from the center of the pier carrying the larger load, the piers
will occupy the positions shown, when the pressure is uniform upon
the soil.

The upper tier of beams under the heavier load carries 400,000

pounds distributed over 2.5 feet at the middle acting downward on its
upper surface, and the same load distributed uniformly over the
length of 10 feet, acting upward on its lower surface. The maximum
moment will be at the mid-section and will be

M = 200000 X 5/2 - 200000 X .625 = 375000 Ib.-f t.

2
If the allowable unit stress in the steel is 16,000 lb./in. ,

7/6 = 375000X12/16000 = 281

2
in. ,
and we might use

2 24-in. 80 Ib. I-beams, I/e 173.9 each, flange 7 in. wide

2 20-in. 80 Ib. I-beams, I/e 146.6 each, flange 7 in. wide
3 18-in. 60 Ib. I-beams, I/e 93.5 each, flange 6.1 in. wide

The 20-inch beams require concrete than the 24-inch, and less
less
steel than the 18-inch and may be used, although the spacing is
rather wide. The flanges are spaced 10 inches apart and 3 inches
inside the block of concrete.
Under the load of 300,000 pounds, I/e should be 210 in.3 and ,

two 20-inch 65-pound I-beams may be used.

The lower tier of beams carries two loads of 400,000 and 300,000
pounds respectively, acting downward upon its upper surface, each
distributed over 2.5 feet as shown, and a load of 4000 pounds per
square foot uniformly distributed over its lower surface. There
are sections of maximum moment under each load and at some point
between them. These sections are where the shear passes through
zero. Let y = distance from end of beam to section. Under the
heavier load, the shear is
352 FOUNDATIONS

-3)=0, and2/=4.
Then
Ib.-ft.

For the mid-section, 4000 XKty- 400, 000 = 0, and y = W.

Then
M = 4000X10X10X10/2-400000(10-4.25) = -300000 Ib.-ft.

The greatest moment is 300,000 Ib.-ft. or 3,600,000 lb.-in., and the

3,600,000/16,000 = 225
2
required I/e is in.

Eleven 6-in. 12.25-pound I-beams, 7/e = 21.8 each, flange 3.33

inches wide, clearance 8.4 inches may be used. Three or four
additional beams may be introduced if thought desirable to reduce
the clearance. If this is not done, light transverse reinforcement
might be placed in the concrete covering the beams.
The moments might be somewhat decreased and the positive and
negative moments made more nearly equal by making the foundation
narrower upon the end carrying the smaller load and widening the
other end. The same steel area would then be needed at both ends
and the spaces between the beams would widen from one end to the
other.
It may frequently be convenient to carry three or more piers or
columns upon one grillage. In such a design, the line of action of the
resultant of all the loadsmust pass through the center of area of the
grillage. Two
loads are usually carried upon one set of the upper tier
of beams, which is arranged to give uniform loading to the tier below
at right angles to it.
Timber grillages may be employed where the footing is so located
as to be continually wet. They are also commonly used for tem-
porary footings which are to be removed in a comparatively short
time. These foundations are usually constructed by placing a
layer of 2-inch planks on the bed to be occupied by the footing and
across these one or more series of timbers in the same manner that
the I-beams are used in the steel grillages. The timbers must be
capable of carrying the bending moments due to transmitting the
loads from the walls or piers to the soil upon which the footing rests.
On top of the grillage a floor, usually of 3-inch plank, is placed to
carry the base of the masonry. All timber in such foundations must
be kept below low water and the spaces between the timbers should
be filled with sand or broken stone.
191. Reinforced Concrete Footings. Reinforced concrete slabs
 SPREAD FOUNDATIONS 353

are ordinarily used as footings for the distribution of loads in spread

foundations. When used under walls, these consist of a cantilever
projecting on each side of the wall; the determination of thickness and
amount of reinforcement is made as for a simple cantilever. When
used under columns or piers, the load may be transmitted to the slab
through beams, or flat slabs with two-way or four-way reinforcement
may be employed.
When beams are used, the moments may be computed by the
methods used for I-beam grillages and reinforced concrete beams and
slabs with one-way reinforcement designed to resist these moments in
the usual manner. If monolithic, the maximum
the construction is

stresses occur in the sections where the slabs join the beams and in
the beams where they join the base of the pier. The stresses in
such foundations may be ac-
curately computed in so far as
the loads are known, and they
are not subject to the assump-
tions required in the flat-slab

computations. Usually these

footings are cheaper in cost of
materials than flat-slab foot-
but require more form
B
ings,
work in construction.
In a flat-slab footing with
two-way reinforcement, the
maximum moment in the slab
occurs in the sections through
the face of the pier. In the
footing shown in Fig. 107, it
is assumed that the section
through each face carries the
moment between that face and
the side of the footing. Thus,
the moment of the upward FIG. 107.
pressures on the area A BCD
is supposed to be borne by the section C-D. These moments
are not uniformly distributed over the section, but must be
greater in the portion between C and D than in its ends. From
experiments made at the University of Illinois, Professor Talbot 1
concludes that "For footings having projections of ordinary dimen-
sions, the critical section for the bending moment for one direction
1
Bulletin No. 67, Engineering Experiment
Station, Univ. of 111.
354 FOUNDATIONS

(which in two-way reinforced concrete footings is to be resisted by one

set of bars)may be taken to be at a vertical section passing through
the face of the pier. In calculating this moment, all the upward
load on the rectangle lying between a face of the pier and the edge of
the footing is considered to act at a center of pressure located at a
point halfway out from the pier, and half of the upward load on the
two corner squaresis considered to act at a center of pressure located

at a point six-tenths of the width of the projection from the given

section.
"With two-way reinforcement evenly spaced over the footing, it
seems that the tensile stress is approximately the same in bars lying
within a space somewhat greater than the width of the pier and that
there is also considerable stress in the bars which lie near the edges of
the footing. For intermediate bars, stresses intermediate in amount
will be developed. For footings having two-way reinforcement
spaced uniformly over the footing, the method proposed, for deter-
mining the maximum tensile stress in the reinforcing bars, is to use in
the calculation of resisting moment at a section at the face of the
pier the area of all the bars which lie within a width of footing equal
to the width of pier plus twice the thickness of footing, plus half the
remaining distance on each side to the edge of the footing. This
method gives results in keeping with the results of tests. When the
spacing through the middle of the width of the footing is closer, or
even when the bars are concentrated in the middle portion, the same
method may be applied without serious error. Enough reinforcement
should be placed in the outer portion to prevent the concentration
and to provide for other distribution
of tension cracks in the concrete
stresses.
"The method for calculating maximum bond stress in column
footings having two-way reinforcement evenly spaced, or spaced
as noted in the preceding paragraph, is to use the ordinary bond-stress
formula, and to consider the circumference of all the bars which were
used in the calculation of tensile stress, and to take for the external
shear that amount of upward pressure or load which was used in the
calculation of the bending moment at the given section."
Example. A column 2 feet square is to carry a load of 300,000
pounds on soil that may safely carry 3000 pounds per square foot.
It is required to design a square footing with two-way reinforcement,

using concrete of 2000 pounds compressive strength and unit stress

of 16,000 lb./in. 2 upon the steel.

The required area of footing is 300000/3000 = 100 square feet. A

base 10 feet square will be used.
 SPREAD FOUNDATIONS 355

The thickness of footing required for shear at base of column is

300000-4X3000 =
25 inches.
4X24X120
Using Talbot's rule, the moment of the load upon DCEF (Fig.
=
107) is 2X4X3000X2X12 576000 in.-lb.; that of the loads DFB
and ACE is 4X4X3000X2.4X12= 1382400 in.-lb.
Total, M 576000 + 1382400 =1958400 in.-lb.
=
The effective width of section is 2+2.1X2+1.9 = 8.0 feet.
The depth required for moment is (Formula (9) Chapter VI)

If we use the depth of 25 inches,

Jf 1958400 2
*
=
fsjd 16000 X. 875X25

Nineteen f-inch bars in the width of 8 feet gives an area of 5.8 in. 2
and a spacing of about 5 inches. Four additional bars or 23 in all
should be used in the full width of 10 feet.
The maximum shear is equal to the load upon the area ABDC,
300000-4X3000 =
j 72000 pounds,

and the bond stress is

= V = 72000
=
S^ 19X1.96X.875X25
This is rather high for plain bars, but deformed bars may be used.

According to Talbot's rules, the shear for diagonal tension may

be computed on a section distant the depth of footing from the base
of the pier, which will give a shear

F = [(10) 2 -(2+2X2.1) 2 ]3000 = 184680 pounds,

and a unit shear

v=184680/[4(24-2x25)X.875X25] = 291b./in.
2

and no diagonal tension reinforcement is necessary.

The volume of concrete in the above footing may be decreased by

widening the base of the pier or placing a block of concrete under it

as shown in Fig. 108. If a step 6 inches wide be used, making the

block 3 feet square, the depth of footing required is found to be 16

356 FOUNDATIONS

inches. Reinforcement for diagonal tension would be required

for thisdepth but by increasing it to 17 inches, the shear may be so
reduced as to make this unnecessary. This change would decrease
the volume of concrete required by about 30 per cent and increase
the weight of steel by 20 to 25 per cent.
Four-way Reinforcement. When a four-way reinforcement is
used, each set of bars is supposed to carry an equal share of the mo-
ment. As the length of the diagonal bars are not the same as those
parallel to the sides of the footing, this supposition is only approxi-

JL2.

jl

FIG. 108. FIG. 109.

mately correct, but in the absence of more definite information con-

cerning the distribution of stress it may be used in design.
If a four-way reinforcement be used in the example already

given, as shown in Fig. 109, the depth required for shear at the
base of the pier will be as before 25 inches. The moment of the
,

upward thrust upon the area A BCD about the section CD is, as
before, 1,958,400 in.-lb. If the width of section be supposed to

carry all ofthe compression due to this moment, the depth of section
required will be

= 28 inches.
108X24
 SPREAD FOUNDATIONS 357

The depth to the steel will be made 28 inches at the base of the pier
and slope to 6 inches at the edges of the slab, thus giving greater
depth than necessary at all intermediate points.
~
s
M ___
1958400 2
fsjd 16000 X. 875X28

Sixteen ^e-inch square bars may be used. The maximum bond

stress will be
V 72000 _7A1K/- 2
"Z5&"16X2.5X. 875X28"
Eight bars will be placed parallel to the edge of the footing and

eight on the diagonal in each direction; they may cover a greater

width than the base of the pier, and will be spaced 5 inches apart,
thus making each band 3 feet wide and covering the whole area in
a satisfactory manner.
The method for diagonal tension in a slab of this form has not
been satisfactorily worked out. If we apply the method proposed
by Professor Talbot for slabs with flat-top surface, we have, on a
section distant 28 inches from the base of the pier,

V = [(10) 2 - (6.67) 2 ]3000 = 166600 pounds,

and
166600
y=
4X80X. 875X15. 2
= 39
Qn m2
lb '//. '
'

and no diagonal tension reinforcement is necessary. As the section

to resist diagonal tension is increased by the slope of the top surface
of the beam, it seems reasonable to employ the [method in this
instance.
Various modifications of these forms of footing are often employed,
depending upon the same principles in design, but varied to suit
special needs or to secure greater economy in the use of materials.
Ribs may sometimes be used to advantage in distributing the loads
upon the slab.
Cantilever Foundations. When it is necessary to carry the side
walls or wall columns of buildings upon footings which cannot pro-

ject beyond the face of the wall on the outside, cantilever footings
are often employed, wherein the wall columns rest upon one arm of a
cantilever beam, the other arm of which carries an interior column,
the cantilever being so proportioned as to center the total load upon
the footing which supports it. Footings of this type are often neces-
sary when theloads upon the wall columns are greater than those
upon the interior column, so that the ordinary combined footing is
360 FOUNDATIONS

in placing it in position and to raise and lower the hammer in driving.

The leads are supported in position by a triangular framework braced
with backstays. The platform or deck to which the framework is
attached also carries a hoisting engine with friction drums for han-
dling the pile and hammer lines. The general arrangement is shown in
Fig. 111. The details of arrangement and method of mounting vary
widely according to the service for which the machine is intended.
Pile-drivers may be so mounted as to move forward, backward,
and to the side by the use of rollers, or made to turn in any direction
by mounting upon a turntable. For river work, they are usually
rigidly connected to the deck of a barge which is moved to place the
driver in position.
For railway work, drivers are commonly mounted upon cars, and
many of them
are very carefully designed to render efficient service
under varying conditions. The cars are made self-propelling to
make the machine independent of locomotive service, and leads which
can be quickly raised and lowered are employed. The drivers are
mounted upon turntables which permit driving upon either side,
and the leads are arranged so that they may be turned to an inclined
position for the purpose of driving batter piles. The stability of
the machines when driving at the greatest reach from the cars is im-
portant and must be carefully considered in design. Combina-
tion machines, in which service as pile drivers is added to that as
derricks or as excavators are also frequently employed.
A drop-hammer, as used in driving piles, usually consists of a solid
casting,which is raised by means of a rope and allowed to drop upon
the head of the pile. The hammer slides in guides upon the leads and
should be so shaped as to give it a low center of gravity and a sufficient
length to cause it to slide in the guides without rocking; it may be
given a free fall by the use of nippers which engage a pin upon the
hammer and are automatically disengaged at a certain height upon
the leads.The more common method, however, is to raise and drop
the hammer by the use of a hoisting drum with a friction clutch, the
rope being permanently attached to the hammer a more rapid
system, which permits the operator to regulate readily the height of
fall. The weight of hammer employed in ordinary work varies from
about 2000 to 3500 pounds. For light work in small operations, light
hammers may be used, while for heavy service and unusual conditions,
heavier ones may be necessary. A heavy hammer with low fall is
more effective in driving than a light hammer with high fall, as it
may be operated more rapidly and causes less vibration in the ma-
chine.
 PILE FOUNDATIONS 361

A steam pile-hammer is one which is raised and dropped by a steam

piston working in a cylinder attached to a frame which rests upon the
head of the pile. The frame slides in the guides upon the leads, and
the striking part or hammer is guided by the frame. In some of the
steam hammers the pistons are attached to the striking weight; in
others, the cylinders are the moving parts.
Steam pile-hammers are of two types single acting, in which the
weight is raised by the steam pressure and allowed to drop by gravity;
double acting, in which the steam pressure is used to accelerate the
downward motion of the hammer and increase the force of the blow.
Single-acting hammers are made heavier and of longer stroke than
double-acting ones for the same service, and are slower in action.
For heavy service, single-acting hammers usually have strokes of
36 to 42 inches and strike 50 to 70 blows per minute, while the double
acting kind have strokes from 12 to 24 inches and strike 120 to 200
blows per minute. Lighter machines may work much faster.
The blows of the steam hammer are so rapidly given that the
motion of the pile is practically continuous and under many conditions
the effectiveness of the driving is thereby greatly increased. There
are few data giving definite information concerning the relative costs
of driving by drop-hammer or steam-hammer, but the steam-hammer
has seemed to be gradually replacing the drop-hammer in important
operations. It has "as advantages that of causing less damage to the
head of the pile; the driving may be accomplished at a more rapid
rate, and more piles may usually be driven in the same time; the wear
and tear upon the machine is much less than in the use of the drop-
hammer, although the first cost of the steam-hammer is consider-
ably greater.
Water-jet pile drivers are fitted with appliances for discharging a
jet of water at the foot of the pile. The water comes up around the
pile, bringing with it much of the material cut from beneath the pile
and lessening the friction resisting its descent. The water-jet equip-
ment is usually a straight piece of pipe, which may be held alongside
the pile, with a nozzle at its lower end, the upper end being con-
nected by a flexible hose to a pump which supplies water under pres-
sure. The driver is equipped with leads and hammer, the latter being
used to assist in sinking the pile by light blows and to settle it firmly
into place after the jet is stopped.
The water jet especially applicable to driving piles into sand,
is

which usually offers considerable resistance to driving by the hammer

alone. It may be used in any material which will be washed up by
the jet and puddled about the pile, and frequently effects large savings
360 FOUNDATIONS

in placingit in position and to raise and lower the hammer in

driving.
The leads are supported in position by a triangular framework braced
with backstays. The platform or deck to which the framework is
attached also carries a hoisting engine with friction drums for han-
dling the pile and hammer lines. The general arrangement is shown in
Fig. 111. The details of arrangement and method of mounting vary
widely according to the service for which the machine is intended.
Pile-drivers may be so mounted as to move forward, backward,
and to the side by the use of rollers, or made to turn in any direction
by mounting upon a turntable. For river work, they are usually
rigidly connected to the deck of a barge which is moved to place the
driver in position.
For railway work, drivers are commonly mounted upon cars, and
many of them
are very carefully designed to render efficient service
under varying conditions. The cars are made self-propelling to
make the machine independent of locomotive service, and leads which
can be quickly raised and lowered are employed. The drivers are
mounted upon turntables which permit driving upon either side,
and the leads are arranged so that they may be turned to an inclined
position for the purpose of driving batter piles. The stability of
the machines when driving at the greatest reach from the cars is im-
portant and must be carefully considered in design. Combina-
tion machines, in which service as pile drivers is added to that as
derricks or as excavators are also frequently employed.
A drop-hammer, as used in driving piles, usually consists of a solid
casting,which is raised by means of a rope and allowed to drop upon
the head of the pile. The hammer slides in guides upon the leads and
should be so shaped as to give it a low center of gravity and a sufficient
length to cause it to slide in the guides without rocking; it may be
given a free fall by the use of nippers which engage a pin upon the
hammer and are automatically disengaged at a certain height upon
the leads.The more common method, however, is to raise and drop
the hammer by the use of a hoisting drum with a friction clutch, the
rope being permanently attached to the hammer a more rapid
system, which permits the operator to regulate readily the height of
fall. The weight of hammer employed in ordinary work varies from
about 2000 to 3500 pounds. For light work in small operations, light
hammers may be used, while for heavy service and unusual conditions,
heavier ones may be necessary. A heavy hammer with low fall is
more effective in driving than a light hammer with high fall, as it
may be operated more rapidly and causes less vibration in the ma-
chine.
 PILE FOUNDATIONS 361

A steam pile-hammer is one which is raised and dropped by a steam

piston working in a cylinder attached to a frame which rests upon the
head of the pile. The frame slides in the guides upon the leads, and
the striking part or hammer is guided by the frame. In some of the
steam hammers the pistons are attached to the striking weight; in
others, the cylinders are the moving parts.
Steam pile-hammers are of two types single acting, in which the
weight is raised by the steam pressure and allowed to drop by gravity;
double acting, in which the steam pressure is used to accelerate the
downward motion of the hammer and increase the force of the blow.
Single-acting hammers are made heavier and of longer stroke than
double-acting ones for the same service, and are slower in action.
For heavy service, single-acting hammers usually have strokes of
36 to 42 inches and strike 50 to 70 blows per minute, while the double
acting kind have strokes from 12 to 24 inches and strike 120 to 200
blows per minute. Lighter machines may work much faster.
The blows of the steam hammer are so rapidly given that the
motion of the pile is practically continuous and under many conditions
the effectiveness of the driving is thereby greatly increased. There
are few data giving definite information concerning the relative costs
of driving by drop-hammer or steam-hammer, but the steam-hammer
has seemed to be gradually replacing the drop-hammer in important
operations. It has as advantages that of causing less damage to the
head of the pile; the driving may be accomplished at a more rapid
rate, and more piles may usually be driven in the same time; the wear
and tear upon the machine is much less than in the use of the drop-
hammer, although the first cost of the steam-hammer is consider-
ably greater.
Water-jet pile drivers are fitted with appliances for discharging a
jet of water at the foot of the pile. The water comes up around the
pile, bringing with it much of the material cut from beneath the pile
and lessening the friction The water-jet equip-
resisting its descent.
ment is usually a straight piece of pipe, which may be held alongside
the pile, with a nozzle at its lower end, the upper end being con-
nected by a flexible hose to a pump which supplies water under pres-
sure. The driver is equipped with leads and hammer, the latter being
used to assist in sinking the pile by light blows and to settle it firmly
into place after the jet is stopped.
The water jet is especially applicable to driving piles into sand,
which usually offers considerable resistance to driving by the hammer
alone. It may be used in any material which will be washed up by
the jet and puddled about the pile, and frequently effects large savings
362 FOUNDATIONS

in costs of driving. The pressure and volume of water required

depend upon the kind of material to be penetrated. The pressure
must be sufficient to cut the material and the volume enough to
2
bring it up alongside the pile. Pressures of 75 to 150 lb./in. and
volumes from about 50 to 200 gallons per minute are common.
194. Timber Piles. A timber pile is usually the lower portion of
the trunk of a tree, from which the branches and bark have been
removed. It is nearly circular in section and tapers from butt to
tip. Many kinds of timber are employed for the purpose. The coni-
fers yellow pine, Douglas fir, spruce, and cedar are commonly
obtainable in straight pieces of considerable length. White and post-
oak piles are not so straight, but are tough and hard and are suitable
when requirements are severe. Cedar is valuable on account of its
durability. For ordinary work in foundations, piles are usually
required to be not less than 6 inches in diameter at the top, and
commonly vary from 10 to 18 inches at the butt.
The specifications of the American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion name the following requirements for timber piles:

RAILROAD HEART GRADE

1.This grade includes white, burr, and post oak; longleaf pine, Douglas
fir, tamarack, Eastern white and red cedar, chestnut, Western cedar, redwood
and cypress.
2. from sound trees; shall be close-grained and solid, free
Piles shall be cut
from such as injurious ring shakes, large and unsound or loose knots,
defects,
decay or other defects, which may materially impair their strength or durability.
In Eastern red or white cedar a small amount of heart rot at the butt, which
does not materially injure the strength of the pile, will be allowed.
3. Piles must be butt cut above the ground swell and have a uniform taper
from butt to tip. Short bends will not be allowed. A line drawn from the center
of the butt to the center of the tip shall lie within the body of the pile.
4. Unless otherwise allowed, piles must be cut when sap is down. Piles must
be peeled soon after cutting. All knots shall be trimmed close to the body of
the pile.
5. The minimum diameter at the tips of round piles shall be 9 inches for
lengths not exceeding 30 feet; 8 inches over 30 feet but not exceeding 50 feet
and 7 inches for lengths over 50 feet. The minimum diameter at one-quarter
of the length from the butt shall be 12 inches and the maximum diameter at the
butt 20 inches.
6. The minimum width of any side of the tip of a square pile shall be 9 inches

for lengths not exceeding 30 feet; 8 inches for lengths over 30 but not exceeding
50 feet, and 7 inches for lengths over 50 feet. The minimum width of any side
at one-quarter of the length from the butt shall be 12 inches.
7. Square piles shall show at least 80 per cent heart on each side at any cross-

section of the stick, and all round piles shall show at least 10 inches diameter
of heart at the butt.
 PILE FOUNDATIONS 363

RAILROAD FALSEWORK GRADE

8. This grade includes red and all other oaks not included in Railroad heart
grade, sycamore, sweet, black and tupelo gum, maple, elm, hickory, Norway
pine, or any sound timber that will stand driving.
9. The requirements for size of tip and butt, taper and lateral curvature are

the same as for Railroad heart grade.

10. Unless otherwise specified piles need not be peeled.
11. No limits are specified as to the diameter or proportion of heart.
12. Piles which meet the requirements of Railroad heart grade except the pro-
portion of heart specified will be classed as Railroad Falsework grade.

Piles are driven with the tips down, although in some instances
it is desirable to drive the butts down. In certain soils, as quicksand,
the upward pressure on the sides of the piles may force the pile up-
ward after being driven with the tip down. Where piles are being
driven through soft material to a hard substratum, it may be desir-
them with the butts down in order to obtain larger bear-
able to drive
ing surface at the base.
The butt of the pile is cut off accurately at a right angle to its

length in order that the blow of the hammer may be uniformly dis-
tributed over the section. When the hammer strikes directly upon
the head of the pile, it is common to use a hammer with a slightly
concave upper surface. This tends to keep the pile centered in the
leads, and minimizes the brooming effect of the blow. Heavy blows
upon the head of a pile have a tendency to splinter and broom it, and

a portion of the energy of the blow is used up in injury to the pile.

When the brooming effect has become considerable, the efficiency of
the driving is greatly decreased, and a large portion of the work
is wasted. It has frequently been observed that when the broomed
head of a pile has been cut off, an increase in the penetration under
each blow is obtained, the penetration being in some cases more
than doubled.
Pile rings are frequently placed upon the heads of piles to reduce
the brooming effects. They are made of wrought iron from 2 to 4
inches wide and | to 1 inch thick; the pile is chamfered off so that the
ring may be started on and be driven into place by the hammer.
The rings are used repeatedly and serve for a larger number of piles.
Pile caps consisting of cast-iron blocks with tapered recesses above
and below are used for the same purpose. The head of the pile is
fitted into the lower recess and a hard-wood block into the upper one.
The block is reinforced by a ring at the top and receives the blow of
the hammer. The cap fits into the guides of the leads, and holds
the head of the pile in place. After the pile is in place, the cap is

drawn from its head by being attached to the hammer. Some steam
364 FOUNDATIONS

hammers are provided with anvils, which rest upon the head of the
pile and receive the blow of the hammer.
In driving piles through hard material, it is often desirable to
point the lower end, by cutting the end of the the form of a
pile in
pyramid, a blunt end 3 or 4 inches square being left at the bottom.
A thinner point is apt to be too easily injured.
When piles are needed of greater length than those available, it
becomes necessary to splice two piles together, which is accomplished
by the useof fish plates. The ends of the two piles are cut square and
butted together, the sides are trimmed flat for a considerable distance
on each side of the splice and long wooden fish-plates are spiked to
the sides, four or six fish-plates being commonly used.
194. Bearing Power of Piles. There are so many variable factors
affecting the supporting power of pile foundations that in most in-
stances accurate determinations are not possible. Piles may derive
their support either from a hard stratum at the bottom which resists
the penetration of the foot of the pile, or from friction of the sides
of the pile upon the material through which it is driven. Conditions
may also vary widely as to the lateral support afforded the pile be-
tween the loaded end and the point of support.
Piles Acting as Columns. When piles are driven through soft soil,
offering slight resistance to lateral motion, and rest upon a hard
substratum below, they may be considered as columns. They are
fixed in position at the bottom with the top free to move laterally but
held in vertical position by the caps joining them together. Piles
driven in water and not braced depend for lateral stiffness upon
being driven into the soil beneath to a sufficient depth to hold them
firmly at the bottom. The column in such a pile is to
length of the
be taken from the cap to a point below the surface of the soil, a
distance depending upon the firmness of the soil. In stiff soil a
depth of 1 or 2 feet may be sufficient to firmly hold the pile. In less
resistant soils, one-third to one-half the total penetration may be
required.
When piles project into the air, they are braced laterally, so that
no bending can take place and the strength of the pile is that of the
compressive strength of the wood, or the resistance to penetration of
the soil into which it is driven. The compressive resistance of
wooden piles depends upon the kind of wood employed, but is taken
at a low value, commonly about 600 lb./in. 2 When the pile acts as
a column, this is reduced to 600(l-L/60d), in which L is the length
of the column and d is the diameter at its middle point.
 PILE FOUNDATIONS 365

Piles Supported by Friction. Numerous attempts have been made

to state in a formula the relation between the penetration of a pile
under a hammer blow of given energy and the load the pile may bear
without yielding. The effective work done upon the pile by the
hammer in striking the blow should equal the work done by the
resistances in stopping penetration. There are, however, so many
indeterminate losses of energy in the operation of striking the blow
that a rational formula is not feasible there is loss of energy in the
friction of thehammer in the guides; some energy is consumed in
brooming the head of the pile; the elastic compression of the pile
consumes a part of the energy; the effectiveness of the blow is affected
by the height of fall and velocity of the hammer. The impossibility
of evaluating these and other data affecting the resulting penetration
renders any formula obtained by discussion of the theory of the subject
rather useless. Mr. Ernest P. Goodrich has made a very elaborate
1
and interesting study of the subject in which is produced a formula
of very complicated form. This formula is reduced by evaluating
experimentally many of the terms, but the result seems to show that
a usable rational formula cannot be produced.
Engineering News Formula. This formula was suggested in 1888
by Mr. A. M. Wellington, the editor of Engineering News. When the
drop-hammer is used this formula is P=2Wh/(s-l), in which P is the
safe load in pounds, W
is the weight of the hammer, h is the height of

fall in feet, and s the average penetration under the last blows in

inches. When using a steam hammer the formula suggested by

Mr. Wellington is P = 2Wh/(s-Q.l).
These formulas are the only ones in common use. They are em-
pirical formulas obtained by studying all available data derived from
tests of bearing power. It is assumed that the blows have been
struck upon sound wood and commonly it may be necessary to cut
off the head of the pile to remove the wood splintered or broomed by

previous driving before making the tests. There must be no visible

rebound of the hammer in striking the blows, and if such rebound
occurs, it indicates that the fall is too great or the hammer too light,
and the full effect of the blow is not communicated to the pile. The
hammer must always be heavier than the pile, and should be twice
as heavy, in order to strike an effective blow. The formulas are
supposed to give a factor of safety of about six.
Bytdwein's formula is frequently used for reinforced concrete
piles, on account of the greater weight of such piles. This formula
Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLVIII, p. 180.
1
366 FOUNDATIONS

takes into account the relative weights of pile and hammer. With a
factor of safety of six the formula is

, ,
Safe ,load
2WhH
s(l-WP /Wh)

in which Wh is the weight of hammer, W p the weight of pile, H the

height of fall and s the penetration.
It is desirable that the blows used for measuring penetration be
struck with a hammer having free fall, as considerable loss of velocity
may result from the resistance of a rope and friction drum. It is also

necessary that the penetration under the last few blows be uniform
and fairly represent the state of resistance of the pile. The penetra-
tion should not be less than one-half inch, as less penetration may
indicate injury to the pile rather than resistance to penetration.
When piles are driven into soft or plastic materials, the resistance
to penetration usually increases with time after the driving ceases.
A rest of twenty-four hours may be sufficient to cause the material
to settle against the surface of the pile so as to develop a resistance
several tunes that existing when the material was disturbed by the
operation of driving. Numerous instances are recorded in which it
was found that the penetration under a blow had been decreased by a
rest of a few days to from one-third to one-sixth of that at the end of
the original driving. In case of driving into material of this kind, it
is desirable to examine the effect of rest upon the bearing power and
piles upon which be made should have a period of rest
tests are to
before the final test is made. sunk by light blows or even
Piles easily

by static pressure frequently carry loads a few days later much greater
than those required to sink them. In coarse sand or gravel, the time
effect is of less importance, if it exists at all.
Piles are frequently tested by applying static loads until movement
occurs. Usually a load is balanced over a single pile, although some-
times a platform resting upon several piles is loaded. The pile is
allowed to stand under the load at least twenty-four hours before
being examined for settlement. It is desirable that the load be added
in increments, each being allowed to stand for twenty-four hours,
until a loadis obtained which produces settlement.

In any test of bearing power, it is essential that the pile be tested

under the same conditions that will afterward apply to the foundation.
The determination of the requirements in
any particular instance is
largely a matter of
judgment on the part of the engineer, but such
judgment should be exercised with knowledge of all conditions that
 PILE FOUNDATIONS 367

may be evaluated and in accordance with the principles underlying

such work.
The spacing of piles in a foundation is a matter of importance
because of its possible bearing upon the supporting power of the
individual piles. In general, piles should not be closer than 3 feet
center to center, although they are sometimes driven 2 feet apart.
When piles are closely spaced over the area of a foundation, a consid-
erable compression of the soil between them must result. The effect
depends upon its character, but too close
of this disturbance of the soil
driving impairs the bearing capacity of all of the piles, and they can-
not be considered as individually carrying loads up to their normal
bearing capacity.
Timber piles in structures intended to
196. Concrete Piles.
be permanent must be cut off below the water line, while concrete
may be used without reference to moisture conditions. In many
instances, therefore, the use of concrete piles is more satisfactory and
economical than that of wood, sometimes effecting large savings in
excavation. They may be made in any size considered desirable and
are not subject to the limitations of wooden piles in this respect.
Concrete piles may be either molded in place or molded before
placing and then driven like wooden piles. Those molded in place
are generally not reinforced, while those to be driven after molding
must be reinforced so as to resist the stresses brought upon them in
handling and driving. The methods employed for molding piles in
place are patented, and a number of forms of pre-molded piles are
also patented.
The Raymond pile is made by driving into the ground a thin shell
of sheet steel with a collapsible core which holds the shell to its form
while driving. When the
shell has been driven to the required pene-

tration, the core withdrawn and the shell filled with concrete.
is

It is made tapering, usually 18 to 20 inches in diameter at the head

and 6 to 8 inches at the foot, with a closed boot of heavier steel.
They are made in sections for convenience in shipping.
The taper adopted for these piles gives high bearing capacity under
ordinary conditions of use. The interior of the form may be in-
spected before placing the concrete. Difficulty is sometimes met in
the collapsing of the thin shell when heavy hydrostatic pressure comes
upon it, a fault sometimes corrected by driving a second shell inside
the first one.
The Simplex pile is formed by driving into the ground a heavy
steel pipe with the bottom closed by a special jaw. The pipe is
driven to the depth required, and is then withdrawn as the hole is
368 FOUNDATIONS

filled with concrete. The jaw opens as the pipe is raised, permitting
the concrete to pass through, and the concrete is rammed into place
so as to fill completely the hole below the end of the pipe, and press
the concrete against the earth at the sides of the hole. Sometimes a
cast-iron shoe is used at the bottom of the pipe and is left in the hole
when the pipe is withdrawn.
In driving through soft material which will not retain its form
after the pipe is withdrawn, it is sometimes necessary to place a form
of thin sheet metal inside the pipe and fill it with concrete before

withdrawing the pipe. The soft soil then fills around this form and
does not mix with or replace the concrete.
The Pedestal pile is intended to give larger bearing surface at the
bottom of the pile. A pipe, or casing, is driven
into the ground with a core inside which extends
3 or 4 feet below the bottom of the pipe. The
core is then removed and the hole below the pipe
is filled with concrete. The core is then rammed
into this concrete, as shown in Fig. 112, so as to
force the concrete into the earth at the sidevS of
the hole and form an enlarged base upon which
the pile may rest, which procedure is repeated
until a sufficient volume of concrete has been
forced into the base, the pipe being then with-
drawn and the hole filled with concrete.
In Gow pile a casing is sunk by use of a
the

water-jet which removes the earth from inside

the casing. A cutting tool is then used to
widen the hole below the end of the pipe, the
earth being removed by the water-jet. The hole
is then pumped out and filled with concrete as
the casing is removed.

is necessary, when using piles molded in

Care
place, that injury to the pile may not result from
disturbance of the soil around the pile by
driving other piles during the period of hardening a danger which
varies with the character of the soil. No pile should be driven near
enough to be felt in the earth surrounding a green pile for a week after
it is placed, unless the driving can be done before the initial set of the
concrete takes place.
Pre-molded piles are reinforced like columns with lateral reinforce-
ment of wire hoops, spiral wrappings, or wire mesh, combined with
longitudinal steel bars, the cross-section most commonly employed
 PILE FOUNDATIONS 369

being octagonal or square with chamfered corners. The diameters in

general use are from 12 to 20 inches for lengths of 20 to 50 feet,
although larger and longer piles are sometimes employed and they
are either of uniform section or given a slight taper, according to the
service for which they are intended. When to be supported by
frictionupon may
their sides, tapering be of value in increasing bear-

ing power, but at somewhat increased cost of construction. Pointed

shoes are used at the bottom to facilitate driving.
Piles are molded in either horizontal or vertical position. The
molding is and readily subject to inspection when in
easier to handle
horizontal position. When molded in vertical position, the surface of
concrete as deposited is normal to the length of pile, but special care
is necessary in placing the concrete to eliminate voids. The rein-
forcement is connected up and handled as a unit in placing in the

forms, to assure its proper position in the

During the early
pile.

period of hardening, special attention should be given to keeping the

concrete moist, and it is customary to allow it to harden about thirty
days before it is driven, though in some instances the hardening has
been hastened by subjecting the piles to a steam bath.
The steel reinforcement in a pre-molded pile must be sufficient
to carry the stresses which occur during handling and driving as well
as those caused by the loads which come upon it afterward. In rais-
ing the pile from a horizontal position or in moving it horizontally,
the pile must be capable of carrying its own weight as a beam, sup-
ported near the ends or at the middle. Allowance for shocks and
impact should be made. After driving, the pile may be in direct
compression when supported laterally or it may act as a column when
not so supported. The concrete used is ordinarily that known as
2000 pounds concrete of about 1:2:4 mixture, although sometimes a
richer mixture is employed.
On account of the weight of concrete piles, heavy drivers are
necessary. Steam hammers are found most effective and occasion
less damage to the piles than drop hammers. Heavy drop hammers
with low fall give better results than lighter ones with greater fall.
Caps of various designs are employed to cushion the blow and pre-
vent shattering the head of the pile. A wooden block receives the
blow of the hammer, and layers of old belting, rope ends, or bags of
sawdust have sometimes been used upon the head of the pile to pre-
vent the shattering of the concrete. With proper precautions, it has
been found practicable to drive pre-molded piles without injury where
heavy driving was necessary.
When a jet is to be used in driving, a hole is cast through the
370 FOUNDATIONS

center of the pile into which the jet pipe may be inserted a tapering
core, or a collapsible form, being used for this purpose, which is
cheaper than casting the jet pipe in the pile. Solid piles are also some-
times driven by use of the outside jet as with wooden piles.
There are several forms of patented pre-molded piles in use.

FIG. 113. FIG. 114.

The Chenowith pile is formed by spreading concrete over a wire mesh

upon platform, and rolling it over a mandrel, the longitudinal rein-

a
forcement being fastened to the wire mesh. Section for a Chenowith
pile is shown in Fig. 113. The. Corrugated pile is reinforced with
electrically welded wire fabric, and is generally octagonal in cross-

FIG. 115. FIG. 116. Wakefield Piles.

section, tapered, with grooves cut in each face. A section is shown in

Fig. 114.
As the several types of concrete piles have been devised through
the need of meeting differing conditions, each has advantages for
certain kinds of service and is unsuited to certain other conditions.
Careful determination of conditions must always precede choice of
method of construction.
 PILE FOUNDATIONS 371

196. Sheet Piling. Sheet piles are made to fit closely together
and are drivenin contact with each other so as to form a wall to pre-
vent the lateral flow of soft materials, and find their greatest use in
enclosing areas which are to be excavated, or guarding foundations
against undermining by currents of water. They are made of timber,
steel, or concrete.
The simplest and most common form of sheet pile consists of a

1
f A

thick plank sharpened (as shown in Fig. 115) to a point at one side as
so to cause each pile to drive closely against the one previously
driven. When heavy timbers are employed, they are sometimes
arranged with tongue and groove, which may be planed into the
edges of the planks, or made by nailing strips to the edges. In some
instances these are made to dovetail together.
372 FOUNDATIONS

Wakefield sheet piling is formed by bolting and spiking three planks

together so as to form a tongue on one edge and a groove on the other,
as shown in Fig. 116. The patent upon this pile has expired. They
have been quite extensively used in this country and for heavy work
are preferred to the other forms of wooden piles. They are made of
planks from 1 J to 4 inches in thickness, depending upon the strength
needed in the work, and are bolted together by pairs of |-inch or
f-inch bolts, 6 or 8 feet apart, and spiked between the bolts. The
planks are 12 inches wide and the tongue is made as wide as the thick-
ness of plank, but not less than about 2J inches for the thin planks.
Steel Sheet-piling is made in a number of forms either built up
from standard rolled sections, or rolled in special sections so that
the piles may interlock. A few of these forms are shown in Fig. 117.
In form A, known as the Jackson pile, two channels bolted together
with pipe separators are used alternately with I-beams. The Frie-
stadt piling, B, consists of alternate channel bars interlocking with
channels having Z-bars riveted to them. Form C is made up of
I-beams held together by a special locking bar. Forms D
and E
are special rolled sections, the ends of which are designed to interlock,
and may be used in work curved in plan.
For temporary work, where the piling is to be removed, steel sheet-
piling is largely used and is often more economical than timber pil-
ing. The interlocking edges hold the piles together in driving, and
give a certain amount of transverse strength to the wall. In hard
driving, the steel piling is less injured than timber piling and it may be
repeatedly used.
Reinforced concrete sheet-piles, shaped like wooden piles, either
rectangular or with tongue and groove on the edges, are often used on
important work where the piling is to be left permanently in the
structure, and are often reinforced with longitudinal bars to resist
the stresses occurring in handling and driving. The loads coming
upon them after driving are in a transverse direction and the piles
should be designed for hydrostatic pressure, being supported laterally
by the waling.
Concrete sheet-pilingis sometimes made interlocking by setting

interlocking steel bars in the pile edges, the interlocking parts being
then enclosed in concrete after driving. In some instances semi-
circular grooves are left in the edges of the pile, the circular opening
between the piles being filled with concrete after driving.
In driving sheet-piling it is necessary to first drive a row of guide
piles to which may be attached horizontal timbers, or wales, against
which the sheet piling may be driven. The driving of ordinary sheet-
 COFFERDAMS 373

piles is much
lighter work than driving bearing piles, and light steam
hammers are used for the purpose. These are frequently operated
from a derrick without leads and may be handled with greater rapidity
and less injury to the piles than the ordinary heavy driver.

ART. 55. COFFERDAMS

197. Types of Cofferdams. A cofferdam is a structure intended
to exclude water and from an inclosed area, in order
soft materials
to permit the water to be pumped out and the work of placing a
foundation to be done in the open air. This method is applicable
only to rather shallow foundations, and for depths greater than about
30 feet other methods are more economical. Cofferdams can be used
only where the soil at the bottom is fairly impervious, so that an
excessive flow of water under the dam does not occur.
The type of structure for this purpose varies with the depth of
the foundation and the character of the soil upon which it isto be
built. Earth, sheet piling, timber cribs, or combinations of these
arranged to meet special conditions, are the materials employed.
Earth cofferdams are banks of earth surrounding the area of the
foundation, and are made thick enough to sustain the pressure of the
water and to prevent excessive leakage into the inclosed space. The
use of plain earth dams for this purpose is limited to shallow water
without currents; where danger of washing from a light current
exists, a wall of bags filled with clay and gravel or a revetment of
such bags upon the exposed face of the embankment may be em-
ployed. The top of the dam should be at least 2 feet above the water
surface, and the top width not less than 3 feet. A row of sheet piling
is sometimes driven and inclosed in an earth dam for the purpose of

reducing the size of embankment needed, or of cutting off a flow of

water through the soil under the dam.
Sheet-pile cofferdams are constructed either of timber or steel piles
in single or double rows, and are supported by guide piles, timber

frames, or cribs. Where a double row of sheet piling is used, a filling

of earth between the rows is necessary.
A crib cofferdam consists of a timber crib built so as to be water-
tight and is floated into place and sunk around the site of the foun-
dation.
Movable cofferdams which may be removed after using and sunk
again have been employed in a number of instances. These may be
cribs with watertight compartments, or framework supporting sheet

piling.
374 FOUNDATIONS

198. Sheet-Pile Cofferdams. When timber sheet-piling is used

the most common form of cofferdam consists of two rows of piles
with a filling of puddled earth between them a system of construc-
tion shown in Fig. 118. Two rows
of guide piles are first driven.
Horizontal timbers known as
walls are attached to these, and
the sheet-piling driven inside
against the wales, the tops of the
guide piles being tied together
to prevent spreading when the
puddle is put in. The guide piles
should be driven to a firm bearing
in order to develop the transverse

strength of the pile in resisting

the water pressure. Horizontal
braces across the area to be
drained may sometimes be used
to assist the cofferdam against
lateral pressure, and when this is not feasible, the width of cofferdam
must be made sufficient to provide lateral strength.
The sheet-piling must be driven into a fairly impervious stratum
to prevent leakage under the dam, and pervious material overlying
such stratum between the rows should be excavated sufficiently to
give the puddle contact with the impervious material below. The
 COFFERDAMS 375

A single wall of sheet-piling is often used supported by guide

piles or by an interior framework a method which requires less
space than the puddle wall type and is preferable where it is important
not to restrict the water way. Plan of a cofferdam of this type for
use in constructing a bridge pier is shown in Fig. 119. The guide
piles are first driven, wales attached, and the sheet-piles driven
against the outside waling. Braces from wall to wall across the
opening are used to assist in resisting the lateral pressure. Such
bracing when needed may be placed at lower levels as the water is
pumped out and excavation proceeds.
When guide piles cannot be driven to firm bearing, timber frames
are sometimes used to act as guides and support the sheet-piling
against lateral pressure. These frames may be built upon the ground,
floated to the site and sunk into position. The sheet-piles are then
driven around the frames so as to inclose it.
Interlocking steel piling is work
often employed for single wall
because of its
greater strength and tightness. Timber piling for
such use should be tongued and grooved. Wakefield piling has most
frequently been used.
Some leakage is always to be expected in cofferdams, and in
many instances special precautions are necessary to exclude water.
The possibility of meeting difficulty in preventing leakage is the prin-
cipal objection to this method of construction. Banking clay against
the outside of the cofferdam is a common expedient to prevent leak-
age through or immediately under the dam. When it is feared that
channels may open under the piling, gravel may be deposited around
the base of thedam to close such incipient openings. Tarpaulins are
often employed to cover the outside of the dam, or spread out upon the
bottom outside the base of the dam and weighted with gravel. When
the bottom is rock, it is sometimes necessary to cover the whole area
inside the cofferdam with a layer of concrete to prevent inflow of
water through seams in the rock.
199. Crib Cofferdams. Timber cribs built on land and floated
into position are frequently used as cofferdams, and for shallow

depths, these may be made of a framework of timber with a covering

of planks upon the
outside. Usually the crib is formed of two walls
made of
squared timbers laid on top of each other, tied together, and
braced with framework, and is sunk by loading with gravel or earth,
and sometimes filled with puddle to increase its watertightness.
The crib itself may be made practically water-tight, so that leakage is

below the crib. In using this method there are

restricted to the space
no braces across the space in which the foundation is to be placed.
376 FOUNDATIONS

The bottom should be leveled before sinking the crib, or when on

bed rock, the bottom of the crib may be made approximately to fit
the surface of the rock. Sheet piling may be driven around the
outside of the crib to prevent leakage under the crib when the crib
does not lie upon the rock. Tarpaulins fastened to the crib near
the bottom are frequently used to prevent leakage under the crib.
A deposit of puddle around the base of the crib is generally sufficient
to seal thebottom against excessive leakage in ordinary work, but
a layer of concrete over the rock bottom is sometimes necessary.
Cribs are sometimes made so that they may be removed and re-
peatedly used. These have sometimes been used for bridge piers,
being made in two parts joining together on the short sides so that they

may be taken from around the foundation after it is constructed.

Watertight compartments are provided which may be pumped out
when it is desired to float the cribs. Sometimes sheet-piling is used
around these cribs, which may be withdrawn before raising them.

ART. 66. BOX AND OPEN CAISSONS

200. Box Caissons. A caisson is a watertight casing within which
the work of placing a foundation may be done. The casing forms
a shell which contains and usually remains a permanent part of the
foundation. Caissons are of three general types: Those closed at
bottom, known as box or erect caissons; those open at both top and
bottom, known as open caissons; and those closed at top, called pneu-
matic or inverted caissons.
Box caissons of timber are commonly employed when masonry
foundations are to be placed upon piles cut off under water. These
caissons are water-tight boxes, open at the top, which may be
floated into position over the piles upon which they are to rest and
then sunk by building the masonry inside them. The floor and lower
part of the caisson is usually a permanent part of the foundation, but
the sides which extend above the water are intended to act as coffer-
dams during construction of the masonry and are removed upon com-
pletion of the work.
The construction of box caissons varies with the depth of water
in which they are to be sunk and the shape and dimensions of the
foundations. For light work, timber studding with plank sides and
bottom may be sufficient, while in heavier work, a bottom of two or
more thicknesses of 12X12 inch timbers, with sides built up of
similar timbers on top of each other, and drift-bolted together, or
timber framework with vertical staves may be used. The bottom
 BOX AND OPEN CAISSONS 377.

must be capable of carrying the load of masonry required for sinking

and the sides must resist the water pressure or the outward pressure of
material with which it may be filled. The caisson may be built on
land, launched and floated to the site of the foundation, or when
heavy timbers are to be used for a floor, it may more easily be built
afloat.
Timber box cissons are occasionally used as a base for foundations

upon fairly firm soil. The excavation must be made to the depth
required before the caisson is sunk. Such caissons were used in the
foundations of the south pier of the Duluth Ship canal. "They 1
were from 24 to 36 feet wide, 21 feet high, and from 50 to 100 feet
long. The floor was 8 inches thick laid close, the channel side had
X
a solid wall of a double thickness of 12 12 inch timbers, while the
opposite side was composed of a single thickness of 12X12 inch
timbers laid close. Connecting and bracing the two walls were trans-
verse bulkheads of 10X12 inch material spaced 4 feet center to
center horizontally.
"The caissons were built in the harbor, towed to the site, and sunk
by filling with rock and gravel. After sinking, the caissons were cov-
ered with a layer of heavy timbers, in which was built the concrete
pier, the top of the caisson being slightly below low water level."
For work of this kind, a timber crib or grillage which is not water-
tight is sometimes used for the lower part of the foundation, the top
of the crib being below low water. A
box caisson is then sunk on top
of the crib. The floor of the caisson carries the
masonry superstruc-
ture, and the which are intended only to exclude water during
sides,
construction, are removed when no longer needed. Reinforced-
concrete box caissons have been used in some instances. They may
be made part of the permanent structure above as well as below the
low water level, and do not need the cofferdam sides.
Box caissons of small size have sometimes been sunk several feet
into soft material by the use of water jets under the bottom. A
number of pipes are run through the bottom to carry the water,
which washes the material from underneath and allows the caisson
to sink.
201. Types of Open Caissons. An open caisson consists of a
casing,with one or more openings extending through from top to
bottom, intended to be sunk through soft materials which may be
displaced by the weight of the caisson or removed by dredging
through the openings. The caisson is always an integral part of
the foundation. It may be simply a shell to contain concrete upon
Jacoby and Davis, Foundations of Bridges and Buildings,
1
p. 243.
378 FOUNDATIONS

which the main reliance for strength is placed, or the caisson itself
may be designed to bear the loads coming upon the foundation and
the filling for the purpose of sinking and anchoring it.
The open-caisson method is extensively used and has been em-
ployed in placing foundations when the depth is too great for any
of the other methods in common use. The caissons may be made of
timber, steel, or concrete, and vary widely in design, according to the
size and character of the foundation to be constructed. Three types
of open caissons are in use: (1) Single-wall caissons of timber,
consisting of an outer watertight wall with the bracing necessary
to enable it to hold its form; (2) cylinder caissons, consisting of a
single or double cylindrical shell of steel or concrete with a single
opening at the center; (3) caissons having several openings or wells,
with double walls between and around them. The double walls are
joined at bottom into cutting edges, and the spaces between them
filled with concrete or other materials to aid in sinking.

Caissons of the first type are used where the depth of sinking is
small or the material through which they are to be sunk is soft.
They are frequently employed for piers where the foundation is upon
rock with little or no soil above it, and a shell is needed within which
the concrete body of the pier may be formed. Cylinder caissons are
used for foundations of small area which must be sunk to consider-
able depths through soft materials. The method with several open-
ings is used for larger foundations requiring sinking to considerable
depths.
203. Single-wall Timber Caissons. Single-wall caissons are
constructed in the same manner as box caissons, without the bot-
toms. The walls are commonly built up with 12X12 inch timbers
or with 12 inch plank laid flat. They are sunk upon a bottom of
rock or other firm material which has been prepared to receive
them. It is then only necessary to provide an outer wall of the
form desired for the foundation, with bracing to resist the water
pressure when pumped out, and a means of carrying sufficient load
to sink it.

When the site is covered with soft material, sinking is accomplished

by weighting the top of the caisson with some material which may
afterward be removed, by dredging the soil from inside the bottom,
and sometimes by using a water-jet to wash the soil from under the
walls. After sinking, the bottom is sealed with concrete deposited
under water and the caisson pumped out, after which the concrete
filling may be placed in the open air. In some instances the filling is
all placed through the water without
pumping out the caisson, in
 BOX AND OPEN CAISSONS 379

which case, it would not be necessary that the caisson be water-tight,

but it must be capable of holding the concrete filling.
The permanent portion of a timber caisson usually terminates
below low water, the part extending above the water being removed
after serving as a cofferdam within which the masonry has been con-
structed.
In constructing the Columbia River Bridge of the North Coast
1
Railway, open caissons were used to provide forms for the con-
struction of concrete piers upon the hard bottom of the river. The
depth of water was about 30 feet and velocity of current seven miles
per hour. The construction of the caissons is shown in Fig. 120.

The walls consisted of

12X12 inch timbers
framed and braced to
conform to the shape of
the pier. The caisson
was sunk by weighting
with rails held in racks
upon the sides in order FIG. 120.
to keep the load near the
bottom and prevent capsizing. The concrete was deposited through
the water to the depth of 32 feet, large buckets with movable bottoms
being used for the purpose.
In the construction of a pivot pier on rock foundation, the En-
gineering Department of Boston used a single-wall circular caisson 60
feet in diameterand 30 feet high as a form for the concrete body of
the pier. The caisson was built of about 145 courses of 3X12 inch
yellow pine planks, 8 feet long, laid flat and breaking joints. The
ends were beveled to make radial joints, and each
plank secured to
1
Engineering News, Oct. 5, 1911, p. 392.
380 FOUNDATIONS

those below 1-inch oak tree nails 9 inches long, two at each end
it by
of each plank. In addition, the planks were well spiked to the lower
courses throughout their lengths with 6-inch spikes. The courses
were also secured together by 4X12 inch vertical planks opposite
alternate joints.
"
Before placing the caisson, the site was dredged to rock. There 1
was no attempt to construct the crib so that on the bottom it should
conform to the variations in the rock surface. Instead, the bottom
of the crib was made level and it was sunk until it took bearing
on only a portion of the lower edge at the highest rock level. Then
to provide continuous bearing to all parts of the circumference, and
especially to complete the inclosure of the crib and confine the con-
crete that was afterward deposited within it, wooden boxes of vary-
ing sizes, but averaging about 4 feet square and 4 feet deep, were filled
with lean concrete, lowered to the bottom and placed by divers under
the edge of the crib to form a continuous wall. After the concrete
boxes were placed, the excavation outside the crib was back-filled
with gravel until the whole crib was surrounded by filling to about 29
feet below low water or some 2 feet above the bottom courses of plank.
This backfilling formed an effectual seal to retain the concrete which
was deposited in water inside the crib without un watering the crib."
203. Cylinder Caissons. The method of sinking wells by using a
curbing of brick masonry which sinks as the earth is excavated from
the bottom has been in common use for many years. A wooden cut-
ting edge constructed and the brickwork started on top of this and
is

built up as the sinking progresses. This method has been used for a
long time in India for bridge foundations and in a number of instances
in Europe. Usually work of this character has been of small diam-
eter and sunk to comparatively shallow depths, but in some in-
instances large shafts have been sunkby this method, and depths of
over 200 feet have been reached.
Circular caissons of metal and reinforced concrete have come into
use more recently and are frequently employed where foundations of
small area are feasible, and in a few instances for foundations of
larger area where circular piers are to be constructed. They are
frequently used for the foundations of highway bridges where con-
siderable depths must be reached, a pair of cylinders braced together
being employed for each pier. Circular caissons of small diameter
are constructed with single walls and a cutting edge at the bottom,
those of larger diameters having double walls with space between the
walls for loading with concrete.
1
Engineering Record, Aug. 2, 1913.
 BOX AND OPEN CAISSONS 381

commonly used for circular caissons in this country,

Steel walls are

although small sections are frequently of cast-iron pipe resting upon a

steel cutting edge. In the foundations of the California City Point
Coal Pier, 4-foot cast-iron pipe was used in lengths of 12 feet bolted

together.
1
A conical steel section 8 feet in diameter was used at the
bottom to give large bearing area, and the concrete filling in the pipe
was reinforced with vertical steel.
In constructing foundations for torpedo boat berths at Charleston,
S. C., steel cylinders 8 feet in diameter and 42 to 52 feet long were
used as cofferdams. 2 The cylinders were sunk through a bed of sand
and about 4 feet into a bed of blue clay, which sealed the bottom, the
soil inside being then excavated to near the bottom. Some wooden
piles 45 feet long were driven inside the cylinder and the bottom
section 5 feet deep filled with concrete, inclosing the tops of the piles.
A form was then set up inside the cylinder and 4-foot reinforced con-
crete columns constructed to the top, the forms and cylinder above
the bottom section being then removed.
Cylinders 8 feet in diameter were used for the foundations of the
bridge over the Atchafalaya at Morgan City, La. (see Baker's
Masonry Construction) These were sunk to a depth of 120 feet below
.

high water and from 70 to 115 feet below the mud line. Below the
river bottom, the cylinders were of cast iron 1 J inches thick and above
of wrought iron f inch thick.
A
double-wall caisson of steel was used for the pivot pier of the
Omaha Bridge and Terminal Company's bridge across the Missouri
River at Council Bluffs, Iowa. 3 The caisson was of steel, 40 feet
outside and 20 feet inside diameter and was sunk through sand and
clay and coarse sand to the rock 120 feet below low water. The
spaces between the walls were filled with concrete to furnish weight
for sinking. In sinking, the material was dredged from inside the
caisson, and water jets were used upon the outside to reduce the
friction. Twenty 3-inch vertical pipes were carried down inside the
outer cylinder to the cutting edge to provide for operation of water
jets.

Reinforced concrete walls are gradually coming into use for cylinder
caissons and seem to offer advantages for the purpose. The weight
of concrete is of help in sinking and obviates the necessity of so much
temporary loading, which is an item of considerable expense, while
the greater durability of the concrete as compared with steel is also

1
Engineering News, June 27, 1908.
2
Engineering News, Nov. 11, 1915.
3
Engineering Record, Jan. 24, 1903,
382 FOUNDATIONS

of value. Gravel filling may sometimes be employed in a reinforced

concrete cylinder, while the steel cylinder should be filled with con-

crete.
Concrete cylinders are cast in place by using adjustable forms for
building up the upper end as the cylinder is sunk. In some instances,
however, they are cast in sections off the work and placed in position
after hardening.
Reinforced concrete cylinder caissons were used in the foundations
of the lumber docks at Balboa, Canal Zone. 1 The caissons were
made 8 feet in outside and 6 feet in inside diameter and were pre-cast
in sections 6 feet long. The bottom sections had conical exterior sur-
faces, widening to 10 feet in diameter
and fitted into a cutting edge made of
shown in Fig. 121. The
steel plates as
sections were reinforced with vertical
bars and horizontal rings of steel, and
were fastened together by means of six
1-inch anchor bars 12 feet long, which
pass through cores molded in the shell.
The rods were fastened together by the
use of sleeve nuts which were adjusted in niches molded in the
shell for the purpose.
The caissons were sunk 60 to 70 feet to rock, by laborers excavating
inside of them, the water being kept down by pumping. The cutting
edge was embedded about a foot in the rock, and a conical depression
was blasted out of the rock in the center to give the concrete filling a

strong bond.
Caissons having shells 6J feet in outside and 4J feet in inside
diameter were used in the foundations for the Penhorn Creek Viaduct
of the Erie Railroad. 2 They were reinforced with ^-inch horizontal
rings spaced 6 inches apart. The caissons were built in place in
sheeted pits, 12 feet square and 15 feet deep, collapsible steel forms
5 feet long being used and 29 feet of caisson built at one operation,
which after being allowed to set was sunk and another section added,
depths of about 70 feet being reached in this way. The concrete was
allowed to harden six days before sinking, which was accomplished
by dredging with an orange peel bucket, and sometimes using a
water jet. The jets were usually necessary below depths of about
40 feet. Four 1 J-inch pipes suspended from the derricks and guided
by hand were employed. The jets were used around the upper part
.

1
Engineering Record, July 20, 1912.
2
Engineering News, Oct. 13, 1910.
 BOX AND OPEN CAISSONS 383

of the exterior faces of the caissons to within about 20 feet of the

bottom.
Concrete cylinder caissons 6 feet in outside diameter, 8 inches
thick and from 33 to 55 feet deep were used in the foundations for the
storehouse of the Boston Army Supply Base; 577 of these piers were
1
placed in 110 working days. Pits 12 feet deep and 10 feet 4 inches

square were dug and concrete cylinders 22 feet high constructed in the
pits. The caissons were sunk below the bottoms of the pits by men
digging the earth from inside them and forcing them down by the use
of jacks. The forms were removed and excavation begun twenty-four
hours after pouring the concrete. When a sufficient depth could not
be reached by this method, the concrete cylinder was continued at the
bottom in open cut behind poling boards. After the concrete shell
reached solid clay, the hole was belled out below the end of the shell
to give a larger bearing to the base of the pier and the whole filled
with concrete. Ground water was kept down by constant pumping.
204. Dredging through Wells. When foundations are to be
sunk to considerable depths through soft materials, the method of
dredging through wells is very commonly employed, wherein,
caissons of wood, steel, or concrete are built with vertical openings, or
wells, extending through them. The body of the caisson surround-
ing the wells is filled with concrete to provide weight for sinking, and
the soil at the bottom is removed by dredging through the wells, or
by men in open excavation when the water can be kept down by
pumping.
When the foundation is to be sunk through deep water, the cais-
sons may be built on land or on barges and floated to the site. When
the site for the foundation is on land or in shallow water, the caisson

may be started in place, in an open cut or inside of cofferdams, and

built up as the sinking proceeds. As the position of the caisson can-
not be accurately controlled in sinking, it is necessary to make the
horizontal area covered by it larger than that of the foundation it is
to carry. In a large caisson, the descent is guided by the manner of
excavation, when resistance is met upon one end which tends to tip
the caisson, the excavation is confined to that end until it is righted.
If the caisson is narrow and the wells in one line, the control in a
transverse direction is oftenObstructions, such as boulders
difficult.
or sunken logs under the cutting edges, offer the most serious obstacles
to work of this kind. These are not met at great depths and are com-
monly removed by divers, or sometimes by the use of a water
jet.
1
Engineering News-Record, Sept. 24, 1918.
384 FOUNDATIONS

Timber caissons have been employed more frequently than metal

ones in this country.
The first use of deep open caissons in America was in the con-
struction of the foundations of the Poughkeepsie bridge over the
Hudson River. 1 The largest of these caissons was 60 X 100 feet in
plan for the bottom 40 feet, narrowing to 40 feet in width at the top.
There were 14 wells, each 10 X 12 feet, separated by one longitudinal
and six transverse walls. The cutting edges at the bottom were
12X12 inch white-oak timbers, and the walls were of hemlock, solid
and triangular in shape for the lower 20 feet, widening at that height
to their full widths. The end walls and longitudinal walls were
hollow above this height. The six transverse walls were solid and 2
feet thick for the full height.
The hollow walls were filled with gravel in sinking the crib and
the soilwas excavated through the wells with a clam-shell bucket.
The caisson was 104 feet high and was sunk until the top was 23 feet
below low water, the last dredging being done with the top submerged.
The wells were then filled with concrete, and a box caisson with bottom
of grillage 6 feet thick was sunk on top and the masonry of the pier
built up in this as a cofferdam, the sides being removed when the

masonry was above water.

Open timber caissons were used in the foundations of the bridge of
the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company across the Willamette
River at Portland, Oregon. 2 They were 36X72 feet with six well
holes, each 9 feet square, the cutting edges being made of steel plates
inclosing the bottom timbers, with 6 X 6 X f-inch angles at the bottom.
The lower 1 1 feet of the crib was of solid timber, triangular in shape,
with vertices at the cutting edges. Above that height, walls 12 inches
thick were carried up and the entire spaces around the wells filled
with concrete as the caissons were sunk. The caissons rest upon
cemented gravel 120 and 130 feet below low water, and when in final
position the wells were filled with concrete. The crib proper ends at
20 feet below low water and the upper part of the caissons were built
to be used as cofferdams within which the superstructure of the pier
could be constructed.
"In the construction of each of these piers a substantial dock was
first constructed in the river, consisting of about 100 piles well driven

down, capped, and braced together. Borings were then made around
the entire perimeter of the crib at spaces about 8 feet apart, and the
elevations of hard material at all points were determined. It was
1
Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, June, 1888.
2
Railway Age-Gazette, July 14, 1911.
 BOX AND OPEN CAISSONS 385

found to be on a considerable slope, showing a difference of elevation

of 22 feet for opposite diagonal corners. When these elevations were
determined, pipes were successively sunk at numerous points around
the perimeter and in the location of the cross walls, and holes drilled
in the hard material to a common level some 2 feet below the lowest
elevation of the top of the cemented gravel. As soon as the drilling
at each hole had been completed to the proper elevation, a cartridge of
black powder and dynamite in a sheet iron case was lowered to the
bottom of the hole and discharged by an electric battery. This
process was repeated at such frequent intervals as it was deemed would
produce a bottom uniform in character throughout the entire area of
the crib. Thus the blasting for leveling the cemented gravel was
carried on before an excavation was made through 50 feet of gravel
and sand. In the meantime the steel cutting edge had been set up
and riveted together on ways in a shipyard convenient, and enough
timber put on to float the crib, which in this condition was some 30
feet high. It was then floated into position in the dock already pre-

pared and other piles driven on the open end of the dock, entirely
inclosing the crib."
Iron and steel caissonshave been extensively used by English
engineers, but in this country the use of metal has usually been
restricted to the cylindrical form, as timber has generally been
found cheaper and more satisfactory.
The foundations of the Hawkesbury bridge in Australia is a
notable example of this method. The caissons were of wrought
iron, 48 feet long and 20 feet wide, with semicircular ends. Three
circular dredging wells were used, 8 feet in diameter and 14 feet
between centers. The pockets around and between the wells were
filled with concrete to aid in sinking the caisson, and the sides and

filling were continually built up as the sinking progressed. The

caissons were bedded upon sand, the maximum depth reached being
162 feet below high water, through 108 feet of mud and silt.
The bottoms of the caissons were made flaring for the lower 20
feet, making the bottom 2 feet wider all around, this arrangement
being intended to reduce friction on the sides, but it was found to
increase seriously the difficulty of guiding the caisson. When the
soil is not uniform over the base, there is a tendency to travel toward

the firmer material, which was obviated by making the surfaces of the
wider bottom sections vertical instead of flaring, with an offset about
20 feet above the cutting edge.
Concrete open caissons are rapidly coming into use and possess
many advantages where they may be built in place and started in the
386 FOUNDATIONS

open air. When

the wells are filled with concrete, it makes a mono-
lithic structure,with no parts subject to decay or corrosion, and
when heavy walls are used, the weight is of advantage in sinking.
Reinforcement is usually employed, although in a few instances heavy
shells have been sunk without reinforcement. Light reinforcement
seems desirable in nearly all cases as having additional security
against cracking.
The method of dredging through wells was used in sinking con-
crete caissons for the foundations of the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie
Railroad bridge at Beaver, Pa. The caissons were 80 feet long and 28
feet wide with semicircular ends. The shell was 7 feet thick with two

;4-;

\/ W

13

FIG. 122. Concrete Caisson.

cross-walls each 5 feet thick, and was tapered in the lower 9 feet to
the cutting edge of steel. Rectangular cofferdams were constructed
around the site in about 7 feet of water and pumped out. The cais-
sons were then built inside the cofferdams and sunk through about 38
feet of sand and gravel to the rock. When they had been sunk nearly
to the rock by dredging through the open walls, they were transformed
into pneumatic caissons and bedded upon the rock by the pneumatic

process.
Fig. 122 shows a reinforced-concrete caisson used in the foundation
of a pier of the American River bridge of the Southern Pacific Rail-
road. 1 It was 76 feet long, 28 feet wide, and 22 feet high, with a shell
3 feet thick and three cross-walls each 4 feet thick, and was built when
the stream was dry in a pit dug to the level of ground water, being
1
Engineering Record, August 27, 1910.
 PNEUMATIC CAISSONS 387

sunk by dredging through the four wells. When the top of the caisson
reached the ground level, a timber cofferdam was constructed on top.
The sinking was then continued until the stratum of cobbles and
boulders upon which it was to rest was reached. The wells were then
filled with concrete and the pier built up in the cofferdam. This
caisson was very light in weight and the sinking so slow that it was
found more economical to construct the other piers by excavating
inside of sheet iron cofferdams.
In constructing the channel pier of the North Side Point bridge
over Allegheny River at Pittsburgh, a concrete caisson 83JX23 feet
was. used, with 4 wells 10X9 feet spaced 19 feet between centers. 1
When the caisson reached a height of 31 feet, with the cutting edge
17 feet below the bed of the river, a transverse crack extending from
top of caisson to below the river bed occurred near the mid length,
probably due to tension in the top of the caisson caused by unequal
dredging. This caisson was unreinforced. It was blasted out and
replaced by one reinforced by longitudinal bars.

ART. 57. PNEUMATIC CAISSONS

205. The Compressed-air Method. A pneumatic caisson as

ordinarily employed consists essentially of an air-tight box, or working
chamber, open at the bottom, which may be filled with compressed
air to keep back the water and permit the excavation of the soil from
below the bottom of the caisson by men working in the compressed
air. The working chamber is ordinarily at the bottom of a crib,
constructed in a manner similar to an open caisson and arranged to
be filled with concrete to aid in sinking. Shafts with air locks connect
the working chamber with the outside air, and provide means of
entering the working chamber and transporting materials to and
from it.

This method is frequently employed for foundations to depths

within which men may safely work in the compressed air, about 110
feet below water surface, and is sometimes combined with the open-
caisson method, being used where obstructions may be met in sinking
the open caisson, or for bedding a caisson which has been sunk by
open dredging. The caissons are constructed of timber, metal, or
concrete. The use of timber caissons has been quite common in the
United States, although concrete seems to be coming into more
general use, while in Europe, iron and steel are preferred.
The pneumatic system was first applied to large foundations in
1
Engineering News, Oct. 17, 1912.
388 FOUNDATIONS

thiscountry by Mr. Eads in the construction of the St. Louis arch

bridge over the Mississippi in 1870, where a depth of 109 feet below
water surface was reached. This was followed by the Brooklyn
bridge foundations, in which the caissons were very large in plan
and sunk to a depth of 78 feet. Since that time, pneumatic caissons
have been used in a large number of structures, with rapid improve-
ment in the methods of handling the work, and in preventing inju-

upon men working in the compressed air.

rious effects
Pneumatic caissons have been quite extensively used for heavy
building foundations, particularly in New York City, where it has
been found necessary to carry the foundations of high buildings
through unstable materials to solid rock, without undermining older
buildings on more shallow foundations. In such construction,
separate caissons of small area are sunk for individual piers, although
frequently two or more piers rest upon a single caisson. The layout of
a foundation for a heavy building a matter requiring very careful
is

study. The first instance in which this method was applied to a

building in New York was in the Manhattan Life Insurance Com-
pany's building by Kimball & Thompson, architects, in 1893.
1

Since that time the use of pneumatic caissons has become quite
common.
206. Construction of Caissons. The materials and methods of
construction of a caisson usually vary with its size and shape. Cylin-
der caissons are generally of steel, although concrete is now being used
to considerable extent. The thickness required for the concrete walls
usually prevent its use for cylinders less than about 8 feet in diameter.
Large caissons of rectangular shape are frequently made of timber,
although steel is sometimes used, while the use of concrete is increas-
ing rapidly.
The working chamber is surrounded by sloping sides, resting upon
the cutting edges and widening to give support to the roof, which must
be capable of carrying the load of filling used in sinking the caisson.
In large caissons it is necessary to brace the side walls, bulkheads being
sometimes built both transversely and longitudinally across the work-
ing chamber for the purpose. In some of the older caissons, when the
masonry -of the pier was built upon the roof of the working chamber,
the roofs were made very thick. The roof of the large caisson for the
Brooklyn bridge was 22 feet thick of solid timber; that of the Havre
de Grace bridge was 8 feet thick. In others, heavy bulkheads were
used to support thinner roofs.
In timber caissons, in addition to the walls of solid timber, plank
1
Engineering Record, Jan. 20, 1893.
 PNEUMATIC CAISSONS 389

sheeting is used on both inside and outside surfaces, being caulked

carefully to make them air- and water-tight. In metal caissons, also,
the joints must be carefully leaded and caulked to withstand the
interior air pressure and outside water pressure. When the con-
struction above the roof is of concrete, reinforcement near the bottom
of the concrete may makepractically self-supporting, and the
it

roof needs only sufficient strength to carry the concrete until it has
hardened. The concrete may also be expected to exclude the water
more effectively than caulking.
The roofs of the caissons for the Municipal bridge over the Miss-
issippi at St. Louis consisted of a single layer of 12-inch timbers
with sheeting of 3-inch planks, on both upper and lower surfaces,
placed diagonally and well caulked. This acted as a form for the
concrete rilling, which was reinforced near the lower surface with
1-inch bars, 6 inches apart both longitudinally and transversely.1
In small caissons for foundations of buildings, temporary roofs
are sometimes employed, which serve as forms for the concrete filling,
and are removed before the working chamber is rilled with concrete,
in order to make
the construction monolithic, with no separation
between the bottom concrete and the filling.
In deep caissons, timber cribs are frequently used upon top of
the working chamber, being made with solid end and side walls,
braced with cross walls or timbers. Such cribs are usually filled
with concrete, but in some instances they are built to carry the whole
load of the superstructure, and filling is omitted in order to reduce
the weight upon the foundation. As they must not extend above low
water, cofferdams are required on top of the crib within which to
build the masonry piers.
The shafts connecting the working chambers with the tops of the
caissons are steel cylinders. When the caisson is of sufficient size
separate shafts are used for men and materials. For moderate
depths, where ladders are used by the men, the shaft is about 3 feet
in diameter, but when elevators are employed, it is made larger.
Shafts for transporting materials are generally about 2 feet in diam-
eter, the shaft casings frequently being made so that they may be
removed before the shaft is filled with concrete, thus eliminating the
separation between the concrete used for filling the shaft and that in
the shell outside and making a practically monolithic job when the
2
working chamber has a concrete roof.
In small caissons of moderate depth, the air-locks are placed at
1
Engineering Record, October 15, 1910.
2
Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Engineers, Vol. LXI, p. 211.
390 FOUNDATIONS

the top of the shafts, while in large and deep caissons, they may be
near the bottom, but far enough above the working chamber to
provide a refuge for the men in case of accident at the bottom. The
lock is simply a small room with two doors, one leading into the out-
side air, the other into the compressed-air shaft, connected with the

working chamber. The doors are arranged to be held tightly closed

when the unequal on their two sides. In passing
air pressure is

through the lock, the men enter the lock by the upper door, which is
then closed and the air pressure in the lock is gradually raised to that
in the working chamber, after which the lower door is opened and
the men pass into the lower shaft and working chamber.
207. Sinking the Caissons. The method of constructing and
placing a caisson must always be determined by local conditions.
When the caisson is to be sunk through a considerable depth of water,
it may be constructed on ways built on land and floated to the site

where it is to be sunk, and if no suitable location is at hand on shore,

it may be built on barges or pontoons, from which it can be launched

or lowered into position. In shoal water, a platform on piles is some-

times built at or around the site, upon which the caisson may be erected
and from which it may be placed in position. The working chamber
is built and made air-tight, then a sufficient height of crib or coffer-

dam added to reach above the water when the caisson is grounded in
the position in which it is to be sunk. It is then built up as the sink-
ing progresses so as to keep the top above water.
For the foundations of buildings, the sinking of the caissons is
started in open excavation at about the level of ground water. The
working chambers when of small size are constructed at a bridge shop
or a wood-working shop and hauled to the site of the building, and
up in position and a section of concrete shell constructed
are then set
on top. The air locks are then placed and the sinking proceeds. In
some instances, the whole caisson is built and filled with concrete
to the top before sinking begins. As a rule, however, they are built
in two or three sections heights of 30 or 40 feet being sunk at once.
When the working chamber is of concrete, it is built in position for
sinking upon cutting edges previously placed and held in position by
the concrete forms.
In large caissons sunk through water, the concrete in the cribs
provides sufficient weight to cause sinking to take place as the material
is removed from beneath the caisson, without the use of temporaiy

loadings. Sometimes water jets are used to reduce friction upon the
sides. As in the smaller caissons used in building foundations,
temporary loadings frequently pig iron are required to force the
 PNEUMATIC CAISSONS 391

caissons down, some means for handling such loadings easily must
be provided. It is common practice to employ derricks, which
handle the loads in blocks weighing 2000 to 5000 pounds, 100 to 500
tons total weight being generally needed.
Excavated material is removed from the working chamber in
buckets through small shafts with special air-locks near the top.
The buckets are usually operated by hoisting engines outside the
shaft, but sometimes compressed-air cylinders in the shaft are used
for the purpose. In the caissons for the Brooklyn Bridge foundations,
an open shaft extended through the caisson into a sump below the
bottom of the working chamber, the sump being filled with water to
a balance the air pressure, the material being
height sufficient to
removed by dredging through this shaft, and thrown into the sump
by the men in the working chamber.
The blow-out or sand-lift method may be used in the removal of
sand or mud. It consists in blowing the material through a pipe by
the use of the air pressure in the working chamber. An open pipe
4 or 5 inches in diameter leads upward from the working chamber
with a valve near its lower end. The material is heaped about the
lower end of the pipe and the valve opened, thus blowing the mud and
sand out through the pipe a method that has been found quite satis-
factory in many instances. The pipe wears rapidly on account of
the high velocity of the sand passing through it, and it is sometimes
prevent fluctuations in the air pressure in the working
difficult to

chamber due to the amount of air suddenly withdrawn.

The mud pump is used for driving the sand and mud upward
through a pipe by means of a stream of water under pressure. This
method was first used by Mr. Eads in the caissons for the St. Louis
arch bridge. The suction of the pump is placed in a sump which is
kept filled with water at the bottom of the working chamber, and the
material to be removed is shoveled into the sump by the men.
208. Physiological Effects of Compressed Air. The depths below
water surface to which the pneumatic method may be employed is
dependent upon the ability of men to work in compressed air. Ex-
perience has shown that under careful management, men in good
physical condition may safely be subjected to an air pressure of
about 45 or 50 pounds above atmospheric pressure, and work has been
successfully carried out in several instances at maximum depths of
110 to 115 feet below water surface. Very careful attention to the
physical condition of the men and to the methods used in entering
and leaving the compressed air are necessary to prevent injurious
results.
392 FOUNDATIONS

When the men enter the air locks and the air pressure is gradually
increased, a sensation of giddiness, with pain in the ears and oppres-
sive heat is felt. When equilibrium between the air pressures outside
and inside the body has been reached, a feeling of exhilaration results
while breathing the more dense air. Labor in the compressed air is
more exhausting than in the outside air, and is carried on in shorter
shifts. As the pressure is reduced, on leaving the caisson, a sensation
of intense cold is experienced, accompanied by an itching feeling under
the skin. Warm clothing is necessary, and it is customary to serve hot
coffee to the men as they leave the locks. These are the usual and
normal sensations experienced by those working in compressed air.
The effects are greater the first time the air is encountered, and the
unpleasant sensations are gradually eliminated as experience teaches
the proper method of meeting them.
Caisson disease is a malady which sometimes results from working
in compressed air and develops severe pains in the joints, resembling

rheumatism, causing the patient to double up, and is commonly

known as the "bends." It is experienced only after returning to
atmospheric pressure, and is sometimes relieved by returning to the
compressed air and coming out again very slowly, medical locks being
sometimes provided for this purpose. In many instances the patient
ispartially paralyzed, and when the attack is severe a long time may
be required for recovery. In the most serious cases, congestion of the
brain and sometimes death may result.
Much has been learned through experience concerning the methods
of preventing and treating caisson disease
since the pneumatic proc-
ess has been in use.In sinking the caissons of the St. Louis bridge,
119 cases of caisson disease developed and 14 deaths occurred. The
better control in later work has largely eliminated this danger, but
failure to exercise sufficient care, or unforeseen contingencies, still

frequently cause trouble from this source.

The rate of decompression in coming out of the compressed air is
a matter of importance, and the time allowed is not usually sufficient,
according to the opinions of most medical authorities, to insure safety.
The length of working shift should be reduced as the pressure increases
The proper ventilation of the working chamber is of greater impor-
tance than for men working at atmospheric pressure, and arrange-
ments must be made for frequent changes of air.
 BRIDGE PIERS AND ABUTMENTS 393

ART. 58. BRIDGE PIERS AND ABUTMENTS

209. Locations and Dimensions for Piers. In fixing the locations
for piers of a bridge, there are a number of factors which it may be

necessary to take into consideration. In a navigable stream, they

must be arranged so as to obstruct the channel as little as possible
and meet the regulations imposed by the Government. This may
simetimes determine positions, length of span, and height of structure.
The waterway requirements and possibility of the piers restricting
the waterway to a serious extent must always be considered. The
character of the foundation along the line of the bridge, and probable
difficulty of placing foundations at various locations may sometimes
influence the choice of positions for piers.
Financial considerations are always important. The total cost of
the structure including piers and superstructure should be the mini-
mum consistent with properly meeting the other requirements. The
cost of superstructure increases approximately as the square of the
may be nearly proportional to
length of span, while the cost of piers
their number. An
arrangement may therefore be worked out in
each instance which will give a minimum of cost for the entire
structure.
Aesthetic considerations may also have an influence on pier loca-
tion; the appearance of the structure is always an important matter
and may sometimes control the design. The arrangement of spans
to secure symmetryin the whole structure, with proper placing of

dominating features ought to be carefully considered.

The shape to be given to a pier is determined by the requirements
of each particular case. It must be designed safely to transmit to
the foundation, the loads brought upon it, and to resist any lateral
pressure due to wind or current, and the form to be given a horizontal
section should offer as little resistance as possible to the flow of the
stream in which it may be placed.
The most common form for piers in streams is that of a rectangle
of length a little more than the width of the bridge, with triangular
or curved ends. The pointed ends below high water are known as
starlings,and are intended to reduce the disturbance to the stream
flow and sometimes to act as ice breakers. Sometimes starlings are
used only on the up-stream end of the pier, but more commonly the
horizontal section is made symmetrical. The down-stream starling
serves to prevent eddies below the pier, and to equalize the load over
the foundation area. Starlings are necessary only below high water,
and the upper part of the pier is sometimes made rectangular, but
394 FOUNDATIONS

more commonly the ends are semicircular (see Fig. 123) or the shape
of the starling is continued to the top.

FIG. 123.

Fig. 124 shows a simple form of concrete pier inwhich a triangular

starling used
is upon the up-
stream end only and is continued
to the top of the pier. In Fig.
123 the horizontal section of the
starling is composed of two inter-

secting circular arcs of radius

equal to the width of the pier,
while the upper part of the pier
has semicircular ends.
The dimensions required for
the top of a pier are usually fixed
mainly by the area of the bear-
ings needed for the superstruc-
FIG. 124.
ture. A coping not less than
1 foot in thicknessplaced on the top of the pier, projecting 3 to
is

6 inches beyond the top of the masonry beneath. The dimensions of

 BRIDGE PIERS AND ABUTMENTS 395

the top of the pier should be such that the base plate of the super-
structure shall not come within 4 to 6 inches of the edges of the
masonry under the coping. The width of the top of the pier under
the coping is required to be at least 4 feet, and at least 1 foot more
than is needed for the base plate.
A batter of at least J inch to 1 foot, or sometimes 1 inch to 1
foot, is given to the surfaces of the pier. Footing courses may be
employed at the base of the pier to distribute the loads over a larger
area of the foundation, being commonly stepped off, projecting
about a foot horizontally and with a depth about twice the width.
When of reinforced concrete the projecting steps may be designed as
cantilever slabs.
Cylinder piers are frequently used when the sectional area of a
is not necessary to stability.
single solid pier These consist of a pair
of cylinders arranged so that each may carry the ends of the trusses

upon one side of the bridge, and are connected by bracing near the

top to give rigidity transversely to the length of the bridge. They

are either thin steel shells filled with concrete, or monolithic con-
crete shafts, reinforced near the outer surfaces.
210. Stability of Piers. A
masonry pier is a vertical column carry-
ing both vertical and transverse loads. The vertical loads carried by
any horizontal section of the pier consist of the weight of the super-
structure with its live load and the weight of the pier above the
section considered. The effect of impact is not usually considered,

although a small allowance for impact is sometimes added for the

upper part of railroad bridge piers.
The wind and current pressures are horizontal forces which tend
to produce bending moments any horizontal section of the pier,
in
and normal to the bridge. The wind
in the foundation, in a direction
load upon the superstructure and upon a railway train upon the
bridge may be taken the same as in designing the superstructure.
Wind upon the end of the pier is commonly taken at about 20 pounds
per square foot of vertical section for semicircular ends, but may be
reduced to 15 pounds for pointed ends, and should be increased to
30 pounds for rectangular piers.
The pressure of a current of water upon the end of a pier cannot
be accurately determined; in pounds per square foot of vertical sec-
2
tion, it is frequently taken at about .75v (where v is the surface velo-
city of the stream in feet per second) for curved or pointed starlings
and about twice this amount for rectangular piers. The center of
pressure is assumed to be at one-third the depth from the surface to
the bottom of the stream.
396 FOUNDATIONS

The pressure exerted by ice depends upon the thickness of the ice
and the shape of the up-stream end of the pier, and is greatest when
the ice is breaking up and a large body of floating ice
being cut by is

the pier. Where ice 10 or 12 inches thick a

may form, pressure of
45,000 to 50,000 pounds per foot of width of pier is often assumed,
considered as concentrated at the level of high water. For other
thicknesses, the pressure is somewhat proportional to the thickness.
Where heavy ice is likely to form,
the use of ice breakers, or starlings
with edges inclined to the vertical
(as shown in Fig. 125) may
materially decrease the pressure.
The tractive force in the piers
of a railway bridge is a horizontal
force acting parallel with the
length of the bridge at the level
of the rail, and therefore pro-

7
X
duces moments in the horizontal
sections of the pier and founda-
tion at right angles to those due

FIG. 125.
to wind and current. The trac-
tive force is commonly taken
at 2/10 of the moving load on one track.
It is essential to stability that the maximum compressive stress
upon any horizontal section due to the vertical loads combined with
that due to the moments of the horizontal forces shall not exceed the
safe compressive strength of the masonry. The maximum unit pres-
sure upon the foundation must not exceed a safe value. No tension
should exist in the masonry at any section under any possible loading,
unless it be reinforced concrete designed for tension, and compression
must always exist over the whole area of the foundation.
The horizontal forces must not be sufficient to produce sliding
upon any joint in the masonry or foundation, or to shear any section
of concrete.

Ordinary solid piers dimensioned to give sufficient bearing area

at the top and slightly battered will usually be amply strong. The
distribution of loads over the foundation should, however, be care-
fully looked after.
Large masonry piers are frequently built hollow. The masonry
under the base plates of the superstructure is considered to act as
columns which transmit the vertical loads to the foundation, and the
central part of the pier is regarded as bracing to stiffen the columns
 BRIDGE PIERS AND ABUTMENTS 397

and carry the lateral loads. A part of the masonry at the center of
the piermay beout without appreciably reducing its strength, thus
left

reducing the weight upon the foundation and saving a considerable

volume of masonry or concrete. Such an arrangement is shown in

Fig. 126.
Hollow piers of reinforced concrete have been occasionally used.
These have been designed in a number of ways, columns being used
under the base plates of the superstructure, connected in some way
by reinforced bracing. The exterior shape of these piers below high
water is made the same as solid piers in order to produce minimum
disturbance of stream flow.
-
The pier below high water is hollow, with reinforced side walls
connecting the towers at the ends. Above high water, the towers

FIG. 126.

are separate and connected by a reinforced arch at the top. Openings

are provided through the walls to admit water to the interior spaces.
211. Construction of Piers. Solid bridge piers are constructed of
concrete or of concrete with facing of cut stone. The use of rubble
masonry as backing in such work has given way to concrete on ac-
count of its less cost and greater ease of handling.
Stone masonry facing has the advantage of presenting a pleasing
appearance, and offering good resistance to the abrasion of the
stream and of floating debris. In constructing a pier by its use forms
are unnecessary, which frequently results in lessened cost of con-
struction, although the cost of the masonry itself is greater than that
of concrete. First-class ashlar masonry is required in such work, and
the stone must be well bonded into the concrete backing. In im-
portant work carrying heavy loadings, the facing stones are tied to
398 FOUNDATIONS

the concrete by the use of steel rods attached to the stretchers at

frequent intervals and extending well into the concrete.
When piers are wholly of concrete, it is desirable to place light
reinforcement near the surface in the face of the pier to prevent
surface cracks, which usually develop in any large exposed surface of
concrete. This would require horizontal bars not more than 1 foot
apart, and vertical bars every 2 or 3 feet, embedded about 2 inches in
the concrete. The top of the coping should be similarly reinforced.
Cylinder piers are most commonly formed by constructing a
cylindrical shell of steel and filling it with concrete. Reinforced
concrete cylinders are also coming into use, and have the advantage
of not requiring painting to prevent rust. A
pair of cylinders is gen-
erally used for a pier and they are connected by bracing near the top
or at two points for high piers. This bracing may be of reinforced
concrete, or sometimes a steel truss inclosed in concrete.
The masonry of a pier may be supported upon a caisson, or upon
hard material or piles in a cofferdam. When the pier rests upon a
caisson, a cofferdam is built upon the top of the caisson and the
masonry built inside the cofferdam after filling the caisson with con-
crete. When the pier rests upon piles, the tops of the piles extend
upward into and are inclosed by the concrete in the base of the pier.
In such work, it is desirable to place reinforcement in the bottom of
the footing of the pier between the piles.
212. Types of Bridge Abutments. A bridge abutment is a com-
bination of a pier with a retaining wall; it carries the weight of one
end of the bridge with its moving load and retains the bank of earth
sustaining the roadway leading to the bridge, the requirements for
stability being the same as those for a retaining wall. The weight
of the bridge with its live load is brought upon the abutment near
the top, and the thrust of the earth filling with that of the load upon
the roadway is brought upon the back of the abutment, as shown in
Fig. 127. These, with the weight of the pier itself, must give a
proper distribution of pressures upon the foundation and safe stresses
at any point in the masonry.
The supporting the roadway usually has side slopes about
filling
1.5 horizontal to 1 vertical, which must be sustained by walls joined
to the abutments. Abutments are divided according to the method
used for supporting the side slopes into straight abutments, wing
abutments, U abutments, and T abutments.
Straight abutments are those in which the walls retaining the side
slopes are continuations of the abutments in the same lines, as shown
in Fig. 127.
 BRIDGE PIERS AND ABUTMENTS 399

Wing abutments are those in which the side slopes are retained
by wing walls, making an angle, usually about 30 with the face of the
abutment (see Fig. 128). This type of abutment is selected where a

Side Elevation

FIG. 127. Straight Abutment.

stream flows past the face of the abutment, as it disturbs the flow of
the stream to the least extent and protects the abutment against the
stream getting behind it. The wing walls may be shorter and require
~~~ \

a
B

*ia. 128.

somewhat less masonry then the walls of straight abutments, when

the bottom of the sloping earth is held back to the line of the face of
the abutment.
400 FOUNDATIONS

M-Abutments are those in which the walls are turned at right an-
_______ gles to the abut-
ment as shown in
Fig. 129. The
earth slope is then
upon the face of
the wall. They
-
E/evation
may. be economical
FIG. 129. when the abut-
ment is on the edge
depth of the wall may
of a bluff so that the
be reduced by running into the face of the
bluff.
Foundations of Bridges and Buildings by
Jacoby and Davis, New York, 1914, gives a
complete description of the various methods of constructing founda-
tions, with detailed descriptions of many important constructions.
 INDEX

Abutments, types of, 398 Bond strength of reinforced concrete,

,U-, 400 154, 173, 177, 186
,wing, 399 Brick, definition, 1
Aggregates, kinds of, 111 masonry, bond in, 94
,
mechanical analysis of, 112, 118 ,
cost of, 100

, measuring fine, 40 ,
efflorescence in, 99

,
selection of, 115 ,
hollow walls, 97
, specific gravity, 113 , joints in, 93
, specifications for, 39 , laying, 94
,
tests for, 113 ,
measurement of, 100
,
voids in, 114 ,
mortar for, 94, 101
American Railway Engineering Asso- , strength of, 97
ciation, 69, 76, 362 ,
uses of, 2
Arches, elastic, 295, 302 Bricks, clay and shale, 84-88
, analysis of, 314, 317, 334 ,
classification of, 87
,
effect of direct thrust, 299 , clay for, 86
, temperature effects, 299 , composition of, 85
, theory of, 295 , pressed, 87
Arches, hinged, 310 , vitrified, 88
, reinforced, see Reinforced concrete , sand-lime, 88-90
arches ,
caustic lime process, 89
,

, Roman, 5 , , hydrated line process, 89

, unsymmetrical, 311 , , properties of, 90
, voussoir, abutments for, 291 ,
sizes of, 92
, ,
earth pressures on, 288 , , sun-dried, 3
, ,
line of pressure in, 284, 292 ,
tests for, 91

, ,
loads for, 286 Bridge piers, construction of, 397
, , parts of, 282 dimensions for, 393
,

, , stability of, 283, 291 , hollow, 397

, ,
289
thickness for, , stability of, 395
with elastic piers, 312 Bridges, concrete, girder, 278
Ashlar masonry, 70, 73 , , loading for, 271
strength of, 79
, , , slab, 273
weight of, 80
, , , T-beam, 275
Assyrian architecture, 3, 4 Building stone, 51-60
classification, 52
,

Beams, reinforced concrete, see Rein- ,

fire resistance, 60
forced concrete beams , seasoning, 61
401
402 INDEX

Building stone, strength of, 59 Concrete, cost of, 149

, temperature effects, 59 , consistency of, 130, 146
,
tests for, 61 , contraction joints, 133
Concrete culverts, 326, 329, 331
Caissons, box, 376 , durability of, 140.
, cylinder, 380 , density of, 144, 146
, dredging through wells, 383 , expansion and contraction of, 133
, open, 377 , fire resistance of, 143

, pneumatic, 387 foundations, 352

, steel, 385 , design of, 354
, timber, 378, 384 , freezing of, 131
Cantilever foundations, 375 materials required for, 123
Cement, hardening of, 16 mechanical analysis curve, 118
,history of, 6 mixers, 128
, hydraulic, definition, 10 mixing, 125
, mixed, 21 , permeability of, 136
, natural, 20 piles, 367
, permanence of volume, 23 , placing, 130
, Portland, see Portland cement , proportioning, 116
, puzzohm. 21 , reinforced, see Reinforced concrete
, Roman, 20 rubble, 269
, setting of, 16 surfaces, finishing, 135
, silica, 22 , strength of, 144
slag, 21 , transportation of, 129
, specifications of 1916, 27 ,waterproofing, 137
Cement, Tests for, accelerated, 29 Conduits, analysis of gravity, 334
, , adhesive strength, 31 ,
earth pressures on, 333
, , compressive strength, 30 ,
stresses in, 338
, , standard, 27 Construction, Assyrian, 4
, , soundness, 29 , Chaldean, 3
, ,
transverse strength, 30 , Egyptian, 4
Cement mortar, materials required, 44 Copings, 72, 75
, mixing, 42 Costs of brick masonry, 100
, proportioning, 39 concrete, 149
, retempering, 43 stone masonry, 83
,
sand for, 31 Coulomb's theory of earth pressure, 214
, strength of, 45 Culverts, arch, 331
yield of, 44 , box, 327, 329
Chaldean construction, 3 , pipe, see Pipe culvert
Chenoweth piles, 370 , types of, 321
Clay bricks, see Bricks, clay and shale , waterway area, 321
Cofferdams, crib, 380
, earth, 378 Dams, arched, 259-266
, sheet-pile, 379 ,
constant angled, 262
Columns, concrete, 206 ,
horizontal shear in, 261
, eccentric loads on, 212 , temperature stresses in, 263
, examples in, 208, 211 ,
construction of, 268

, hooped reinforcement, 209 , gravity, curved, 258

,longitudinal reinforcement, 207 , , design of profile for, 251
Compressed air, caisson disease, 392 , ,
distribution of pressures, 255
, , physiological effects, 391 , , graphical analysis of, 249
 INDEX 403

Dams, gravity, horizontal tensions in, Lime, common, 9, 11

256 , hydraulic, 11, 13
, ,
253
ice pressures on, , hydrated, 15, 94, 138
, ,
247
stability of, , putty, 15
, uplift in, 253
, Limestone, 53
, masonry for, 269 , durability of, 60
, multiple arched, 263 , strength of, 58
, overflow, 269 Loads for bridges, 271
,
reinforced concrete, 266 arches, 286, 300

Earth pressures, angle of friction, 220 Marble, 54

computation of, 218
, strength
, of, 59

, graphical method for, 221 Masonry, brick, see Brick masonry

,
table of, 219 ,cyclopean, 269
theories of, 214
, ,
rubble concrete, 269
Efflorescence in brick walls, 99 ,stone, see Stone masonry
Egyptian construction, 4 Mortar, cement, see Cement mortar
Equilibrium polygon, 294
Expansion and contraction of con- Piers, bridge, see Bridge piers
crete, 133 Pile-drivers, 359
Piles,bearing power, 364
Fire resistance of concrete, 143 - classification
of, 358
Foundations, cantilever, 357 , concrete, 367
,pile, see Pile foundations , pedestal, 368
, pneumatic, caissons, see Caissons , sand, 359
, compressed air, 391
, , sheet, 371
, sinking, 390
, ,timber, 362
, soils, see Soils Pipe culverts, cast iron, 325
, spread, 347 , concrete, 326

, concrete, 352 and 325

walls,
, , grillage, 349, 352 ,
324
vitrified,
, , masonry, 348 Plasters, gypsum, 48
, ,
350
steel, ,
hard finish, 50
Freezing of concrete, 131 Portland cement, 18
Frost batter in walls, 246 , burning, 19
, composition, 19, 24
Gneiss, 53 ,
silica ratio, 26
Granite, 52 Proportioning concrete, 116
, durability of, 60
- by trial, 120
, strength of, 59 fineness modulus, 121
,

Grillage foundations, 349, 352 Puzzolan cement, 21

Gypsum blocks, 107 Pyrobar floor tile, 108
plasters, 48
Quicklime, 12
Hollow clay blocks, see Structural tiling
Hydrated lime, 15, 94, 138 Rankine's theory of earth pressure, 216
Hydraulic index, 13 Raymond concrete pile, 367
Reinforced concrete, arches, analysis of,
Influence lines, 314 302, 314, 317
,
division of arch ring, 301, 317
Keene's cement, 49 , design of, 300
404 INDEX

Reinforced concrete, arches, loads for, Sandstone, strength of, 58, 59

300 Sea water, action on concrete, 141
,
stresses in, 305 Setting of cement, 16
itypes of, 309 Sheet-piling, 371
Reinforced concrete beams, compres- Simplex concrete piles, 367
sion reinforcement, 186 Slab and buttress dams, 267
, design of, 176 Slabs, reinforced concrete, 194
, in, 168, 178
diagonal tension Soils, bearing capacity, 344, 346
,
flexure formulas, 158, 179, 186 ,
examination of, 342
,
shear in, 167, 177, 182 ,
tests for, 345

, spacing of steel, 173 Steel for reinforced concrete, 155

,
tables for, 162, 188 ,
bond strength of, 173, 177

, T-beams, 179, 183, 198 ,

tables for, 166, 199
Reinforced concrete, bond strength, Stone building, see Building stone
154, 173 cutting, 62-70
, columns, 206 masonry, 1, 70-84
, history of, 7 ashlar, 70, 73
,

,
modulus of elasticity, 156 bearing blocks, 80
,

Retaining walls, concrete, cantilever, capstones, 80

,

229, 231 cost of, 82

,

,counterforted, 230, 238

, , corbels, 82
,design of, 230, 238
, strength of, 78
,

, , examples of, 231, 235, 238 Structural tiling, 102

,
Baker's rules, 221 ,
wall construction, 105
,
earth pressure upon, 214 Syenite, 53
, empirical design, 225
foundations for, 244
,
T-beam bridges, 275
, graphical method, 221 see Reinforced concrete beams
T-beams,
, stability of, 223
Tests for aggregates, 113
, surcharged, 221, 238
bricks, 91
Trautwine's rules, 225
cements, 27
,

Roman arches, 5
concrete, 147
Rubble masonry, 71
, strength of, 79
Voussoir arches, see Arches, voussoir
, weight of, 80

Sand for mortar, 31 Walls of stone masonry, 72

, density of, 37 Waterproof concrete, 137
, specifications for, 39 Water-tables, 75
,
tests for, 34 Window sills, 76
Sandstone, 54
, durability of, 55, 60 Yield of concrete, 122
 '*":

Wiley Special Subject Catalogues

For convenience a list of the Wiley Special Subject

Catalogues, envelope size, has been printed. These

are arranged in groups each catalogue having a key
symbol. (See special Subject List Below). To
obtain any of these catalogues, send a postal using r
the key symbols of the Catalogues desired.

1 Agriculture. Animal Husbandry. Dairying. Industrial

Canning and Preserving.
2 Architecture. Building. Concrete and Masonry.
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Production; Paint; Printing; Sugar Manufacture; Textile.

CHEMISTRY
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and Pharmaceutical; Sugar.
^01
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and Concrete; Excavation and Earthwork; Foundations;
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noiJBIO':
 CIVIL ENGINEERING Continued
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