UNIVERSITY "Sts.

CYRIL AND METHODIUS"

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TEMPUS JEP DEREC

COURSE:

FLUID MECHANICS

Lecture notes prepared by

Prof. Dr. Aleksandar Nošpal

SKOPJE
2008
TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Contents

Contents

page

Sylabus i

Unit guide v

1. Introduction to the Fluid Mechanics 1

1.1. The importance of the Fluid Mechanics for the Science and Engineering; the importance for 1
Environmental and Resources Engineering
1.2. Fundamental dimensions, dimensional homogeneity and fundamental units of measurement. 2
1.3. Properties and states of fluids - pressure, temperature, density, specific weight, viscosity,
specific heat, internal energy, bulk modulus of elasticity and compressibility, velocity of 5
sound, equations of state
1.4. Forces on a fluid element and pressure 12

2. Statics of fluids 13
2.1. Basic laws - hydrostatic pressure, Euler's equations of equilibrium 13
2.2. Equilibrium in gravity field - incompressible fluid in gravity field, hydrostatic manometers, 16
Pascal's law, relative equilibrium of fluid (translation and rotation of a liquid container),
pressure force on a flat and curved surface, buoyant forces

3. Kinematics of flow 29
3.1. Flow field - properties of flow field, Lagrangean versus Eulerian aproach, steady and 29
unsteady flow
3.2. Velocity, stream line versus path line, stream function, stream tube, velocity gradient and 30
shear
3.3. Volume flow, flux and circulation 33
3.4. Continuity equations 35
3.5. Acceleration 36

4. Dynamics of inviscid (ideal) fluid flow 40

4.1. Forces on a inviscid fluid element, 3-D and 2-D flows, Euler's equations for inviscid fluid flow 40
4.2. One dimensional gravity flow - Bernoulli's equation 42
4.3. Potential flow - differential equations, Cauchy-Lagrange and Bernoulli equation 46
4.4. The continuity equation in integral form 48
4.5. Equations of momentum and energy 50

5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid 54

5.1. Stream tube control volume. Basic equations for flows through a stream tube 54
5.2. Some examples of steady flow of incompressible fluid - Venturi tube, discharge through 57
nozzles from a reservoir into the atmosphere, submerged discharge, flow through a rotating
tube, cavitation
5.3. Basic consideration of compressible fluid flow 64
5.4. Some examples for the momentum equations application - force on a bended pipe, jet 66
reaction, basic equation of the turbo-machines

6. Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow 70

6.1. General concept of viscous fluid flow - Newton's law for shear stress, flow classification, 70
laminar versus turbulent flow
6.2. Fundamental equations for laminar flow - stresses in a viscous fluid flow, friction forces, 71
Navier-Stokes equations
6.3. Fundamental concepts and solutions of the governing equations for some cases of laminar flow 75
6.4. Fundamental concepts and equations for creeping motions and two-dimensional boundary layer 77
6.5. The notion of resistance, drag, and lift 80

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TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Contents

6.6. Basic concepts of incompressible viscous fluid turbulent flow - Reynolds experiment and 82
Reynolds number, velocity in turbulent flow, Reynolds equations for turbulent flow of
incompressible fluid
6.7. Concepts for solving governing equations of viscous fluid flow - features of theoretical 86
methods, experimental and semi-empirical approach, CFD approach.

7. Basic consideration of Experimental Fluid Mechanics 91

7.1. Basic approach to the Dimensional Analysis - dimensional homogeneity, Rayleigh method, 91
the significance of non-dimensional relationships and numbers, Vaschy's theorem.
7.2. Basic approach to the experimental investigation and application of the similarity theory - 100
similarity criteria for characteristic flow conditions

8. Methods and examples of Applied Fluid Mechanics 107

8.1. Basic equations of flow in conduits and pipes - velocity distribution and average velocity; 107
pressure; continuity equation; Bernoulli equation; momentum law; energy losses linear and
local losses
8.2. Laminar and turbulent incompressible flows in pipes - velocity profiles for turbulent flow, 115
velocity and friction laws, roughness effects, examples for pipe-flow computation
8.3. Incompressible flow in noncircular ducts - friction losses in closed conduits, two dimensional flows 121
8.4. Flow in prismatic open channels - one dimensional open-channel equations, head-loss 124
equations, velocity and friction laws for two-dimensional channels, computation examples
8.5. Immersed bodies, drag and lift - hydrodynamic forces and force coefficients, drag of 129
symmetrical bodies, lift and drag of nonsymmetrical bodies
8.6. Basic approach to turbulent jets and diffusion processes - free turbulence, diffusion 131
processes in nonhomogeneous fluids
8.7. Basic approach to multiphase flow 136
Course Learning Materials 139
Theory Homeworks 140

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TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Syllabus

University Ss Cyril and Methodius

TEMPUS JEP DEREC

Course syllabus prepared by Prof. Aleksandar Nošpal from the University Ss Cyril and
Methodius and Prof. Petros Anagnostoupolos from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

COURSE TITLE: FLUID MECHANICS

COURSE NUMBER:

Time schedule:

9 credits (25x9=225 learning hours)

ECTS distribution:
Lecture time: 89 hours (54 hours lectures + 35 hours tutorials)
Laboratory work: 10 hours
Self study: 120 hours
Testing, exams, presentations: 6 hours
TOTAL: 225 hours

Week class distribution (lecturs + tutorials/lab. practising): 4+5

COURSE CONVENOR Prof. Dr. Aleksandar Nošpal

COURSE AIMS:

Knowledge of:
fundamentals and application of the Fluid Mechanics; basic laws and fundamental concepts of fluid
flows; basic considerations of Experimental Fluid Mechanics and CFD; methods and examples of
Applied Fluid Mechanics - characteristic for the engineering practice and especially Environmental
and Resources Engineering.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

By the end of this module students should be able to:

solve basic and practical fluid flow problems from the field of Applied Fluid Mechanics; be better
prepared for further knowledge acceptance needed for experimental and CFD methods;
understand better other subjects in the area of Environmental and Resources Engineering.

TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS

lecturing, tutorials, laboratory work, presentation of video materials, use of Internet, self-study,
homework preparation

DETAILS OF ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS

active participation on classes, homework and lab assignments, knowledge assessment on tests

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TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Syllabus

SUMMARY DESCRIPTION OF ASSESSMENT

Grading system is given by the following table:

Assessment Points Percentage
Active participation 30 10
Homeworks 1,2,3 30 10
Homeworks 4,5,6 30 10
Midterm test 90 30
Final test 99 33
Lab work 21 7
Total 300 100
Quality grading is realized by the following table:
Points Grade Equivalent
271-300 10 А
241-270 9 B
211-240 8 C
181-210 7 D
151-180 6 D-

BACKGROUND READING - BASIC TEXTS

Street R.L., Watters G.Z., Vennard J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, 7th editiond, 1996,
ISBN: 978-0-471-01310-5

Bundalevski T., : Mechanics of Fluids (in Macedonian), University Ss Cyril and Methodius, publisher MB-3,
Skopje, 1995, ISBN 9989-704-01-5

Virag Z., : Fluid Mechanics - selected chapters, examples and problems (in Croation), University of Zagreb,
Faculty of mechanical Engineering, 2002

Nospal A.: "Fluid Flow Measurments and Instrumentation" (in Macedonian), University Ss Cyril and
Methodius, publisher MB-3, Skopje, 1995, iSBN 9989-704-02-3
Stojkovski V., Nošpal A., Kostic.Z.,: "Practicum for Laboratory Works for the Subject Fluid Flow
Measurements and Instrumentation", edition for students of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje,
1993.
Nošpal A., Stojkovski V.,: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the DEREC subject,
edition of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje, 2007/2008
Professors from EU DEREC Universities: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the
DEREC subject, Educational Material prepared by professors from EU DEREC Universities, 2007/2008

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TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Syllabus

SYLLABUS:

1. Introduction to the Fluid Mechanics

1.1. The importance of the Fluid Mechanics for the Science and Engineering; the importance for
Environmental and Resources Engineering
1.2. Fundamental dimensions, dimensional homogeneity and fundamental units of measurement.
1.3. Properties and states of fluids - pressure, temperature, density, specific weight, viscosity, specific
heat, internal energy, bulk modulus of elasticity and compressibility, velocity of sound, equations of
state
1.4. Forces on a fluid element and pressure
2. Statics of fluids
2.1. Basic laws - hydrostatic pressure, Euler's equations of equilibrium
2.2. Equilibrium in gravity field - incompressible fluid in gravity field, hydrostatic manometers, Pascal's
law, relative equilibrium of fluid (translation and rotation of a liquid container), pressure force on a
flat and curved surface, buoyant forces
3. Kinematics of flow
3.1. Flow field - properties of flow field, Lagrangean versus Eulerian aproach, steady and unsteady flow
3.2. Velocity, stream line versus path line, stream function, stream tube, velocity gradient and shear
3.3. Volume flow, flux and circulation
3.4. Continuity equations
3.5. Acceleration

4. Dynamics of inviscid (ideal) fluid flow

4.1. Forces on a inviscid fluid element, 3-D and 2-D flows, Euler's equations for inviscid fluid flow
4.2. One dimensional gravity flow - Bernoulli's equation
4.3. Potential flow - differential equations, Cauchy-Lagrange and Bernoulli equation
4.4. The continuity equation in integral form
4.5. Equations of momentum and energy
5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid
5.1. Stream tube control volume. Basic equations for flows through a stream tube
5.2. Some examples of steady flow of incompressible fluid - Venturi tube, discharge through nozzles
from a reservoir into the atmosphere, submerged discharge, flow through a rotating tube, cavitation
5.3. Basic consideration of compressible fluid flow
5.4. Some examples for the momentum equations application - force on a bended pipe, jet reaction,
basic equation of the turbo-machines
6. Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow
6.1. General concept of viscous fluid flow - Newton's law for shear stress, flow classification, laminar
versus turbulent flow
6.2. Fundamental equations for laminar flow - stresses in a viscous fluid flow, friction forces, Navier-
Stokes equations
6.3. Fundamental concepts and solutions of the governing equations for some cases of laminar flow
6.4. Fundamental concepts and equations for creeping motions and two-dimensional boundary layer
6.5. The notion of resistance, drag, and lift
6.6. Basic concepts of incompressible viscous fluid turbulent flow - Reynolds experiment and Reynolds
number, velocity in turbulent flow, Reynolds equations for turbulent flow of incompressible fluid
6.7. Concepts for solving governing equations of viscous fluid flow - features of theoretical methods,
experimental and semi-empirical approach, CFD approach.
7. Basic consideration of Experimental Fluid Mechanics
7.1. Basic approach to the Dimensional Analysis - dimensional homogeneity, Rayleigh method, the
significance of non-dimensional relationships and numbers, Vaschy's theorem.
7.2. Basic approach to the experimental investigation and application of the similarity theory - similarity
criteria for characteristic flow conditions

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TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Syllabus

8. Methods and examples of Applied Fluid Mechanics

8.1. Basic equations of flow in conduits and pipes - velocity distribution and average velocity; pressure;
continuity equation; Bernoulli equation; momentum law; energy losses linear and local losses
8.2. Laminar and turbulent incompressible flows in pipes - velocity profiles for turbulent flow, velocity
and friction laws, roughness effects, examples for pipe-flow computation
8.3. Incompressible flow in noncircular ducts - friction losses in closed conduits, two dimensional flows
8.4. Flow in prismatic open channels - one dimensional open-channel equations, head-loss equations,
velocity and friction laws for two-dimensional channels, computation examples
8.5. Immersed bodies, drag and lift - hydrodynamic forces and force coefficients, drag of symmetrical
bodies, lift and drag of nonsymmetrical bodies
8.6. Basic approach to turbulent jets and diffusion processes - free turbulence, diffusion processes in
nonhomogeneous fluids
8.7. Basic approach to multiphase flow

Distribution of the material by weeks:

Week 1: 1.1.; 1.2.;

Week 2: 1.3.;
Week 3: 1.4.; 2.1
Week 4: 2.2
Week 5: 3.1.; 3.2.; 3.3;
Week 6: 3.4.; 4.1.; 4.2.;
Week 7: 4.3; 4.4; 4.5.
Week 8: 5.1; 5.2.
Week 9: 5.3; 5.4.
Week 10: 6.1.; 6.2.; 6.3.; 6.4.
Week 11: 6.5.; 6.6.; 6.7.
Week 12: 7.1.; 7.2.
Week 13: 8.1.; 8.2.;
Week 14: 8.3.; 8.4.; 8.5.;.
Week 15: 8.6.; 8.7.;

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TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Unite Guide

UNIT GUIDE TEMPUS JEP DEREC

Unit Title: FLUID MECHANICS
Mode:
Co Requisites: Solid Mechanics
Pre Requisites Mathematics II and Solid Mechanics
Lectures: 54 hours
Tutorials: 35 hours
Lab practicing: 10 hours
Individual Study Hours: 120 hours
Study Hours: 225 hours
Method of Assessment: active participation on classes, homework and lab
assignments, knowledge assessment on tests
Study year: II
Semester: III
ECST Credit Value: 9
Web support http://www.derec.ukim.edu.mk
Module:
Level: undergraduate
Subject Area: Environmental and Resources Engineering
Unit Coordinator: Prof. Dr Aleksandar Nošpal
Version: english/macedonian

MOTIVATION
To ensure knowledge transfer to the students in a field and subject very important for the foreseen studies of
Environmental and Resources Engineering.

SHORT DESCRIPTION
The unit (subject) is planned acoording the following main course parts:
Introduction to the Fluid Mechanics; Statics of Fluids; Kinematics of Fluids; Dynamics of ideal fluid flow;
Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid; Some fudamental concepts of viscous fluid flow; Basic consideration
of Experimental Fluid Mechanics; Method and Examples of Applied Fluid Mechanics

AIMS
Knowledge of:
fundamentals and application of the Fluid Mechanics; basic laws and fundamental concepts of fluid flows;
basic considerations of Experimental Fluid Mechanics and CFD; methods and examples of Applied Fluid
Mechanics - characteristic for the engineering practice and especially Environmental and Resources
Engineering.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Students who complete this course should be able to perform the following tasks:
to solve basic and practical fluid flow problems from the field of Applied Fluid Mechanics; to be better
prepared for further knowledge acceptance needed for experimental and CFD methods; to understand better
other subjects in the area of Environmental and Resources Engineering.

TRANSFERABLE SKILLS
At the end of the unit students will be able to:
continue more efficiently his further studies in the field of Environmental and Resources Engineering, or other
engineering studies if he plans such a transfer.

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TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Unite Guide

INDICATIVE CONTENT

Introduction to the Fluid Mechanics: The importance of the Fluid Mechanics; Fundamental dimensions and units of
measurement; Properties and states of fluids; Forces on a fluid element and pressure.
Statics of fluids: Basic laws - hydrostatic pressure, Euler's equations; Equilibrium in gravity field -incompressible fluid in
gravity field, hydrostatic manometers, Pascal's law, relative equilibrium of fluid, pressure force on a flat and curved surface,
buoyant forces.
Kinematics of flow: Flow field - properties of flow field, Lagrangean versus Eulerian aproach, steady and unsteady
flow; Velocity, stream line and stream function, stream tube, velocity gradient and shear; Volume flow, flux and
circulation; Continuity equations; Acceleration.
Dynamics of inviscid fluid flow: Forces on a inviscid fluid element, Euler's equations for inviscid fluid flow;One
dimensional gravity flow - Bernoulli's equation; Potential flow - Cauchy-Lagrange and Bernoulli equation; The continuity
equation in integral form; Equations of momentum and energy.
Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid: Stream tube control volume. Basic equations for flows through a stream
tube; Some examples of steady flow of incompressible fluid - Venturi tube, discharge through nozzles from a reservoir
into the atmosphere, submerged discharge, flow through a rotating tube, cavitation; Basic consideration of compressible
fluid flow; Some examples for the momentum equations application - force on a bended pipe, jet reaction, basic equation of the
turbo-machines.
Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow: General concept of viscous fluid flow - Newton's law for shear
stress, flow classification; Fundamental equations for laminar flow - Navier-Stokes equations; Bases of creeping motions
and two-dimensional boundary layer; The notion of resistance, drag, and lift; Basic concepts of incompressible viscous
fluid turbulent flow - Reynolds number, velocity in turbulent flow, Reynolds equations; Concepts for solving governing
equations - experimental and CFD approach.
Basic consideration of Experimental Fluid Mechanics: Basic approach to the Dimensional Analysis - Rayleigh's
method and Vaschy's theorem; Basic approach to the experimental investigation and application of the similarity theory -
similarity criteria for characteristic flow conditions.
Methods and examples of Applied Fluid Mechanics: Basic equations of flow in conduits and pipes - velocity
distribution, pressure, continuity equation, Bernoulli equation, momentum law, energy losses; Laminar and turbulent
incompressible flows in pipes - velocity profiles, velocity and friction laws, roughness effects, examples for pipe-flow
computation; Bases of incompressible flow in noncircular ducts; Bases of flow in prismatic open channels; Immersed
bodies, drag and lift - hydrodynamic forces and force coefficients, drag and lift; Basic approach to turbulent jets and
diffusion processes; Basic approach to multiphase flow.

CONTENT

WEEKLY TEACHING PLAN AND LEARNING PROGRAMME

Week Lectures Tutorials and Lab practicing
1. Introduction to the Fluid Mechanics:
The importance of the Fluid Mechanics for the Science and Video materials presentations of H. Rouse (from
1 Engineering; the importance for Environmental and Resources IIHR) and A. Shapiro (from MIT).
Engineering; Notion of some useful web sites.
Fundamental dimensions, dimensional homogeneity and
fundamental units of measurement;
Properties and states of fluids - pressure, temperature, density,
specific weight, viscosity, specific heat, internal energy, bulk Examples and problems from measurment units.
2 modulus of elasticity and compressibility, velocity of sound, Examples and problems from fluids properties.
equations of state;
Forces on a fluid element and pressure.
3 2. Statics of fluids: Examples and problems from Statics of fluids.
Basic laws - hydrostatic pressure, Euler's equations of equilibrium
Equilibrium in gravity field - incompressible fluid in gravity field,
4 hydrostatic manometers, Pascal's law, relative equilibrium of fluid
(translation and rotation of a liquid container), pressure force on a
Examples and problems from Statics of fluids.
flat and curved surface, buoyant forces
3. Kinematics of flow:
Flow field - properties of flow field, Lagrangean versus Eulerian
Lab measurements of some fluid properties.
5 aproach, steady and unsteady flow;
Lab measurements of pressure.
Velocity, stream line versus path line, stream function, stream
tube, velocity gradient and shear;
Volume flow, flux and circulation;
Continuity equations; Acceleration
4. Dynamics of inviscid (ideal) fluid flow:
Examples and problems from Dinamics of inviscid
6 Forces on a inviscid fluid element, 3-D and 2-D flows, Euler's fluid flow.
equations for inviscid fluid flow;
One dimensional gravity flow - Bernoulli's equation;

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TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Unite Guide
Potential flow - differential equations, Cauchy-Lagrange and
Examples and problems from Dinamics of inviscid
7 Bernoulli equation; The continuity equation in integral form;
fluid flow.
Equations of momentum and energy.
5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid
Stream tube control volume. Basic equations for flows through a
stream tube; Examples and problems from some elementary
8 Some examples of steady flow of incompressible fluid - Venturi flows of inviscid fluid.
tube, discharge through nozzles from a reservoir into the
atmosphere, submerged discharge, flow through a rotating tube,
cavitation;
Basic consideration of compressible fluid flow;
9 Some examples for the momentum equations application - force Problems for the momentum equations application.
on a bended pipe, jet reaction, basic equation of the turbo-machines.
6. Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow
General concept of viscous fluid flow - Newton's law for shear
stress, flow classification, laminar versus turbulent flow; Some basic laboratory measurments of fluid flow
10 Fundamental equations for laminar flow - stresses in a viscous velocity; and volume and mass flow rate.
fluid flow, friction forces, Navier-Stokes equations;
Fundamental concepts and equations for creeping motions and
two-dimensional boundary layer
The notion of resistance, drag, and lift;
Basic concepts of incompressible viscous fluid turbulent flow - Some video presentations for the fundamental
Reynolds experiment and Reynolds number, velocity in turbulent concepts of viscous fluid flow.
11 flow, Reynolds equations for turbulent flow of incompressible fluid; Some examples for solving the governing equations
Concepts for solving governing equations of viscous fluid flow - experimental and CFD aproach.
- experimental and semi-empirical approach, CFD approach.
7. Basic consideration of Experimental Fluid Mechanics
Basic approach to the Dimensional Analysis - dimensional Some examples and problems for Dimensional
homogeneity, Rayleigh method, the significance of non- Analysis Application.
12 dimensional relationships and numbers, Vaschy's theorem; Some examples and problems for Similarity Theory
Basic approach to the experimental investigation and application of Application.
the similarity theory - similarity criteria for characteristic flow
conditions.
8. Methods and examples of Applied Fluid Mechanics
Basic equations of flow in conduits and pipes - velocity distribution
and average velocity, pressure, continuity equation, Bernoulli Examples and problems from Appled Fluid
13 equation, momentum law, energy losses linear and local losses; Mechanics.
Laminar and turbulent incompressible flows in pipes - velocity
profiles for turbulent flow, velocity and friction laws, roughness
effects, examples for pipe-flow computation;
Incompressible flow in noncircular ducts - friction losses in closed
conduits, two dimensional flows;
Flow in prismatic open channels - one dimensional open-channel Examples and problems from Applied Fluid
equations, head-loss equations, velocity and friction laws for two- Mechanics.
14 dimensional channels, computation examples; Examples for some measurements in Applied Fluid
Immersed bodies, drag and lift - hydrodynamic forces and force Mechanics.
coefficients, drag of symmetrical bodies, lift and drag of
nonsymmetrical bodies;
Basic approach to turbulent jets and diffusion processes - free
Examples and problems from Appled Fluid
15 turbulence, diffusion processes in nonhomogeneous fluids;
Mechanics.
Basic approach to multiphase flow.

TEACHING METHOD

lecturing, tutorials, laboratory work, presentation of video materials, use of Internet, self-study,
homework preparation

ASSESSMENT METHOD
Active participation on classes - 30 points (10%)
Homework assignments (6 homeworks) - 60 points (20%)
Laboratory work - 21 points (7%)
Knowledge assessment on tests – 189 points (63%)

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TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Unite Guide

GRADING

Grading system is given by the following table:

Assessment Points Percentage
Active participation 30 10
Homeworks 1,2,3 30 10
Homeworks 4,5,6 30 10
Midterm test 90 30
Final test 99 33
Lab work 21 7
Total 300 100

Quality grading is realized by the following table:

Points Grade Equivalent
271-300 10 А
241-270 9 B
211-240 8 C
181-210 7 D
151-180 6 D-

COURSE LEARNING MATERIALS

Textbook
Street R.L., Watters G.Z., Vennard J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, 7th editiond, 1996,
ISBN: 978-0-471-01310-5

Bundalevski T., : Mechanics of Fluids (in Macedonian), University Ss Cyril and Methodius, publisher MB-3,
Skopje, 1995, ISBN 9989-704-01-5

Nošpal A., Stojkovski V.,: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the DEREC subject,
edition of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje, 2007/2008
Professors from EU DEREC Universities: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the
DEREC subject, Educational Material prepared by professors from EU DEREC Universities, 2007/2008

Tutorial
Nošpal A., Stojkovski V.,: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the DEREC subject,
edition of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje, 2007/2008
Professors from EU DEREC Universities: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the
DEREC subject, Educational Material prepared by professors from EU DEREC Universities, 2007/2008

Lab practicum
Nospal A.: "Fluid Flow Measurments and Instrumentation" (in Macedonian), University Ss Cyril and
Methodius, publisher MB-3, Skopje, 1995, iSBN 9989-704-02-3
Stojkovski V., Nošpal A., Kostic.Z.,: "Practicum for Laboratory Works for the Subject Fluid Flow
Measurements and Instrumentation", edition for students of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje,
1993.
Stojkovski V., Nošpal A.,: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the DEREC subject,
edition of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje, 2007/2008
Professors from EU DEREC Universities: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the
DEREC subject, Educational Material prepared by professors from EU DEREC Universities, 2007/2008

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TEMPUS JEP DEREC Fluid Mechanics Unite Guide

Web support
http://www.derec.ukim.edu.mk

BACKGROUND

TEMPUS JEP DEREC MATERIALS

UNIVERSITIES CONSORTIUM: University of Florence, University Sts. Cyril and Methodius,
Aristotele University of Thessaloniki, Ruhr University Bochum, Vienna University of Technology

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 1

1. Introduction to the Fluid Mechanics

1.1. The importance of the Fluid Mechanics for the Science and Engineering; the
importance for Environmental and Resources Engineering

Definition:
physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in motion, and with engineering
applications and devices using fluids.

A fluid is defined as a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress
regardless of the magnitude of the applied stress. It is a subset of the phases of matter and includes
liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids.

Fluids are also divided into liquids (incompressible fluids) and gases (compressible fluids).

Physics ⇒ Mechanics ⇒ Fluid Mechanics

Continuum Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is basic to such diverse fields as aeronautics , chemical, civil, mechanical
engineering, meteorology, naval architecture, oceanography.

Fluid mechanics can be subdivided into two major areas:

fluid statics, or hydrostatics, which deals with fluids at rest, and
fluid dynamics, concerned with fluids in motion.

The term hydrodynamics is applied to the flow of liquids or to low-velocity gas flows in which the
gas can be considered as being essentially incompressible.

Aerodynamics or gas dynamics is concerned with the behaviour of gases when velocity and pressure
changes are sufficiently large to require inclusion of the compressibility effects.

Hydraulics:
application of fluid mechanics to engineering devices involving liquids, usually water or oil.
Hydraulics deals with such problems as the flow of fluids through pipes or in open channels and the
design of storage dams, pumps, and water turbines. With other devices it deals with the control or
use of liquids, such as nozzles, valves, jets, and flowmeters.

Applications of fluid mechanics include also jet propulsion, gas and vapor turbines, compressors
etc.
∴ Fluid Mechanics - extremly important for Environmental and Resources engineering.
Web sites references:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_mechanics; uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761578780/Fluid_Mechanics.html
www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110311/fluid-mechanics
http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/index.htm; http://www.iihr.uiowa.edu; The Science of All Things Fluid
⇒ Video Presentation:
Hunter Rouse: Introduction to the Study of Fluid Motion

A. Nospal 1. Introduction to the Fluid Mechanics

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 2

1.2. Fundamental dimensions, dimensional homogeneity and fundamental units of

measurement

Equations in physics have dimensional homogeneity - not only because of their theoretical
derivation but also due to the way of measurements of the physical quantities.
Definition:
All members in an equation have the same physical meaning and are expressed with same
measurement units.
Example:
A form of the Bernoulli equation
ρv2 ρ v02
p +γh+ = p0 + γ h0 +
2 2
All three members are/present pressure:
p - flow pressure;
γh - hydrostatic pressure;
ρv 2
- dynamic pressure
2
All members have same dimensional formula - [FL – 2 ] i.e. [ML – 1 T – 2 ],
and are expressed with same units - [N/m2].

⇒
Fundamental Quantities, Dimensions and Units:
⇒ Fundamental Quantities in Mechanics and Fluid Mechanics:
• Length, Mass, Time, Temperature
⇒ Fundamental Dimensions - L,M,T,θ
⇒ Fundamental Units of Measurement (SI) - m, kg, s, K
• Length, Force, Time, Temperature
⇒ Fundamental Dimensions - L,F,T,θ
⇒ Fundamental Units of Measurement (SI) - m, N, s, K

⇒ Dimensional formulae

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 3

Dimensional Formulae and Measurment Units

a) Geometric Quantity

Quantity Symbol Dimensions Measurement units

Old
M,L,T,θ F,L,T,θ SI
technical
Length l, r, a, b L L m m
2 2 2
Area/Surface A L L m m2
Volume V L3 L3 m3 m3
Curvature C=1/R L-1 L-1 m-1 m-1
Hydraulic radius R L L m m
Roughness k L L m m
Wave length λ L L m m
Angle α, β, γ,... _ _ rad ; 0 rad ; 0
Resistance moment
W L3 L3 m3 m3
/First moment of area
Geometric moment
of inertia I L4 L4 m4 m4

b) Kinematic Quantities

Quantity Symbol Dimensions Measurement units

Old
M,L,T,θ F,L,T,θ SI
technical
Time t T T s s

Rate of deformation ∂v j / ∂xi T-1 T-1 s-1 s-1

Angular velocity ω T-1 T-1 s-1 s-1
Frequency f T-1 T-1 s-1 s-1
Angular acceleration ω& T-2 T-2 s-2 s-2
Velocity u, v, w LT-1 LT-1 m/s m/s
-2 -2 2
Acceleration a,v& LT LT m/s m/s2
Volume flow rate Q L3T-1 L3T-1 m3/s m3/s
2D flow rate q L2T-1 L2T-1 m2/s m2/s
Circulation Γ L2T-1 L2T-1 m2/s m2/s
Kinematic viscosity ν L2T-1 L2T-1 m2/s m2/s
r r r
Vorticity Ω= ∇× v T-1 T-1 s-1 s-1

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c) Dynamic Quantities

Quantity Symbol Dimensions Measurement units

Old
M,L,T,θ F,L,T,θ SI
technical
Mass m M FT2L-1 kg kps2/m
Force F MLT-2 F kgm/s2=N kp
Pressure p ML-1T-2 FL-2 N/m2 kp/m2
Stress σ, τ ML-1T-2 FL-2 N/m2 kp/m2
Pressure gradient Δp/Δxj ML-2T-2 FL-3 N/m3 kp/m3
Density ρ ML-3 FT2L-4 kg/m3 kps2/m4
Specific weight γ ML-2T-2 FL-3 N/m3 kp/m3
r
Momentum, Impulse r M, r MLT-1 FT kgm/s kps
K = mv

Angular momentum H=mr2ω ML2T-1 FLT kgm2/s kpms

r r
Momentum flux, FR = ρ Qv
Momentum force MLT-2 F kgm/s2 kp
r r
Moment of momentum Mk , Mm ML2T-1 FLT Nms kpms
Moment of force, r r
Torque M , MT , T ML2T-2 FL Nm kpm
Mass moment of
inertia J ML2 FLT2 kgm2 kpms2
Relative atomic mass
A 1 1 1 1
Relative molecular
mass M 1 1 1 1
Energy E ML2T-2 FL kgm2/s2=J kpm
2 -2
Work W ML T FL J=Nm kpm
h=
Hydraulic head v2/2g+p/γ +z L L Nm/N kpm/kp
gh =
Energy per unit mass 2 L2T-2 L2T-2 m2/s2 m2/s2
v /2+p/ρ +gz
Power P ML2T-3 FLT-1 W=J/s kpm/s
Dynamic viscosity μ, η ML-1T-1 FTL-2 Ns/m2 kps/m2

Eddy viscosity ε ML-1T-1 FTL-2 kg/ms kps/m2

Modulus of elasticity E ML-1T-2 FL-2 N/m2 kp/m2

Bulk modulus of EV FL-2 N/m2 kp/m2
elasticity ML-1T-2
= Δp/(ΔV/V)
Mass flow rate m,
& q MT-1 FTL-1 kg/s kps/m
Surface tension σ MT-2 FL-1 N/m kp/m
Mass diffusion
coefficient. k, D L2T-1 L2T-1 m2/s m2/s
Concentration of
mass c ML-3 FL4T-2 kg/m3 kpm4/s2

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d) Thermodynamic Quantities

Quantity Symbol Dimensions Measurement units

Old
M,L,T,θ F,L,T,θ SI
technical
0
Temperature T θ θ K C, 0K
0
Temperature gradient ΔT/Δxi L-1θ L-1θ K/m C/m
kcal=
Quantity of heat Q ML2T-2 FL J=Nm 427 kpm
Thermal conductivity
λ MLT-3θ-1 FT-1θ-1 W/mK kcal/sm0K
coefficient
Entropy S, dS ML2T-2θ-1 FLθ-1 J/K kcal/0K
Enthalpy I, H ML2T-2 FL J kcal
Gas constant R L2T-2θ-1 L2T-2θ-1 J/kgK kcal/kg0K
Specific heat cp, cv L2T-2θ-1 L2T-2θ-1 J/kgK kcal/kg0K

Specific entalpy i, h L2T-2 L2T-2 J/kg kcal/kg

Specific entropy s L2T-2θ-1 L2T-2θ-1 J/kgK kcal/kg0K

Heat flux density qH MT-3 FL-1T-1 W/m2 kcal/m2s

Thermal diffusion
coefficient χ L2T-1 L2T-1 m2/s m2/s

1.3. Properties and states of fluids

- pressure, temperature, density, specific weight, viscosity, specific heat, internal energy, bulk modulus of
elasticity and compressibility, velocity of sound, equations of state

Pressure:
Property defined as force per unit area:
Fp
p= (1-1)
A
F p - force applied on a surface A in a direction perpendicular to that surface.
.
Dimensional formula: [P] = ML-1T-2 = FL-2 .

Units:

International System of Units (SI):

1 Pa = 1 N/m2 ; 1 bar = 10 5 Pa .
N = kgm/s2

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Old "technical":
1 kp/m2 ≈ 1 mmH2O = 9,81 Pa
1 at = 1 kp/cm2 = 0,981 bar
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 1,01325 bar
1 Torr = 1 mmHg = 133,322 Pa

Old British:
1 pound/sq.in. (p.s.i) = 703,1 kp/m2 = 6,895 kN/m2
1 pound/sq.ft. (p.s.ft.) = 4,882 kp/m2 = 47,88 N/m2

See Table of units in the literature

Kinds of pressure - explained later on:

Fluid fow pressure = static presure,
Dynamic pressure,
Total pressure,
Absolute pressure,
Atmospheric pressure,
Gauge pressure,
Vacuum,
Hydrostatic pressure etc

Temperature:

Temperature is a fundamental physical property (quantity) of a system that underlies the common
notions of hot and cold - the level of heat of a fluid.
On the molecular level, temperature is the result of the motion of particles which make up a
substance.
Changes in temperature causes changes in other properties.

Symbol: T, t

Dimensional formula: θ

Units:

SI:
K = Kelvin
0
C = Degree Celsius
K = 273,16 + [0C] (1-2)
Old British:
0
F - Degree Fahrenheit's:
[ 0 C ] = 95 {[ 0 F ] − 32}; [ 0 F ] = 95 [ 0 C ] + 32 (1-3)

Kinds of temperature - explained later on: Fluid flow temperature; Total (stagnation) temperature
etc - simlaer to pressure.

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Density:
Density (or specific mass) is defined as ratio of mass and volume:

Δm m
ρ= = (1-4)
ΔV V
Dimensional formula: ML-3
Units:
SI System: kg/m3
∴ ρ = f ( p, T )
For liquids (or incompressible fluids):
1 dV 1 dρ
Coefficient of thermal expansion: α= =− 1/0C
V dT ρ dT
∴ For values of ρ and α , for diferent fluids, see the corresponding tables in the literature
In the book of T. Bundalevski the symbol β is used ( α = β )
For gasses (or compressible fluids) - depending the process of change:
p
- Equation of state for ideal gass: = RT R - gass constant ⇒ see tables in the literature.
ρ
p
- Equation for Isentropic adiabatic process: = const
ρκ

Specific weight:
Defined as weight per unit volume:
ΔG Δmg
γ = = = ρg (1-5)
ΔV ΔV

Dimensional formula: FL-3 = ML-2T-2

Units:
SI System: N/m3
∴ For values for diferent fluids see the corresponding tables in the literature

Viscosity:
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to deform under shear stress. It is commonly
perceived as "thickness", or resistance to flow. ⇒ see Fig. 1.1.
Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid
friction.

In general, in any flow, layers move at different velocities and the fluid's viscosity arises from the
shear stress between the layers that ultimately opposes any applied force.

According Isaac Newton (for so called Newtonian fluids):

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 8
dv
τ =μ (1-6)
dn

τ - shear stress in N/m2;

dv - rate of angular deformation (velocity gradient) in s-1;
dn
μ - Dynamic (absolute) viscosity in Ns/m2; in some literature the symbol η is used ( μ = η ).
SI units: kg/ms=Ns/m2; P = dyns/cm2 = g/cms = 0,1 Ns/m2; cP = 10-2 P

Kinematic viscosity, ν , is very often used in the hydraulic computations. Kinematic viscosity is
defined as ratio of the dynamic viscosity μ and density ρ :
μ
ν= (1-7)
ρ
SI units: m2/s; St = cm2/s = 10-4 m2/s ; cSt = 10-2 St = 10-6 m2/s ; mSt = 10-3 St

ν = f ( p, T )

∴ For values of μ and ν , for different fluids, see the corresponding tables and diagrams in the
literature

Fig. 1.1: Laminar shear of fluid between two plates

Specific heat, c:

Specific heat capacity, also known simply as specific heat, is the ratio of the quantity of heat
flowing into a substance per unit mass to the change in temperatutre
= measure of the heat energy required to increase the temperature of one kg of a substance by one
Kelvin.

Dimensional formula: L2T-2θ-1

SI units: J/kgK

c p = specific heat at constant pressure;

cv = specific heat at constant volume.
∴ For values for diferent fluids see the corresponding tables in the literature

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Specific internal energy, u:

Defined as energy per unit mass, due to the kinetic and potential energies bound into the substance
by its molecular activity and depends primarily on temperature.

∴ For values for diferent fluids and temperatures, see the corresponding tables in the
literature - experimentaly obtained.
For a perfect (ideal) gass:
du = cv dt (1-8)

For c v = const : u 2 − u1 = cv (T2 − T1 )

SI units: J/kg

Specific entalpy, i:
Sum of the internal energy and energy due to the pressure change:
p
i=u+ (1-9)
ρ
SI units: J/kg

For a perfect (ideal) gass:

p
d (u + ) = c p dT
ρ
For c p = const
p p
(u + ) 2 − (u + )1 = c p (T2 − T1 )
ρ ρ
∴ For values for diferent fluids and temperatures, see the corresponding tables in the
literature - experimentaly obtained.

Compressibility and Bulk modulus of elasticity:

Compressibility β is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a
pressure (or mean stress) change:
1 dV 1 dρ
β =− =+ (1-8)
V dp ρ dp
The bulk modulus of elasticity is defined as reciprocal of compresibility:
1 dp dp
EV = =− =+ (1-9)
β dV V dρ ρ

The sign (-) shows that for p ↑ ⇒ V ↓

SI units for EV : N/m2
∴ Liquids (incompressible fluids) have large values of EV .

∴ For values for diferent fluids see the corresponding tablesand diagrams in the literature
For water EV = 2,06 × 10 5 N/cm2

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Velocity of sound, c:
Associated with each state of a substance, according Laplace formula:

c = dp dρ = EV ρ (1-10)

p cp
In case of isentropic adiabatic process of a gass: = const ; κ=
ρκ cv
From (1-9) ⇒ E v = κp ⇒ c = κp ρ

For liquids c is determined from experimental values of EV ⇒ tables and dyagrams in the literature.

Vapor pressure, pv - cavitation presuure, pk:

Vapor pressure is the pressure of a vapor in equilibrium with its non-vapor phases.
All solids and liquids have a tendency to evaporate to a gaseous form, and all gases have a tendency
to condense back.
At any given temperature, for a particular substance, there is a partial pressure at which the gas of
that substance is in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid or solid forms. This is the vapor pressure of
that substance at that temperature.

Cavitation (explained later on) = rapid (almost "explosive") change of of phase from liquid to
vapor
∴ p k ≈ p v = f (liquidtype, T ) ⇒ see the corresponding tables and dyagrams in the
literature - experimentaly obtained.
Surface energy and surface tension, σ:
At boundaries between gas and liquid phases or between different immiscible liquids, molecular
attraction introduces forces which cause the interface to behave like a membrane under tension.
Surface tension is an effect within the surface layer of a liquid that causes that layer to behave as an
elastic sheet.
This effect allows insects (such as the water strider) to walk on water. It allows small metal objects
such as needles, razor blades, or foil fragments to float on the surface of water, and causes capillary
action.
force × distance work force
σ= = =
area area length

Equations of state
An equation of state is a thermodynamic equation describing the state of matter under a given set of
physical conditions = Dependance between the fluid properties.
Liquids
The equations of state for most physical substances are complex and are expressible in simple forms
only for limited ranges of conditions.
True for liquids as well!
⇒ use of tables and graphical curves obtained mostly experimentaly ⇒ empirical formula
Important:
For wide range of pressures liquids are nearly incompressible.

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Gases
For real gases and vapors ⇒ use of tables and graphical curves obtained mostly experimentaly ⇒
empirical formula.
For gases in a highly superheated condition a useful aproximation is the theoretical equation of
state for the perfect (ideal gas) - Clapeyron's equation:

p
= RT (1-11)
ρ

An ideal gas or perfect gas is a hypothetical gas consisting of identical particles of zero volume,
with no intermolecular forces.
T - absolute temperature in K (or 0C); p - absolute pressure in N/m2; ρ - density in kg/m3;
R - gas constant in J/kgK (or J/kg0C) - for dry air R = 287 J/kg0C.

For ideal gas ⇒

κ R cp
c p = cv + R = R; cv = ; κ= (1-12)
κ −1 κ −1 cv
c p = specific heat at constant pressure;
cv = specific heat at constant volume.

∴ For values for diferent fluids see the corresponding tables in the literature

Change of state proceses for gasses

Isothermal process:
p
= RT = const (1-13)
ρ
Constant pressure process:
p = ρRT = const (1-14)

Isentropic adiabatic process:

Zero heat transfer (adiabatic proces) and no friction (isentropic)
p
= const (1-15)
ρκ
cp
κ= - adiabatic constant for the gas.
cv

∴ Additional equations can be obtained ⇒ see basic laws of Thermodynamics.

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1.4. Forces on a fluid element and pressure

Different kinds of forces acting on a fluid element with mass m in a volum V.

For example:

- Mass (or volume) force - a force proportional to the mass of the fluid element ("body force"):
Gravity force (wight): G = mg
Inertial force: Fi = ma

Centrifugal force: Fc = mω 2 r et.c

r
In general, a force per unit mass is defined: R in N/kg - force per unit mass = "body force"
∴ The force on a mass dm is:
r r r
dR = dmR = ρdVR (1-16)

- Force proportional to an area (area or surface force) - see Fig. 1.2:

r r r
dS = dP + dT = f (dA) (1-17)
r
dT - friction force
r r r
dT = 0 in case of ideal fluid and in case of fluid at rest. In that case dS = dP
r r
dP = F p - pressure force

⇒ pressure p:
dP F p
p= = (1-18)
dA A
∴ The pressure is a scalar property

Fig. 1-2: Forces proportional to an area

- Other forces acting in fluid flows: viscous forces, elastic forces, surface tension forces etc.

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2. Statics of fluids

2.1. Basic laws - hydrostatic pressure, Euler's equation of equilibrium

Hydrostatic pressure

The pressure exists in both cases of fluid at rest and flowing fluid ⇒ differences of the pressure
characteristics.
In case of fluid at rest ⇒ hydrostatic pressure.
The same term (hydro) for compressible and incompressible fluid.

Two important characteristics of hydrostatic pressure:

- it is always perpendicular to each surface in the fluid volume - which is obvious following the
pressure definition;
- Its magnitude (value) doesn’t change if that surface changes its position ⇒ the pressure value
in one point is the same in all directions!
⇒ proof according Fig. 2.1:
From the equilibrium of the surface forces on the supposed fluid tetrahedral element (with one
corner at point M) in the directions x,y,z ⇒:
p x dAx − pdA cos α = 0
p y dA y − pdA cos β = 0

p z dAz − pdA cos γ = 0

Since from Fig. 2.1: dAx = dA cos α ; dAy = dA cos β ; dAz = dA cos γ

⇒ px = p y = pz = p (2-1)

Fig. 2.1: Equilibrium of surface forces Fig. 2.2: Elementary pressure force
on a infinitesimal fluid element

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 14
r
The elementary pressure force on an elementary surface dA (Fig. 2.2) as a vector is defined as:
r r r
dFp = dP = − pdA (2-2)

⇒ The resultant pressure force over a certain surface A will be:

r r
F p = − ∫ pdA (2-3)
A

Euler's equation of equilibrium

Elementary (infinitesimal) volume in the point M - dV = dxdydz - Fig. 2.3.

Acting forces on the volume:
r
- Pressure forces P
r
- Elementary body force R in N/kg
r r r r
R = Xi + Yj + Zk (2-3)
r
X,Y and Z - components of R in x, y and z directions.
On the mass dm the total body force is:
r r
Rdm = Rρdxdydz
in the "y" direction ⇒ dmY = ρYdxdydz

Fig. 2-3: Equilibrium of forces on an elementary volume

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 15
r r
Equilibrium condition: P+R=0 (2-4)

⇒ 3 scalar equations from the vector equation (2-4):

• in the "y" direction - see Fig 2.3:

p A dxdz − p B dxdz + ρYdxdydz = 0 (2-5)
From Fig. 2.3 ⇒
In point M the pressure is: p = p ( x, y , z )
∂p dx ∂p dz
in point A: pA = p + +
∂x 2 ∂z 2
∂p ∂p dx ∂p dz
in point B: pB = p + dy + +
∂y ∂x 2 ∂z 2

∴ The equation (2-5) is easily transformed into:

∂p
ρYdy = dy (2-5a)
∂y
∂p
• in the "x" direction: ρXdx = dx (2-5b)
∂x
∂p
• in the "z" direction: ρZdz = dz (2-5c)
∂z
The equations (2-5a) to (2-5c) are known as Euler's equation of equilibrium in scalar form

The sum of the equations (2-5a) + (2-5b) + (2-5c) gives:

∂p ∂p ∂p
ρ ( Xdx + Ydy + Zdz ) = dx + dy + dz (2-6)
∂x ∂y ∂z
where
∂p ∂p ∂p
dp = dx + dy + dz (2-7)
∂x ∂y ∂z
is total pressure increase from point M(x,y,z) to point N(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz).
⇒
ρ ( Xdx + Ydy + Zdz) = dp (2-8)

(2-8) is the fundamental equation of Static of fluids

Force potential. Equipotential surfaces

r r
Elementary body force R = R ( x, y, z ) ⇒ X = X ( x, y, z ) ; Y = Y ( x, y, z ) ; Z = Z ( x, y, z )

Barotropic fluid ⇒ explicit function ρ = ρ ( p) ⇒ (2-8) transforms into;

dp
Xdx + Ydy + Zdz = (2-9)
ρ ( p)

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dp
dP = (2-10)
ρ ( p)
dp
P=∫ - generalized pressure.
ρ ( p)
∂P 1 ∂p ∂P 1 ∂p ∂P 1 ∂p
= ; = ; =
∂x ρ ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂z ρ ∂z

∴ (2-9) is transformed into:

Xdx + Ydy + Zdz = dP (2-11)
(2-11) can be integrated only if the left side is also a total differential of certain scalar function:
∂U ∂U ∂U
Xdx + Ydy + Zdz = dU = dx + dy + dz (2-12)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂U ∂U ∂U r r
X = ; Y= ; Z= - components of the resultant body force R = R ( x, y, z )
∂x ∂y ∂z

U = U ( x, y, z ) - potential of the force, or potential function.

⇒ (2-8) is transformed into:

∂U ∂U ∂U
ρ( dx + dy + dz ) = dp (2-13)
∂x ∂y ∂z
ρdU = dp (2-13a)

Equipotential surface = surface on which ρdU = dp = 0 ⇒ dU = 0

By integration it is obtained:
U = U ( x, y, z ) = const ; p = p( x, y, z ) = const on a equipotential surface

2.2. Equilibrium in gravity field

Fluid element at rest in a gravity field ⇒ only gravity force as G=mg

⇒ the only body force is in the "z" direction:

∂U
X =Y = 0; Z= = −g N/kg
∂z

∴ (2-13) is transformed into:

ρ ( Xdx + Ydy + Zdz) = − ρgdz = dp i.e.

dp = − ρgdz = −γdz (2-14)

The equation (2-14) = fundamental equation of equilibrium of fluid at rest in a gravity field.

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∂U dU
Since X = Y = 0 ; and Z = = −g ⇒ = −g
∂z dz

⇒ U = − ∫ gdz + U 0 = − gz + U 0 (2-15)

The equipotential surfaces (with U = const ; p = const ) in this case are:

U = − gz + U 0 = const
⇒ z = const (2-16)

∴ The equipotential surfaces in this case are surfaces parallel to the horizon.

The integration of the differential equation (2-14), also gives:

p z z0 z0

∫ dp = p − p
p0
0 = − ∫ γdz = ∫ γdz = g ∫ ρdz
z0 z z
(2-17)

The pressure difference is equal to the weight of the fluid column between the surfaces "z0" and "z".

Incompressible fluid in gravity field

ρ = const ; γ = ρg = const

⇒ (2-17) transforms into:

z
p − p 0 = −γ ∫ dz = γ ( z 0 − z ) = ρg ( z 0 − z ) (2-18)
z0

∴ The pressure at the "z" level will be:

p = p0 + γh = p 0 + ρgh (2-19)

h = z 0 − z = height of the liquid column between points M0 and M (see Fig. 2.6).

If the level z0 is the free surface to the atmosphere (see Fig. 2.6) ⇒
p 0 = p a = atmospheric (barometric) pressure;

∴ The pressure at the level "z" (point M) will be:

p = p a + γh = p a + ρgh (2-20)
where:
p - absolute pressure

If p > p a ⇒ pm = p − pa (2-21)

pm - over-pressure (gauge pressure)

If p < p a ⇒ pv = p a − p (2-22)
pv - vacuum (sub-pressure or negative gauge pressure).

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 18

Fig. 2.6: Liquid with free surface in gravity field

Hydrostatic manometers

Interconnected vessels ⇒ see Fig. 2.7

Fig. 2.7: Interconnected vessels

Every horizontal plane is a equipotential surface

The points A and B are laying on the same horizontal plane = equipotential surface
⇒ p A = pB
From the equation (2-19) ⇒
p A = p1 + γh1 and p B = p 2 + γh2
Since p A = p B ⇒
p 2 − p1 = γ (h1 − h2 ) = γh = ρgh (2-23)

Special case: p1 = p 2 (for example p1 = p 2 = p a ) ⇒ h=0

⇒ ∴ In open interconnected vessels the free surfaces are laying in one horizontal plane

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Hydrostatic manometer, U-tube

Special case of interconnected vessels = an instrument for measurement of gauge pressure pm

From Fig. 2.8 ⇒ p2 = p and p1 = p a ⇒
p m = p − p a = γh = ρgh (2-24)

a) b)
Fig. 2.8: Hydrostatic manometer; a) U-tube and b) Vessel manometer

The hydrostatic manometer can be used for vacuum measurement as well (vacuum-meter):
⇒ p < pa ⇒ h < 0 - the column level moves in the opposite direction (downwards).

p v = p a − p = ρgh

A variety construction of U-tube is the well-type (single-leg) manometer (see Fig. 2.8b)).

Barometer
A variety of the single-leg manometer = instrument for measurement of atmospheric (barometric)
pressure pa , see Fig. 2.9:

Fig. 2.9: Barometer Principle

In this case:
p1 = 0 - the air is completely evacuated from the tube (leg).
p 2 = p a - the pressure in the well is atmospheric (barometric) pressure.

p 2 − p1 = p a = γha = γh = ρgha (2-25)

On the sea level at normal conditions and temperature t = 15 0C :
⇒ p a = 10,1325 × 10 4 N/m2 = 1,01325 bar = 1 atm = standard (physical) atmosphere.

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 20

⇒ ha = p a / γ = 760 mmHg - barometric liquid is mercury with γ = ρg = 13,3 × 10 4 N/m3 ;

⇒ ha = p a / γ = 10,33 mWC - barometric liquid is water column with γ = ρg = 9810 N/m3.
Pascal's Law
For equilibrium of liquid at rest in gravity field in two interconnected vessels (Fig. 2.10) ⇒

pB − p A = γ (hA − hB ) (2-26)
4 P1
If in point A, pA is increased with value Δp A (e.g. Δp A = , produced by the force on the
πD 2
piston, P1 ) ⇒ in the point B ΔpB = ?
For the fluid at rest in gravity field ⇒

( pB + ΔpB ) − ( p A + Δp A ) = γ (hA − hB ) (2-27)

From the equations (2-26) and (2-27) ⇒

Δp A = Δp B (2-28)

∴ the Law of Blaise Pascal:

The pressure change in one point in liquid at rest in gravity field is transferred equally in all liquid
points (on the container wals as wel).

Fig. 2.10: Ilustration of the Pascal's Law

Example of aplication - Hydraulic press (Fig. 2.11):

a
If the acting force on the piston K2 is P2 = P
b
4 P2
⇒ Δp2 =
πd 2
According Pascal's Law ⇒ the pressure on the piston K1, Δp1 = Δp2
4 P1 4 P2 4 a
⇒ Δp1 = = 2 = 2 P
πD πd
2
πd b
2
⎛D⎞ a
⇒ P1 = ⎜ ⎟ P
⎝d⎠ b

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 21

∴ Depending the ratios D/d and a/b, higher force P1 can be performed with smaller force P
acting on the arm.

Fig. 2.11: Ilustration of a hydraulic press

Relative equilibrium of fluid

Acting forces on a fluid in rest: Gravity forces and other Body forces
In case of gravity forces only ⇒ the free surface is horizontal (normal to the gravity force).
In case of relative equilibrium (e.g. liquid at rest in moving container) ⇒ gravity forces, inertial
forces, centrifugal forces etc).
Example: Translation of a liquid container
- The container has a linear movement with constant velocity ⇒ the free surface is also
horizontal; since the gravity force is acting only.
- The container has a linear accelerated movement with constant acceleration a = const (see
Fig. 2.12):
two forces are acting: G = mg - gravity force; and Fi = −ma - inertial force.

⇒ The free surface is normal to the resultant force FR = ma , (see Fig. 2.12).

∴ The equipotential surfaces as well as the free surface are normal to the resultant force FR.

If a ≠ const the liquid will oscillate in the container (the free surface will oscillate too).

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 22

Fig. 2.12: Container with linear movement with constant acceleration

The equations of the equipotential surfaces (with p = const) can be obtained analytically from the
fundamental equation of statics of fluids (2-8):
ρ ( Xdx + Ydy + Zdz) = dp (2-8)
From Fig. 2.12 ⇒
ax = 0 ; a y = − a cos α ; a z = − a sin α

X = −a x = 0 ; Y = − a y = a cos α ; Z = − a z − g = a sin α − g

For equipotential surfaces dp = 0 in the equation (2-8) ⇒:

⇒ a cosαdy + (a sin α − g )dz = 0 (2-29)

The integrating of (2-29) gives:
ya cos α + (a sin α − g ) z = C (2-30)

At the free surface (Fig. 2.12), y = z = 0 ⇒ C = 0 , from (2-30) ⇒

ya cosα + (a sin α − g ) z = 0 (2-31)

∴ The free surface is a plane with an angle toward the horizontal obtained from:
a cos α
tan γ = (2-32)
g − sin α
The pressure change is obtained from (2-8):

⇒ ρ [a cos αdy + (a sin α − g )dz ] = dp (2-33)

The integrating gives:
ρ [ ya cos α + (a sin α − g ) z ] = p + C1

At the coordinates beginning point at the free surface: y = z = 0 , and p = pa ⇒ C1 = − pa

⇒ p = ρ [ ya cos α + (a sin α − g ) z ] + pa (2-34)

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 23
Example: Rotation of a liquid container around vertical axis
Rotation of a container with ω = const ⇒ rotation of the liquid together with the container as a
whole, as on the Fig 2.13

Fig. 2.13: Rotation of a liquid container around vertical axis

⇒ The liquid is in relative rest (equilibrium)

⇒ Acting forces per unit mass: Z = −g , Fc = rω 2

⇒ Forces per unit mass in x and y direction:

X = Fc cos α = ω 2 r cos α = ω 2 x ; Y = Fc sin α = ω 2 rsiα = ω 2 y

For equipotential surfaces dp = 0 in the equation (2-8) ⇒:

ω 2 xdx + ω 2 ydy − gdz = 0
The integrating gives:
1 2 2
2
( )
ω x + y 2 − gz = C

At the coordinates beginning point at the free surface: x = y = z = 0 , ⇒ C = 0

1 2 2 ω2
⇒
2
( )
ω x + y 2 − gz = 0 ⇒ z=
2g
r2 (2-35)

which is a rotating paraboloid.

The pressure change can be also obtained from the equation (2-8) ⇒
⎡1 ⎛1
( ) ⎤ ⎞
p = pa + ⎢ ω 2 x 2 + y 2 − gz ⎥ = pa + ρ ⎜ ω 2 r 2 − gz ⎟ (2-36)
⎣2 ⎦ ⎝2 ⎠

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 24
Pressure force on a flat and curved surface

Pressure force on a flat surface

In general the pressure force:
P = − ∫ pd A (2-37)
A

On a flat surface Fig. 2.14:

Fig. 2.14: Pressure force on a flat surface

Elementary force dP:

dP = ( p − pa )dA = ρgzdA (2-38)

⇒ P = ρg ∫ zdA (2-39)
A

The integral is the static moment of the surface A related to the free surface.
S = center of mass (gravity)
D = acting point of the pressure force; D≠S
⇒ Az S = ∫ zdA
A

⇒ P = ρgAzS = γAzS (2-40)

Coordinates of D:
From the equations: PxD = ∫ xdP and Py D = ∫ ydP (from the theoreme of Varignon),
A A

⇒ Ay S xD = ∫ xydA Ay S y D = ∫ y 2 dA
A A

J xy Jx
⇒ xD = yD = (2-41)
AyS AyS
Jxy - centrifugal moment of inertia related to x and y axis;
Jx - centrifugal moment of inertia related to x axis.

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 25
J xo
⇒ e = y D − yS = (2-42)
Ay S

J x = J xo + Ay S2 - from Steiner's theorem

Jxo - proper moment of inertia (moment of inertia about the centre of gravity S),

Example: Fig. 2.15 ( y s = z z , concerning eq. (2-40))

- for rectangular cover:
a ⎛a ⎞ a2
yS = yO + ; P = ρgab⎜ + yO ⎟ ; e=
2 ⎝2 ⎠ 6(a + 2 yO )
- for circular cover:
d 1 ⎛d ⎞ d2
yS = yO + ; P = ρgd 2π ⎜ + yO ⎟ ; e=
2 4 ⎝2 ⎠ d
16( + yO )
2

Fig. 2.15: Example - pressure force on a flat surface

Horizontal and vertical components of a pressure force - Fig. 2.16:

PH = P sin α ; PV = P cos α = ρgV (2-43)

P = γz S A ; PV = γz S A cos α ; V = z S A cos α ; γ = ρg
V = volume of the liquid column acting on the surface A (see Fig. 2-16).

Fig. 2.16: Horizontal and vertical components of a pressure force

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 26
Pressure force on horizontal bottom - Fig. 2.17:
p − pa = γh - over-pressure on any point of the bottom.

⇒ PV = ∫ pdA = γh ∫ dA = γhA = γV
A A

Fig. 2.17: Pressure force on horizontal bottom

Pressure force on a curved surface - Fig. 2.18:, Fig. 2.19:, Fig. 2.21:

dPx = dP cos α = ρgzdA cos α = ρgzdAx

dPy = dP cos β = ρ gzdA cos β = ρ gzdAy (2-44)

dPz = dP cos γ = ρ gzdA cos γ = ρgzdAz

⇒
Px = ρg ∫ zdAx =ρgz Sx Az
Ax

Py = ρg ∫ zdAx =ρgzSy Ay (2-45)

Ay

Pz = ρg ∫ zdAz =ρg ∫ dV =ρgV

Az V

V = volume of the liquid column acting on the curved surface A (see Fig. 2-21).
Pz - weight of the liquid column acting on the curved surface.

Fig. 2.18: Fig. 2.19:

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 27

Fig. 2.21:

Buoyant forces

Buoyancy is the upward force on an object produced by the surrounding fluid (i.e., a liquid or a
gas) in which it is fully or partially immersed, due to the pressure difference of the fluid between the
top and bottom of the object.

The net upward buoyancy force is equal to the magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the
body. This force enables the object to float or at least to seem lighter. Buoyancy is important for
many vehicles such as boats, ships, balloons, and airships.

Acting forces in x dirrection (fig. 2.23):

dPx1 = dPx 2 = ρgzdAx

Acting forces in vertical z dirrection (fig. 2.23):

dPz = dPz 2 − dPz1 = ρg ( z 2 − z1 )dA = ρgdV

dV - volume of the elementary vertical cylinder.

⇒ the buoyant force or Archimed's force Pz:
Pz = γ ∫ dV = γV = ρgV (2-46)
V

Fig. 2.23: Acting forces on an immersed body

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 28
Equation of floating - see Fig. 2.24 and Fig. 2.25
G - proper weight (gravitational force) of the body.
S - acting point of G (center of gravity).
D - acting point of Pz.
∴ The body is floating (Fig. 2.24b) if:
• Pz = G
• the points S and D are on a same vertical line.

∴ If S and D are not on a same vertical line, the body rotates until S and D reach the same line.
(see Fig. 2.25).
∴ If G > Pz , the body is sinking downwards.
∴ If G < Pz , the body is moving upwards until reaches the free surface (floating condition).

Fig. 2.24: Fig. 2.25

Example - prismatic body (Fig. 2.26)

- Principle of areometer (hydrometer) - instrument for measuring density/specific weight of a

fluid.

γS ρ ρ H
γ S AH = γ F Ah ⇒ h = H = S H ⇒ ρF = S
γF ρF h
ρ F - density of the fluid; ρ S - density of the body

Fig. 2.26

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 29

3. Kinematics of flow

3.1. Flow field - velocity field

Fluid flow - movement of the fluid particles.

Every particle in the fluid has different properties - difference with solid body movement.
Flow field - change of fluid flow properties (properties in every point) in space and time.

Velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle are vectors (see Fig.3.1).

∴ Velocity field - a vector field, which is used to mathematically describe the motion of the fluid.

Fig.3.1: Examples of flow field

⇒ two approaches for flow field defining - Lagrangian and Eulerian approach:

Lagrangian approach:

A point in the space determined with a position vector r L corresponds to every fluid particle with
mass dm at certain time t = 0 .

∴ The position of the fluid particle r is defined as:

r = r (r L , t ) (3-1)
r
rL - position vector, Fig. 3.1

∴ The coordinates of particles are represented as functions of time!

With application of the Newton's equation to the fluid particle ⇒ Lagrangian differential equations.
⇒ very difficult solving ⇒ the application is not practical.
The description of the entire flow field is essentially an instantaneous picture of the velocity and
acceleration of every particle.

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 30

Eulerian approach:

Approach with significant advantage.

∴ The particle velocities at various points are given as functions of time:

v = v( r , t ) (3-2)

Similar expressions for any fluid flow property can be defined; e.g.:

f = f (r , t ) (3-3)

∴ If the functions as (3-3) are defined for all fluid flow properties ⇒ the fluid flow field is
completely solved.

∂v
Steady (stationary) flow: = 0 ⇒ v = v(r )
∂t
∂v
Unsteady flow: ≠0
∂t

3.2. Velocity, streamlines and path lines, stream function, stream tube, velocity gradient
and shear

Velocity v is defined as a vector dependent of the position vector r of a point (particle) in the flow
space and time - see Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.2:

v = v( r , t ) (3-4)

In 3-D Cartesian (Descartes) coordinate system - see Fig. 3.2 and Fig. 3.3a:

d r d s dx dy dz
v= = = i + j + k = vx i + v y j + vz k (3-5)
dt dt dt dt dt
d s = d r = dx i + dy j + dz k
r
s - length along stream line (path); ds - elementary path
dx dy dz
velocity components: vx = ; vy = ; vz =
dt dt dt

velocity intensity: v = vx2 + v y2 + vz2 (3-6)

In polar coordinate system - see Fig. 3.3a):

x = r cosθ ; y = r sin θ (3-7)
vr = vx cosθ + v y sin θ ; vθ = v y cos θ − vx sin θ (3-8a)
vx = vr cos θ − vθ sin θ ; v y = vθ cosθ + vr sin θ (3-8b)

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The axisymmetric flow ( Fig. 3.3b) is defined only with the components the components vr and vz :
⇒ vx = vr cosθ ; v y = vr sin θ ; vz = vz (3-9)

Fig. 3.2: Velocity vector

Fig. 3.3: Cartesian versus polar (cylindrical) system and axisymmetric flow

Streamlines versus pathlines:

Streamlines are a family of curves that are instantaneously tangent to the velocity vector of the flow
- see Fig. 3.4.
Streamline - in every point the dirrection of the velocity is identical with the tangent line in that
point:
⇒ v = λ ds (3-10)

a) b)
Fig. 3.4: Streamlines and path lines
since: v = vx i + v y j + vz k ⇒
dx dy dz 1
= = = (3-11)
vx v y vz λ

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 32

For 2-D flow (Fig. 3.5) ⇒

dy v y
= = tan α (3-12)
dx v x

Fig. 3.5: Slope of a streamline

Pathlines are the trajectory that a fluid particle would make as it moves around with the flow.
In unsteady flow, the fluid particle will not, in general, remain on the same stream line (see Fig. 3.4b).
∴ In steady motion streamlines are the same as pathlines.

Stream function
For 2-D flows streamlines definition a stream function ψ ( x, y ) is defined!
The velocity components are defined with this function as:
∂ψ ∂ψ
vx = ; vy = − (3-13)
∂y ∂x
⇒ The differential equation for the stream line (3-12) becomes:
vx dy − v y dx = 0 (3-14a)

∂ψ ∂ψ
dx + dy = dψ = 0 (3-14b)
∂x ∂y
⇒ along a stream line ψ ( x, y ) = const (3-15)

Stream tube
A stream tube or stream filament is a small imaginary tube or "conduit" bounded by streamlines.
Because the streamlines are tangent to the flow velocity, fluid that is inside a stream tube must
remain forever within that same stream tube (see Fig. 3.6).

Fig. 3.6: Stream tube

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 33
Velocity gradients and shear
The velocity change in the vicinity of a point can be expressed in terms of the partial derivatives of
the four independent variables (x,y,z,t).
⇒ velocity change in the x-direction:
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
dvx = x dt + x dx + x dy + x dz (3-16)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Velocity changes in y and z directions can be expressed with similar expressions to (3-16).

The rate of change of the velocity in the x-direction (total derivative) is:
dvx ∂vx ∂v ∂v ∂v
= + vx x + v y x + vz x (3-17)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂vx ∂vx ∂vx ∂vx
, , , …… - velocity gradients
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂vx
= "local" change;
∂t
∂v ∂v ∂v
vx x + v y x + vz x = "convective" change.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Any other property of the fluid or its motion can be treated in this way. For example, the total rate
of density change for for compressible fluid:
dρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
= + vx + vy + vz
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
⇒ acceleration components:
dvx ∂vx ∂v ∂v ∂v
ax = = + vx x + v y x + vz x
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
dv ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
a y = y = y + vx y + v y y + vz y (3-18)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
dv ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
a z = z = z + vx z + v y z + vz z
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
⇒ steady flow - if all local accelerations are zero.
⇒ uniform flow - if all convective accelerations are zero.

Velocity gradients are also measures for rate of deformation!

For example the shear stress (equation (1-6) in Chapter 1.3):
dv
τ =μ
dn

3.3. Volume flow, flux and circulation

The volumetric flow rate, or volume flow rate, is the volume of fluid which passes through a given
surface per unit time (for example [m3/s] in SI units) - see Fig. 3.7.
For steady flow, from Fig. 3.7 ⇒ dV = dAdh = dAds cos α ; since ds = vdt ⇒

⇒ elementary volume flow rate: dQ =

dV
dt
(
= vdA cos α = vn dA = v, d A ) (3-19)

(v, d A) = scalar product of v and d A .

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 34
The entire volume flow rate through the given area A see Fig. 3.7 will be:
(
Q = ∫ dQ = ∫ v, d A = Av cos α ) (3-20)
A A

If the flow is uniform and perpendicular to the area A ( α = 900 ) - i.e. v ⊥ A , and v = const ⇒

Q = v ∫ dA = vA (3-20a)
A

Mass flow rate is the movement of mass per time. Its unit are [kg/s] in SI units:

(
m& = Qm = ∫ ρ v, d A = ρQ ) (3-21)
A

Fig. 3.7: Flow rate

Concerning Fig. 3.7:
r r
dA - elementary area which moves with a velocity v ⇒ after time dt , the fluid particles on dA
will make a path of ds ⇒ dV = dAdh = dAds cos α

Other properties connected to the velocity change can be defined:

Velocity flux (flow through the curve L ) - see Fig. 3.8:

( )
B
Φ = ∫ v, dl (3-22)
A
Velocity circulation (along the closed curve L) - see Fig. 3.8:

( )
Γ = ∫ v, dl (3-23)
L

Fig. 3.8:Velocity flux and circulation

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 35

3.4. Continuity equations

Flow through a prismatic flow element - Fig. 3.16 ⇒

- velocity in the point M: v = vx i + v y j + vz k

∂v y dx ∂v y dz
- velocity in "y" direction in the point A: vA = vy + +
∂x 2 ∂z 2
∂v y ∂v y dx ∂v y dz
- velocity in "y" direction in the point B: vB = v y + dy + +
∂y ∂x 2 ∂z 2
The rate of volume flow change in "y" direction, for incompressible fluid flow ρ = const , is:
∂v y ∂v y
δQy = (v A − vB )dxdz = − dxdydz = − dV (3-24a)
∂y ∂y
On the same manner in the "x" and "z" directions ⇒
∂v ∂v
δQx = − x dV ; δQz = − z dV (3-24b)
∂x ∂z
For compressible fluid flow, ρ ≠ const , the rate of mass flow changes Qmx, Qmy, Qmz have to be
treated ⇒:

∂ (ρvx ) ∂ (ρv y ) ∂ (ρvz )

δQmx = − dV ; δQmy = − dV ; δQmz = − dV (3-25)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Fig. 3.16: Flow through a prismatic element

The total excess of the volume flow rate δQ will be:

⎛ ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎞
δQ = δQx + δQy + δQz = −⎜⎜ x + y + z ⎟⎟dV = −dV div v (3-26)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
⎛ ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎞
div v = ⎜⎜ x + y + z ⎟⎟ - divergence of v .
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
∴ The total excess of the mass flow rate δQm (for compressible fluid) - excess of mass passing into
the element per unit time:
⎛ ∂ (ρvx ) ∂ (ρv y ) ∂ (ρvz ) ⎞
δQm = −⎜⎜ + +
∂z ⎟⎠
⎟dV = − dV div ρ v ( ) (3-27)
⎝ ∂x ∂y

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 36

The principle of conservation of matter ⇒ δQm =

∂
(dm ) = ∂ (ρdV ) = dV ∂ρ
∂t ∂t ∂t
Since dV is independent of time (the control volum dV is fixed) ⇒ The general continuity equation
for unsteady flow of compressible fluid :
∂ρ ∂ (ρvx ) ∂ (ρv y ) ∂ (ρvz )
+ + + =0 (3-28)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ρ
For steady compressible fluid flow, = 0 ⇒`
∂t
∂ (ρvx ) ∂ (ρv y ) ∂ (ρvz )
+ + =0 (3-29)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∴ The continuity equation for incompressible fluid flow, ρ = const :
∂vx ∂v y ∂vz
+ + =0 (3-30)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂vx ∂v y
For 2-D flow ⇒ + =0
∂x ∂y

3.5. Acceleration

For 3-D flow:

dv
a= = ax i + a y j + az k (3-31)
dt
Acceleration components - see (3-18):

dvx ∂vx ∂v ∂v ∂v
ax = = + vx x + v y x + vz x
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
dv ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
a y = y = y + vx y + v y y + vz y (3-18)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
dv ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
a z = z = z + vx z + v y z + vz z
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
For one-dimensional flow:

One dimensional gravity flow along a stream line "s" - see Fig. 3.17 ⇒
v = v ( s, t )
∂v ∂v
dv = dt + ds (3-32)
∂t ∂s
dv ∂v ∂v
a= = +v (3-33)
dt ∂t ∂s
where: ds = vdt is the path of the fluid particle along the streamline (see Fig. 3.17).
∂v
For steady flow, =0 ⇒
∂t
∂v
a=v (3-34)
∂s

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Fig. 3.17:One dimensional flow along a streamline

For 2-D flow:

∂
vz = 0 and = 0 , from (3-31) and (3-18) ⇒
∂z
dv
a= = ax i + a y j (3-35)
dt
dv ∂v ∂v ∂v
a x = x = x + vx x + v y x (3-36a)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y
dv ∂v ∂v ∂v
a y = y = y + vx y + v y y (3-36b)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y
∂v ∂vx ∂v y
For 2-D steady flow, = = =0 ⇒
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂vx ∂v
ax = vx + vy x (3-37a)
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v
a y = vx y + v y y (3-37b)
∂x ∂y

In polar coordinate system - see Fig. 3.3 and equations (3-8) and (3-36):

dvr ∂vr ∂v v ∂v v 2
ar = = + vr r + θ r − θ (3-38a)
dt ∂t ∂r r ∂θ r
dv ∂v ∂v v ∂v vv
aθ = θ = θ + vr θ + θ θ + r θ (3-38b)
dt ∂t ∂r r ∂θ r

For coordinates starting point O at the curvature center of the streamline (Fig. 3.18) ⇒
r = rk ; vr = 0 ; ⇒ ds = rk dθ vθ = v ;
ar = an (normal acceleration); aθ = at (tangential acceleration):

v2
an = − (3-39a)
rk
∂v ∂v
at = +v θ (3-39b)
∂t ∂s

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 38

Fig. 3.18: Acceleration components in polar coordinates

For steady axisymetric 2-D flow (see Fig. 3.3b and equations (3-9)):
∂v ∂
= 0 ; vθ = 0 and =0 ⇒
∂t ∂θ
∂vr ∂v dv
ar = vr + vz r = r (3-40a)
∂r ∂z dt
∂vz ∂vz dv z
a z = vr + vz = (3-40b)
∂r ∂z dt

For flow along a rotating streamline:

Important for fluid flows in turbomachinery!

Compound (absolute) motion = relative motion + rotation (transfer motion).
⇒ Velocities
w - relative velocity - tangential to the rotating stream line (see Fig. 3.19 and Fig. 3.20)!
u - peripheral velocity - normal to the radius of the rotating point (see Fig. 3.19 and Fig. 3.20)!
v - absolute velocity - vector sum of w and u (see Fig. 3.20)!

∴ v = w+u (3-41)
[ ]
u = ω , r = Rω u0 (3-42)
m
u = Rω = rω sin α in - peripherial velocity intensity (see Fig. 3.19);
s
ω = 2πn s-1 - angular velocity; n - rotations/second.

Fig. 3.19: Relative and peripherial velocity

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 39

ω = const = for steady flow!

⇒ acceleration of such absolute flow:
dw
a= + a c + a ko (3-43)
dt
dw
- relative movement acceleration; a c - centripetal acceleration; a ko - Coriolis acceleration.
dt
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ [ ]]
a c = − Rω 2 R 0 = − Rω 2 ω 0 , u 0 = − ωω 0 , Rω u 0 = − ω , u = − ω , ω , r (3-44)

R 0 , u 0 , ω 0 - orts (unit vectors) of the corresponding vectors.

[ ]
a ko = 2 ω , w (3-45)

− [ω , [ω , r ]] + 2[ω , w]
dw
∴ a= (3-46)
dt

For 2-D flow with rotation axis normal to the flow plane ⇒ w ⊥ ω ; and r = R (see Fig. 3.20):

⇒ (ω, w) = 0 ; a c = − Rω 2 R 0 = −ω 2 R = −ω 2 r (3-47)

The following scalar products are also zero:

(a ,ω ) = (a , w) = (a
ko ko ko )
,d s = 0 (3-48)

∴ From the equation (3-46) the overall acceleration is ⇒

a=
dw
dt
− ω 2 r + 2 ω, w [ ] (3-49)

The intensity of the acceleration component tangential to the streamline aT (Fig. 3.20) is:

(
at = a, w0 = ) dw
dt
(
− ω 2 r r 0 , w0 ) (3-50)

Fig. 3-20: Velocity and acceleration components of flow along a rotating streamline

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 40

4. Dynamics of inviscid (ideal) fluid flow

4.1. Forces on inviscid fluid flow, Euler equations for inviscid fluid flow

™ Forces on inviscid fluid flow

A fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.
dv
∴ The tangential surface forces are neglected; e.g. τ = μ = 0.
dn
Acting forces on a fluid element with dm = ρdV - see also chapter 1.4 (Fig. 1.2) , and chapter 2.1
(Fig. 2.1, Fig. 2.2 & Fig. 2.3):
⎛ dv ⎞
Inertial forces: d Fi = d J = − dm a = − dm⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ dt ⎠
dJ dv
Inertial force per unit mass ⇒ J= =− = −a (4-1)
dm dt

Surface forces - only normal pressure forces are acting (idial fluid)⇒ components:
∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p
dPx = − dxdydz = − dV ; dPy = − dV ; dPz = − dV (4- 2a)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂p ∂p
from Fig. 2-3: ⇒ dPy = ( p A − pB )dxdz = − dydxdz = − dV
∂y ∂y
⇒ Surface forces - resultant:
⎛ ∂p ∂p ∂p ⎞ dm
d P = −⎜⎜ i + j + k ⎟⎟dV = − grad p dV = − grad p (4-2)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ρ
⇒ Resultant surface forces per unit mass:
dP 1
P= = − grad p (4-3)
dm ρ
r
Elementary resultant body force R in N/kg (see equation (2-3) in chapter 2.1:
r r r r
R = Xi + Yj + Zk (4-4)
r
X,Y and Z - components of R in x, y and z directions.

According the D'Alembert's principle for dynamic equilibrium ⇒ :

J +P+R=0
i.e.
dv 1
− − grad p + R = 0
dt ρ

∴ Basic vector equation for inviscid (ideal) fluid flow:

dv 1
= R − grad p (4-5)
dt ρ

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 41

™ Euler's equations for inviscid fluid flow, 3-D and 2-D flows

The vector equation (4-5) can be expressed in scalar form ⇒

r r ∂U ∂U ∂U
Components of body force R = R( x, y, z ) (chapter 2.1) - X = ; Y= ; Z= -
∂x ∂y ∂z
r r r r ∂U r ∂U r ∂U r
⇒ R = Xi + Yj + Zk = i+ j+ k = grad U (4-7)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Components of the inertial forces per unit mass - see equation (4-1):
d v dvx dv dv
a= = i + y j + z k = ax i + a y j + az k (4-8)
dt dt dt dt
The acceleration component in the x direction - see equations (3-18):
dvx ∂vx ∂v ∂v ∂v
ax = = + vx x + v y x + vz x (4-9)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Similar expressions are for a y and a z - see equations (3-18) in the chapter 3.2.

The components of the surface forces can be defined through the pressure gradient - see equation (4-3):
∂p ∂p ∂p
grad p = i + j+ k (4-10)
∂x ∂y ∂z

∴ The vector equation (4-5) can be transformed into three scalar equations:
dvx ∂vx ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂U 1 ∂p
= + vx x + v y x + vz x = − (4-11a)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ρ ∂x
dv y ∂v y ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂U 1 ∂p
= + vx y + v y y + vz y = − (4-11b)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ρ ∂y
dvz ∂vz ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂U 1 ∂p
= + vx z + v y z + vz z = − (4-11c)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ρ ∂z

∴ and together with the continuity equation - equation (3-28):

∂ρ ∂ (ρvx ) ∂ (ρv y ) ∂ (ρvz )
+ + + =0 (4-11d)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∴ This system of the 4 partial differential equations, (4-11a) to (4-11d), is known as Euler's
equations for 3-D inviscid (ideal) fluid flow.
For barotropic fluid:
p
ρ = ρ ( p) ; for example = const (4-11e)
ρκ
∴ The solution of the system of 5 governing equations (4-11a) to (4-11e) determines the
components of the velocity, pressure and density:
v x = v x ( x, y , z , t ) ; v y = v y ( x, y , z , t ) ; v z = v z ( x, y , z , t ) ; p = p ( x, y , z , t ) ; ρ = ρ ( x, y , z , t )
However, in rare cases the analytical integration of the partial differential equations is possible!

A. Nospal 4. Dynamics of inviscid fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 42
∂vi ∂ρ
For steady flow ⇒ = 0 and = 0 (see also chapter 3.2)!
∂t ∂t
∂
∴ For steady 2-D flow, vz = 0 and =0, ⇒
∂z
∂v ∂v ∂U 1 ∂p
vx x + v y x = − (4-12a)
∂x ∂y ∂x ρ ∂x
∂v ∂v ∂U 1 ∂p
vx y + v y y = − (4-12b)
∂x ∂y ∂y ρ ∂y
∂(ρvx ) ∂ (ρv y )
+ =0 (4-12c)
∂x ∂y
For incompressible fluid flow, ρ = const , ⇒
∂vx ∂v y
+ =0 (4-12d)
∂x ∂y

4.2. One dimensional gravity flow - Bernnoulli's equation

™ One dimensional gravity flow along a stream line "s" - see Fig. 4.1a) ⇒

∂U ∂U ∂U dU
= = X =Y = 0; Z = −g = = ; ⇒ U = − gz + U 0 (4-13)
∂x ∂y ∂z dz

If z-axis is opposite to the gravity force - Fig. 4.1a), the resultant body (volume) force will be:
R = Z k = − g k = gradU (4-14)

∴ The vector equation (4-5) will transform to :

dv 1 1
= − g k − grad p = gradU − grad p (4-15)
dt ρ ρ

a) b)
Fig. 4.1: One dimensional gravity flow

This flow is convenient for forces equilibrium analysis along the streamline and normal to it.

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 43

™ Forces equilibrium along streamline s - tangential to s:

Scalar product of the vector equation (4-15) and d s ⇒

⎛ dv ⎞
( ) (
⎜ , d s ⎟ = grad U , d s − 1 grad p, d s
⎜ dt ⎟ ρ
) (4-16)
⎝ ⎠
With the equations (3-39a and b) - chapter 3.5 (see also Fig. 4.1a) ⇒
dv ⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞ v2
= at τ 0 + an n 0 = ⎜ + v ⎟τ 0 − n 0 (4-17)
dt ⎝ ∂t ∂s ⎠ rk
The members of the equation (4-16) become:

⎛ dv ⎞
⎜ , d s ⎟ = at ds = ⎛⎜ ∂v + v ∂v ⎞⎟ds (4-18a)
⎜ dt ⎟ ⎝ ∂t ∂s ⎠
⎝ ⎠
( )
gradU , d s = dU s =
∂U
∂s
∂z
ds = − g ds = − gdzs
∂s
(4-18b)
1
ρ
( 1
grad p, d s = dps =
ρ
) 1 ∂p
ρ ∂s
ds (4-18c)

With the obtained expressions (4-18), the equation (4-16) is transformed to:

∂v ∂v ∂z 1 ∂p
ds + v ds + g ds + ds = 0 , (4-19)
∂t ∂s ∂s ρ ∂s
wich, for barotropic fluid ρ = ρ ( p) , can be writen as:

∂v ⎛ v2 dp ⎞
ds + d ⎜⎜ + gz + ∫ ⎟⎟ = 0 (4-19a)
∂t ⎝ 2 ρ ⎠s

∴ The integration of the equation (4-19a) along the streamline gives the Bernoulli equation for
unsteady inviscid compressible fluid flow along a streamline:
s
∂v v2 dp
∫0 ∂t ds +
2
+ gz + ∫
ρ
= const (4-20)

∴ Obviously the Bernoulli equation for incompressible flow ( ρ = const ) is:

s
∂v v2 dp
∫0 ∂t ds +
2
+ gz +
ρ
= const (4-21)

⇒ Bernoulli equation for steady inviscid compressible fluid flow:

v2 dp
+ gz + ∫ = const (4-22)
2 ρ
⇒ Bernoulli equation for steady inviscid incompressible fluid flow:
v2 p
+ gz + = const (4-23)
2 ρ

A. Nospal 4. Dynamics of inviscid fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 44
⇒ the well-known Bernoulli equation for steady inviscid incompressible fluid flow (no energy
losses):
v2 p
+ z + = const (4-24)
2g γ
where: γ = ρg

∴ The Bernoulli equation is a form of the law for conservation of energy (see Fig. 4.2) !
Nm J
- In the equation (4-23) every member presents a specific energy in = ;
kg kg
Nm
- In the equation (4-24) every member presents a specific energy in =m
N
v2 p
- kinetic energy; z - position or potential energy; - pressure energy (see Fig. 4.2).
2g γ
2 2
v p v p
⇒ 1
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2 = const
2
(4-25)
2g γ 2g γ

Fig. 4.2: Bernoulli equation as law for conservation of energy

™ Forces equilibrium along the normal "n" - see Fig. 4.1a ⇒ :

⎛ dv ⎞ 2
- inertial force: ⎜ , d n ⎟ = an dn = − v dn
⎜ dt ⎟ rk
⎝ ⎠

- body (volume) forces: ( )

− gk, d n = −g
∂z
∂n
dn = − gdzn

⎛1 ⎞ 1 1 ∂p
- pressure forces: ⎜⎜ grad p, d n ⎟⎟ = dpn = dn
⎝ρ ⎠ ρ ρ ∂n

v2 1 ∂p ∂z
∴ − dn + dn + g dn = 0 (4-26)
rk ρ ∂n ∂n

• If the stream line is a straight line ( rk = ∞ ), for steady inviscid incompressible fluid flow :

1 ⎛p ⎞
⇒ dpn + gdz n = 0 ⇒ d n ⎜⎜ + gz ⎟⎟ = 0 ⇒ p + γz = const (4-26a)
ρ ⎝ρ ⎠
A. Nospal 4. Dynamics of inviscid fluid flow
 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 45
∂z
• For a flow in a horizontal plane - Fig. 4.1b), dzn = dn = 0 ⇒:
∂n
v2 dpn v2
⇒ dpn = ρ dn ⇒ =ρ (4-26b)
rk dn rk
• If the stream line is a straight line ( rk = ∞ ), ⇒ p = const along the normal "n".

™ Flow along a rotating streamline - see Fig. 4.4, see also chapter 3.5 ⇒

From the equation (3-49): a =

dw
dt
[ ]
− ω 2 r + 2 ω, w ,

dv 1
and the general vector equation (4-5): = R − grad p ⇒
dt ρ
dw
dt
[ ] 1
− ω 2 r + 2 ω , w = R − grad p
ρ
(4-27)

By multiplying the equation (4-27) with an elementary arc d s = wdt = d r , for steady flow along an
arbitrary stream line "s" ⇒
( ) (
1
wdw − ω 2 rdr = R, d s − gradp , d s
ρ
) (4-28)

Where are:
[ ]
w , d w , d s and d r are collinear and ω , w ⊥ d s ⇒ ([ω , w], d s ) = 0
U = U ( x, y, z ) and R = gradU ⇒ (R, d s ) = (gradU , d s ) = dU and also (gradp, d s ) = dp
s s

2
⎛ w2 ⎞ ⎛ rω 2 ⎞ dp
∴ The equation (4-28) is transformed into: d ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − d ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = dU −
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ρ
∴ After the intergration the following equation is obtained:
w2 dp u 2
−U + ∫ − = const (4-29)
2 ρ 2
where: u = rω

Fig 4.4: Flow along a rotating streamline

A. Nospal 4. Dynamics of inviscid fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 46
∂U ∂U ∂U dU
For gravity flow: X = Y = = = 0; Z= = = − g ; and U = − gz + U 0 ⇒
∂x ∂y ∂z dz
∴ The Bernoulli equation for compressible fluid flow along a rotating streamline:
w2 dp u2
+∫ + gz − = const (4-30)
2 ρ 2
∴ The Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluid flow ( ρ = const ) along a rotating
streamline:
p w2 u 2
+z+ − = const (4-31)
ρg 2g 2g

In the Turbo-machinery theory these equations can be applied for the entire flow field, and it is
known as Bernoulli equations for rotating channels.

4.3. Potential flow - differential equations, Cauchy-Lagrange and Bernnoulli equation

A rotational fluid flow can contain streamlines that loop back on themselves.
Hence, fluid particles following such streamlines will travel along closed paths - vorteces.

A vortex ω in Fluid Mechanics is defined as:

i j k
1 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
ω = rot v = = ωx i + ω y j + ωz k (4-32)
2 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z
vx vy vz

Bounded (and hence nonuniform) viscous fluids exhibit rotational flow, typically within their
boundary layers. Since all real fluids are viscous to some amount, all real fluids exhibit a level of
rotational flow somewhere in their domain.

An irrotational (potential) fluid flow is one whose streamlines never loop back on themselves.
Typically, only inviscid fluids can be irrotational. A uniform viscid fluid flow without boundaries is
also irrotational, but this is a special (and boring!) case.
For a potential flow ⇒ ω = 0 ⇒
1 ⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞
ω x = ⎜⎜ z − y ⎟⎟ = 0 , ω y = ⎜ x − z ⎟ = 0 , ω z = ⎜⎜ y − x ⎟⎟ = 0 (4-33)
2 ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ 2 ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ 2 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
It is obvious, from (4-33), that:
∂vz ∂v y ∂vx ∂vz ∂v y ∂vx
= , = ; = (4-34)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
⇒ Conclusion from (4-34):
A scalar potential function ϕ = ϕ ( x, y, z ) can be defined for irrotational flow!
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
= vx , = vy , = vz (4-35)
∂x ∂y ∂z

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 47
∴ The velocity vector can be defined as:
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
v = grad ϕ = i + j+ k = vx i + v y j + vz k (4-36)
∂x ∂y ∂z
According the field theory in mathematics, it is obvious from (4-36) that v ⊥ ϕ (for 2-D flow, see
Fig. 4.5 ).
∴ The stream function ψ (see equation (3-13) and Fig. 4.5 for 2-D flow) is also related to the
potential function ϕ ⇒:
∂ϕ ∂ψ ∂ϕ ∂ψ
vx = = , vy = =− (4-37)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∴ The equipotential lines are normal to the stream lines, (ϕ = const ) ⊥ (ψ = const ) .

Fig 4.5: Stream lines versus equipotential lines

⇒ The Euler differential equations ((4-11a) to (4-11c)) can be simplified for potential flow, by
taking into account the above conclusion - equations (4-34) and (4-35).
∴ The equations (4-11a) to (4-11c) are transformed into:

∂vx ∂ ⎛ v2 ⎞
+ ⎜⎜ P + − U ⎟⎟ = 0
∂t ∂x ⎝ 2 ⎠
∂v y ∂ ⎛ v 2
⎞
+ ⎜⎜ P + − U ⎟⎟ = 0 (4-38)
∂t ∂y ⎝ 2 ⎠
∂vz ∂ ⎛ v 2
⎞
+ ⎜⎜ P + − U ⎟⎟ = 0
∂t ∂z ⎝ 2 ⎠
dp
Where P = P ( x, y, z ) = ∫ is defined as "generalized pressure",
ρ
∂P 1 ∂p ∂P 1 ∂p ∂P 1 ∂p
i. e. = , = , = in the Euler differential equations (4-11a-c) .
∂x ρ ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂z ρ ∂z
∂U ∂U ∂U
U = U ( x, y, z ) - potential of the body force (chapter 2.1) - X = ; Y= ; Z= .
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂vx ∂ ⎛ ∂ϕ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ϕ ⎞
Since from the equations (4-34) and (4-35) ⇒ = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ , the system of the
∂t ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠
differential equations (4-38) is transformed into:

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 48

∂ ⎛ ∂ϕ v 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ P + + − U ⎟⎟ = 0
∂x ⎝ ∂t 2 ⎠
∂ ⎛ ∂ϕ v 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ P + + − U ⎟⎟ = 0 (4-39)
∂y ⎝ ∂t 2 ⎠
∂⎛ ∂ϕ v 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ P + + − U ⎟⎟ = 0
∂z ⎝ ∂t 2 ⎠
∂ϕ v 2
∴ In the system (4-39) it is obvious that P + + − U = f (t ) is function only of time
∂t 2
(doesn't depend of x,y and z).
∴ Finaly the Cauchy-Lagrange equation is obtained as a solution of the Euler's differential
equations for a general case of potential compressible fluid flow:
dp ∂ϕ v 2
∫ρ +
∂t
+ − U = f (t )
2
(4-40)

For steady flow, when ∂ϕ / ∂t = 0 , the Cauchy-Lagrange equation is transformed into Bernoulli
equation for steady compressible fluid flow (see equation (4-22)):

dp v2
∫ρ +
2
− U = const (4-41)

4.4. Continiuty equation in integral form

The continuity equations in differential form were obtained in chapter 3.4 - see equations (3-28) to
(3-30).
′ ″
Consider an arbitrary control volume V1 bounded by a surface A1 = A1 + A1 (see Fig. 4-16).
The mass corresponding to corresponding to V1 is:

m1 = ∫ ρdV
V1

m1 = mV ' + mVC ; mVC - common volume (not shaded); mV ' - belong to shaded part V '
′
After time Δt , the fluid particles from the surface A1 will make a path Δs = vΔt and pass in the
′ ″ ″
surface A2 (entering the volume V2 ). Also particles from A1 → A2 .
′ ″
∴ For steady flow, the fluid mass will pass in volume V2 (bounded by A2 = A2 + A2 ) and is
defined as:
m2 = ∫ ρdV
V2

m2 = mV '' + mVC + Δm ; mV '' - belong to shaded part V ''

∴ For the time Δt , a mass difference Δm (belonnging to V0 - Fig. 4-16), will be eventually
created - "source" or "sink" ⇒:
Δm = Δm0 = m2 − m1 = ∫ ρdV − ∫ ρdV = d ∫ ρdV
V ′′ V′ V

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 49
∴ The time rate of mass flow change (elementary mass flow rate) will be:

dm dm0 1 ⎛ ⎞ d
= = ⎜⎜ ∫ ρdV − ∫ ρdV ⎟⎟ = ∫ ρdV (4-42)
dt dt dt ⎝ V ′′ V′ ⎠ dt V
From Fig. 4.16, an elementary volume dV can be defined as:
dV = dAds cos α = dAvdt cos α = v,.d A dt( )
ds = dh - according Fig. 4.16.
∴ The equation (4-42) can be transformed into the continuity equation in integral form:
dm d
dt dt V∫
= ( )
ρdV = ∫ ρ v, d A = ∫ ρdQ (4-43)
A A

dm dm0
= - mass flow rate from the volume V0 through its bounding surface O (see Fig. 4.16).
dt dt
( )
dQ = v, d A - elementary volume flow rate (see equation (3-19).

⇒ The equation (4-43) can be transformed into:

∫ ρ (v, d A) = ∫ ρdQ = 0
K K
(4-44)

K = A + O - closed control surface.

dm
If V0 = 0 (there is no any "source" or "sink") ⇒ = 0 ⇒:
dt
∴ The continuity equation in integral form for flow without singularities:

∫ ρ (v, d A) = ∫ ρdQ = 0
A A
(4-45)

∴ The continuity equation in integral form for incompressible fluid flow ( ρ = const without
singularities) will be:

∫ (v, d A) = ∫ dQ = 0
A A
(4-46)

Compare the obtained continuity equations in integral form with the continuity equations in
differential form obtained in chapter 3.4.

Fig. 4.16: Flow through an arbitrary finite control volume

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 50

4.5. Equations of momentum and energy

™ Momentum and Moment of Momentum equations

In Fluid Mechanics, it usually exists a flow of certain fluid quantity in space bounded by concrete
surface - practically, there is no flow of ideal fluid particles.
⇒ A certain fluid mass m corresponds to a certain volume V. ⇒ The Momentum (Impulse) law
from the Solid Body Mechanics (form the II Newton's law) can be applied:
dJ
= FR (4-47)
dt
F R - resultant force acting on a certain mass m, causign its movement (see Fig. 4.17).
J - Sum of the impulses (entire momentum) of all elementary fluid particles.
For elementary fluid particle with dm = ρdV , having v ⇒ d J = dmv = ρ vdV .
∴ The entire momentum will be:
J = ∫ dmv = ∫ ρ vdV (4-48)
V V

∴ The Momentum law in Fluid Mechanics is defined as:

dJ d
dt dt V∫
= ρ vdV = F R (4-49)

Fig. 4.17: Momentum concept for certain fluid mass m

Similarly, the Moment of Momentum Law can be defined as:

dMF
=MR (4-50)
dt
M R - Sum of the moments of all acting forces on a certain mass m.
M F - Entire moment of momentum - sum of moments for all elementary fluid particles.

A. Nospal 4. Dynamics of inviscid fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 51
The moment of momentum for certain fluid particle with mass dm and velocity v is:

[r, dmv] = dm[r, v]

r - distance of the fluid particle from the point to which the moment is considered.

∴ The entire moment of momentum will be:

[ ] [ ]
M F = ∫ dm r , v = ∫ ρ r , v dV (4-51)
V V

∴ The Moment of Momentum law in Fluid Mechanics is defined as:

dM F d
dt dt V
[ ]
= ∫ ρ r , v dV = M R (4-52)

Similarly to the concept of continuity equation derivation in the previous chapter 4.4, the volume
integral can be transformed to surface integral (see equation (4-43)) ⇒
∴ Momentum Law:
dJ
dt K∫
= ρ vdQ = F R (4-53)

∴ Moment of Momentum Law:

dM F
dt
[ ]
= ∫ ρ r , v dQ = M R (4-54)
K

K = A + O - closed control surface bounding the mass m.

The control surface is recommended usually to be defined as on Fig. 4.18 - around a possibly
existing solid body with surface O:
- the boundary surfaces (A3) are suggested to correspond to the streamlines - since, dQ = 0 on that part.
- the inlet (A1) and outlet (A2) surfaces are usually normal to the stream lines.

Fig. 4.18: Usual definition of a control surface

The resultant force acting on a certain fluid mass m is defined as (see Fig. 4.19):
F R = F A + F O + GF (4-55)
F A = P A + T A - resultant surface force acting on the surface A.
P A = − ∫ pd A - normal surface forces ; T A - tangential surface forces.
A

G F - resultant body force (gravity force, centrifugal force etc).

F O = PO + T O - resultant surface force acting on the solid body surface O.

A. Nospal 4. Dynamics of inviscid fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 52

Fig. 4.19: Forces acting on fluid mass m and possible solid body

™ General energy equation:

The first law of thermodynamics basically states that a thermodynamic system can store or hold
energy and that this internal energy is conserved.
Heat is a process by which energy is added to a system from a high-temperature source, or lost to a
low-temperature sink. In addition, energy may be lost by the system when it does mechanical work
on its surroundings, or conversely, it may gain energy as a result of work done on it by its surroundings.
The first law states that this energy is conserved:
The change in the internal energy (du) is equal to the amount added by heating (dq) minus the
amount lost by doing work on the environment (dw):

du = dq − dw (4-56)

du, dq and dw - specific energies (energy per unit mass expressed in Nm/kg or J/kg).

The equation (4-56) can be transformed into:

dq = du + d ( p / ρ ) + vdv + gdz (4-57)

Where:
dw = d ( p / ρ ) + vdv + gdz (4-58)

d ( p / ρ ) - specific energy corresponding to mechanical work of pressure;

vdv = d (v 2 / 2) - specific kinetic energy;
gz - specific potential energy.

Fig. 4.20: First Law of thermodynamics - properties of fluid flow

A. Nospal 4. Dynamics of inviscid fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 53
Since, specific enthalpy is defined as:
p
i=u+ (4-59)
ρ
⇒ dq = di + vdv + gdz (4-60)

For an isentropic process ( q1− 2 = 0 ) of flow between two flow sections1 and 2 (see Fig. 4.20), and
flow in a hirizontal plane ( z1 = z2 ), after the integration of the equation (4-60), the following
equation is obtained:
v22 − v12
i1 − i2 = = c p (T1 − T2 ) (4-61)
2
c p - specific heat at constant pressure in J/kgK.

A. Nospal 4. Dynamics of inviscid fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 54

5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

5.1. Stream tube control volume. Basic equations for flows through a stream tube

As defined in chapter 3.2 ⇒

A stream tube or stream filament is a small imaginary tube or "conduit" bounded by streamlines.
Because the streamlines are tangent to the flow velocity, fluid that is inside a stream tube must
remain forever within that same stream tube (see Fig. 3.6 and Fig. 5.1).
∴ The flow in a stream tube can be treated as flow in a pipe (no mixig with the surrounding).
∴ In many cases, like flow in pipes and channels, the concept of stream tube can be applied.
∴ Usualy the average flow properties are taken into account - at the central line of the stream
tube, see Fig. 5.1.
∴ In practice, the flow through the stream tube can be treated as one-dimensional - see chapter 4.2.

∴ The basic equations for flow throw a stream tube can be obtained (using the conclusions in
previous chapter 4 and chapter 3) as follows:

• Continuity equation

The continuity equation in integral form (4-44) can be used ⇒:

∫ ρ (v, d A) = ∫ ρdQ = ∫ ρdQ − ∫ ρdQ = ∫ ρ (v, d A) − ∫ ρ (v, d A) = 0

K K A2 A1 A2 A1

K = A1 + A2 + AT + O - control section (see Fig. 5.2).

If V0 = 0 , and O = 0 (there is no any "source" or "sink" - Fig. 5.1) ⇒ K = A1 + A2 + AT
Since through the boundaring surface AT there is no inflow nor outflow,

⇒ ∫ ρ (v, d A) = ∫ ρ (v, d A) = ∫ ρ (v, d A)

A2 A1 A
(5-1)

∴ The mass flow rate is equal in every cross-section of the flow!

Since the concept of average properties in certain cross-section (A) is applied (see Fig. 5.1)
⇒ (v, d A) = vdA cos 00 = vdA ⇒ ∫ ρ (v, d A) = ∫ ρvdA = ρv ∫ dA = ρvA = const ⇒
A A A

ρ1v1 A1 = ρ 2v2 A2 = ρvA = const (5-2)

From (5-2) ⇒ d (ρvA) = 0 , and by dividing it with ρvA ⇒

dρ dv dA
= = =0 (5-3)
ρ v A

For incompressible fluid flow ( ρ = const ) ⇒

dv dA
Q = v1 A1 = v2 A2 = vA = const ; = =0 (5-4)
v A
A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid
 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 55
For rotating channels ⇒ v = w

Fig. 5.1: Main properties of a stream tube

Fig. 5.2: Boundaring surfaces of a stream tube

• Bernoulli's equation

The equations for one-dimensional flow can be applied - see equations (4-20) to (4-25).

- for steady inviscid compressible fluid flow:

v2 dp
+ gz + ∫ = const (4-22)
2 ρ
- for steady inviscid incompressible fluid flow:
v2 p
+ gz + = const (4-23)
2 ρ
v12 p v2 p
⇒ + z1 + 1 = 2 + z2 + 2 = const (4-25)
2g γ 2g γ

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 56

• Momentum Law and Moment of Momentum Law

dJ
dt K∫
From the equation (4-53) = ρ vdQ = F R , for control surface K = A1 + A2 ⇒

∫ ρ vdQ = ∫ ρ v dQ − ∫ ρ v dQ = v ∫ ρdQ − v ∫ ρdQ

K A2
2
A1
1 2
A2
1
A1

Taking into account the continuity equation (5-2) ⇒

∫ ρ vdQ = v ρ Q
2 2 2 (
− v1ρ1Q1 = ρQ v2 − v1 )
K

∴ The Momentum Law for flow through stream tube will be:
( )
ρQ v2 − v1 = F R (5-5)

F R - Resultant force acting on the fluid mass bounded by the control surface (see Fig 5.3 and Fig. 5.4):

F R = P1 + P 2 + F 1− 2 + G1− 2 + P O
P1 = − p1 A1 ; P 2 = − p2 A2 ; F 1− 2 = P AT + T AT - surface forces acting on the corresponding
surfaces - see Fig. 5.3;
G1− 2 - body forces;
P O - a force acting from the surface of a possibly existing solid body inside the steam tube (see
also Fig. 4.18 in chapter 4.5).
If there is no a solid body ⇒ P O = 0 ⇒
F R = − p1 A1 − p2 A2 + F 1− 2 + G1− 2
∴ The equation of Momentum Law for flow through stream tube will be:

( )
ρQ v2 − v1 = − p1 A1 − p2 A2 + F 1− 2 + G1− 2 (5-6)

Fig. 5.3: Acting forces on a stream tube

If the stream tube has solid boundaries - like in pipes and channels (see Fig. 5.4), the acting force
from the fluid to the solid boundaries, will be a reaction to the force F 1− 2 ⇒ F r = − F 1− 2 ⇒ :

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 57

( )
F r = ρQ v1 − v2 − p1 A1 − p2 A2 + G1− 2 (5-7)

Fig. 5.4: Stream tube with solid boundaries

∴ Moment of Momentum Law can be derived in a similar manner using the previously obtained
equation (4-54) in chapter 4.5.
However, an easier derivation can be performed by making vector products of every member of the
equation (5-7) (i.e. every force) with the corresponding distance from the point to which the
moment is considered (vector of its position) ⇒

[ ] ([ ] [ ]) [ ] [ ] [
M r = F r , r r = ρQ v1 , r1 − v2 , r 2 − p1 A1 , r1 − p2 A2 , r 2 + G1− 2 , e ] (5-8)

In practice, the vector equations (5-7) and (5-8) usually are interpreted equations in the directions
of the chosen coordinate system.

5.2. Some examples of steady flow of incompressible fluid

• Ventury pipe
The concept of the Ventury tube is presented on Fig. 5.5.
For incompressible fluid flow ( ρ = const ) the derived equations in chapter 5.1 can be applied ⇒
Continuity equation: Q = v1 A1 = v2 A2 ⇒ v2 = v1 A1 / A2

v12 p v2 p
Bernoulli's equation: + z1 + 1 = 2 + z2 + 2
2g ρg 2 g ρg

⇒
p1 − p2
ρg
=
1 2
2g
[
v1 ( A1 / A2 ) − 1
2
]
2 g ( p1 − p2 ) / ρg
v1 = (5-9)
( A1 / A2 )2 − 1
For Δh = h1 − h2 = ( p1 − p2 ) / ρg , see Fig. 5.5, the volume flow rate is obtained as:

2 gΔh
Q = v1 A1 = A1 = C Δh (5-10)
( A1 / A2 )2 − 1
2g
where: C = A1
( A1 / A2 )2 − 1

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 58

Fig. 5.5: Concept of Ventury tube (Ventury meter)

The Ventury pipe found an application as a device for volume flow rate measurment - Ventury flow
meter.
However, for real fluid flow the viscosity ( μ ) effects have to be considered.

Due to the fluid field similarity, the above-presented approach for Ventury tube can be applied for
the orifice meter as well (Fig. 5.6).
Applying a correction factor k, the volume flow rate can be obtained from the equation:
2 gΔh
Q = kv1 A1 = kA1 = kC Δh (5-11)
( A1 / A2 )2 − 1
The correction factor k, depends of the orifice geometry, fluid properties and flow regime - obtained
experimentally.

Fig. 5.6:Concept of an orifice meter co

• Discharge from a reservoir into the atmosphere

Discharge of incompressible inviscid fluid flow from a reservoir into the atmosphere is considered.
- Discharge through small nozzle - Fig. 5.7:
Bernoulli's equation between the free surface (0) and the nozzle outlet (1):
2
v02 p0 v p
+z+ = +
2g ρ g 2 g ρg
Continuity equation:
A
v01 A0 = vA ⇒ v0 = v
A0
2
v2 ⎛ A ⎞ v2
Since p = p0 = pa - atmospheric pressure ⇒ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + z = ⇒
2 g ⎝ A0 ⎠ 2g

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 59

2 gz
v= (5-12)
1 − ( A1 / A0 )
2

Since, A << A0 ⇒
v = 2 gz (5-12a)
The equation (5-12a) is known as Torricelli's formula.
If the friction forces are taken into account, a correction factor ϕ < 1 has to be applied ⇒:

v = ϕ 2 gz (5-13)
ϕ = 0,96 ÷ 1,0 , obtained experimentally.

Fig. 5.7: Discharge through a small nozzle

The discharge through a nozzle is also accompanied by the jet contraction (see Fig. 5.8).
⇒ a contraction factor, ψ = A* / A < 1 has to be taken into consideration ⇒

Q = vA* = ψϕA 2 gz = μA 2 gz (5-14)

μ = ψϕ < 1 - discharge coefficient.
0.5 < μ < 1 - experimentally obtained (see Fig. 5.9).

Fig. 5.8: Jet contraction

Fig. 5.9:Discharge coefficient for some nozzles

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 60

- Discharge into the atmosphere through large openings - Fig. 5.10:

For small nozzles in the Torricelli's formula (3-12a), d << z ⇒ z ≈ const .
For large openings, Fig. 5.10, ⇒ z ≠ const , x = x( z ) , ⇒ dA = x( z )dz

⇒ Elementary discharge: dQ = μvdA = μ 2 gz dA

The entire discharge Q will be:
z=H2

Q = ∫ dQ = μvdA = μ 2 g ∫ x( z ) z dz (5-15)
A z = H1

⇒ Example, Discharge through a rectangular opening:

b = x( z ) = const ; H 2 − H1 = a ⇒
2
Q = μ b 2g
3
(H 3
2 − H13 ) (5-16)

Fig. 5.10: Discharge into the atmosphere through large opening

⇒ Example, Discharge through circular opening (Fig. 5.11):

⎛ x⎞
2

H 2 = H1 + 2 R ; ⎜ ⎟ = R 2 − [(H1 + R ) − z ] ⇒ an elliptic integral:

2

⎝2⎠

[ ]
H1 + 2 R

Q = 2μ 2 g ∫ z R 2 − (H1 + R − z ) dz
2

H1

If the under-integral function is developed into mathematical series ⇒ the solution:

⎡ R2 ⎤
Q = μπR 2 2 g (H1 + R ) ⎢1 −
1
2⎥
(5-17)
⎣ 32 (H1 + R ) ⎦

Fig. 5.11: Discharge into the atmosphere through circular opening

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 61

• Submerged and partially submerged discharge through a large opening

- Submerged discharge - Fig. 5.12:

p2 = p0 + γ ( z − H ) ; p1 = p0 + γz ; Δp = p1 − p2 = γH = const ; ⇒ v = 2 gH = const

The discharge through the entire opening A will be:

Q = μAv = μA 2 gH (5-18)

Fig. 5.12:Submerged discharge

- Partially submerged discharge - Fig. 5.13:

The entire discharge: Q = Q1 + Q2

Q1 - discharge into the atmosphere; Q2 - submerged discharge.
For rectangular opening: A = (H 2 − H1 )b ; for Q1 - equation (5-16); for Q2 - equation (5-18).

⎡⎛ H⎞ 2 ⎤
⇒ Q = μb 2 g ⎢⎜ H 2 − ⎟ H − H1 H1 ⎥ (5-19)
⎣⎝ 3⎠ 3 ⎦

Fig. 5.13:Partially submerged discharge

- Discharge over a weir - Fig. 5.14:

Discharge over a weir through a rectangular opening is treated ⇒ a methodology for volume flow
rate measurements in open channels, rivers etc.
2
H1 = 0 ; H 2 = H ⇒ Q = μ b 2g H H (5-20)
3
Measurement section of H at L = 3H - to avoid the overflow surface contraction.

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 62

Fig. 5.14: Flow over a weir

• A reservoir emptying time - Fig. 5.15

from Qdt = dV ⇒ μa 2 gz dt = − A( z )dz

H2 H1
1 A( z )dz 1 A( z )dz
⇒ t=−
μa 2 g ∫
H1 z
=
μa 2 g ∫
H2 z
` (5-21)

For prismatic reservoir, A = const ⇒ t=

A
μa
2
g
( H1 − H 2 ) (5-21a)

A 2 H1
The reservoir will be entirely emptied for H 2 = 0 ⇒ t= (5-21b)
μa g

Fig. 5.15: Emptying of a reservoir

• Flow through a rotating pipe, cavitation - Fig. 5.16

Flow from a reservoir through a rotating pipe is considered (Fig. 5.16).

Bernoulli's equation from cross-section "0" to cross-section "A" - "motionless (non-rotating)
channel":
v02 p v2 p
+ H 0 + 0 = A + hA + A (5-22)
2g ρg 2 g ρg
Since, the reservoir cross-section >> pipe cross-section and H 0 = const ⇒ v0 = 0 ⇒
p0 − p A v A2
= − ( H 0 − hA ) (5-23)
ρg 2g

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 63
According equation (4-31), the Bernoulli's equation the rotating pipe will be:
pA w2 u 2 p w2 u 2
+ hA + A − A = 2 + h2 + 2 − 2 (5-24)
ρg 2 g 2 g ρg 2g 2g
According Fig. 5.16: wA = v A and u A = 0 ; p2 = p0 and h2 = 0 ⇒

pA v2 p w2 u 2
+ hA + A = 0 + 2 − 2 (5-25)
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2 g
Comparing the equations (5-22) and (5-25) ⇒
p0 v02 p0 w22 u22
+ H0 + = + − (5-26)
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2 g
For pipe with constant cross-section AA = A2 , from the continuity equation Q = AA wA = A2 w2
⇒ v A = wA = w2 , and from the equation (5-25) ⇒

p0 − p A u2
= hA + 2 > 0 (5-27)
ρg 2g
p0 p
> A (5-28)
ρg ρg
If p0 = patmospheric ⇒ p A = vacuum

If p A = pk = pressure of saturated vapor ps.v. of the liquid at certain temperature T ⇒ generation

of vapor bubbles or cavities. These bubbles will implode at higher pressure ⇒ cavitation!
pk = (liquid type, T) - example, for water at t = 200 C ⇒ pk = ps.v. = 0.0234 bar = 17.5 mmHg .

The cavitation can also occur in non-rotational channels as well ⇒ explanation of Fig. 5.17.

Fig. 5.16:Flow through a rotating pipe

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 64

Cavitation is a general term used to describe the behavior of cavities or bubbles in a liquid.
Cavitation is the process where generated liquid vapor bubbles rapidly (violently) collapse,
producing shock waves - see Fig. 5.17. ⇒ explanation!
Cavitation may occur in pumps, propellers, impellers, and in the vascular tissues of plants.

∴ The generation of liquid vapor bubbles (cavities) at low pressure, and their subsequent sudden
implosion (violent closing) at higher pressure, under corresponding dinamic and static influences,
is known as cavitation.

Fig. 5.17: Generation of cavitation in non-rotational channel

∴ Cavitation is, in many cases, an undesirable occurrence. In devices such as propellers, pumps,
and turbines, cavitation causes a great deal of noise, damage to components, vibrations, and a loss
of efficiency - see Fig. 5.17a.

Fig. 5.17a: Cavitation generation in a propeller (a) and cavitation damage of a turbine (b).

5.3. Basic consideration of compressible flow

ρ = f ( p, T , c p , k ,......., ) - for compressible fluid.

In general the density change can be determined from the energy equation (4-60):

dq = di + vdv + gdz
In the theory of heat and mass transfer, the following differential equation can be derived:

DT Dp ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
ρc p − = ⎜k ⎟ + ⎜k ⎟ + ⎜k ⎟+Φ (5-29)
Dt Dt ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 65
2
k - heat conductivity coefficient; c p - specific heat; Φ = (λ + μ )θ 2 - dissipation function;
3
2 ∂v ∂v ∂v D ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(λ + μ ) - volumetric viscousity; θ = x + y + z ; = + vx + vy + vz .
3 ∂x ∂y ∂z Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

However, here, as an example a barotpropic fluid is treated:

⇒ p = p( ρ )
⇒ Continuity equation for steady fluid flow (5-2) ⇒ ρ1v1 A1 = ρ 2v2 A2 = ρvA = const
v2 dp
⇒ Bernoulli's equation for steady fluid flow (4-22) ⇒ + gz + ∫ = const
2 ρ
∴ v, p and ρ can be defined from these last three equations.

- Some equations for adiabatic (isentropic) fluid flow:

Bernoulli's equation
See chapter 1.3 for gas properties and states.
p cp
For an adiabatic process, see equation (1-15) ⇒ = const ; κ =
ρκ cv
1 1
p p0 ⎛ p ⎞κ ⎛ p ⎞κ
⇒ = κ = C ⇒ ρ = ⎜ ⎟ = ρ 0 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (5-30)
ρ κ
ρ0 ⎝C ⎠ ⎝ p0 ⎠
p0 , ρ 0 - initial properties (see Fig. 5.22).

Fig. 5.22: Discharge of compressible fluid

From the Bernoulli's equation (4-22) ⇒
1
1
−
dp ⎛ p⎞ κ κ 1 κ −1
κ p0
κ κ −1

∫ ρ
= ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dp =
C
⎝ ⎠ κ − 1
Cκ p κ
=
κ − 1 ρ0
p κ
(5-31)

With the equation (5-30) ⇒ the Bernoulli's equation for steady adiabatic fluid flow:
(for z = 0 )
κ p v2
+ = const (5-32)
κ −1 ρ 2
κ p v2 κ p0 v02
+ = + (5-33)
κ − 1 ρ 2 κ − 1 ρ0 2

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 66
From chapter 1.3, equation (1-10) ⇒ velocity of sound c = κp ρ ⇒

c2 v2 c2 v2
+ = 0 + 0 (5-34)
κ −1 2 κ −1 2

Dischargeof compressible fluid through nozzles

Discharge of adiabatic compressible fluid flow of ideal gas is treated - as on Fig. 5.22.
The discharge velocity, from the equation (5-33), for v0 ≈ 0 , ⇒ the Saint-Venant formula:

κ ⎛ p0 p ⎞
v= 2 ⎜ − ⎟ (5-35)
κ − 1 ⎜⎝ ρ 0 ρ ⎟⎠
p
If the equation of state for ideal gas (1-11), = RT , is taken into account (see chapter 1.3) ⇒
ρ
κ
v= 2 R(T0 − T ) (5-36)
κ −1
Consider the equation (5-34) ⇒
2
κ −1
c02 − c 2
v= ( ) (5-37)

For real gases and vapors ⇒ use of tables and graphical curves obtained mostly experimentally ⇒
empirical formula.

Example: flow through Ventury meter or an orifice meter - see Fig. 5.5 and Fig. 5.6 and equation
(5-11) ⇒
m& 2( p1 − p2 )
m& = ε Cd A 2 ρ1 ( p1 − p2 ) ; Q = = ε Cd A
ρ1 ρ1
Cd = f1(d D,Re) = f (m,Re) - discharge coefficient - experimentally obtained;
⎛ d ⎞
ε =⎜ f , p1 , ( p1 − p2 ), κ ⎟ - coefficient of expansion - experimentally obtained.
⎝ D ⎠

5.4. Some examples for the momentum equation application

- Force on bended pipe - Fig. 5.24:

From the derived equation (5-7), ( )
F r = ρQ v1 − v2 − p1 A1 − p2 A2 + G1− 2 ,

and the continuity equation Q = v1 A1 = v2 A2 , according Fig. 5.24 ⇒ v1 A1 = −v1 A1 and

v 2 A2 = +v2 A2 ⇒

( ) ( )
F r = − p1 + ρv12 A1 − p2 + ρv22 A2 + G1− 2 (5-38)
The components of this force will be (see Fig. 5.24):
( )
Frx = F r , i = ( p1 + ρv12 )A1 − ( p2 + ρv22 )A2 cos α ; Frz = Frxtgβ (5-39)

In this case, the corresponding scalar products are:

( ) ( ) ( )
A1 , i = A1 cos π = − A1 ; A2 , i = A2 cos α ; G1−2 , i = A2 cos(π / 2) = 0

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 67

Fig. 5.24: Force on a bended pipe

- Jet reaction - Fig. 5.25:

Discharge into the atmosphere is treated - Fig. 5.25 ⇒ the equation (5-12a) is valid ⇒
v = 2 gH
∴ The equation (5-7), according Fig. 5.25, is transformed into:
( )
F r = ρQ v0 − v − p0 A0 − p0 A + G

The resultant acting force (component) in the "z" direction will be:
(
Frz = − Frz' − p0 A0 = −(ρQv0 − p0 A0 ) − G − p0 A0 = − ρv02 A0 + G ) (5-40)
where:
p0 A0 is also acting on the bottom from outside; Q = v0 A0
Adequately, the resultant acting force (component) in the "x" direction will be:
( )
Frx = − Frx' + p0 A = − p0 + ρv 2 A + p0 A = − ρv 2 A = − ρQv (5-41)

∴ The force Frx is known as the reaction to the jet! The sign "-" means that Frx is in the opposite
direction to the velocity of the discharge (see Fig. 5.25).

Fig. 5.25: Jet reaction

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 68

- Missile reaction force and speed - Fig. 5.26:

w - relative velocity of the gases through the Laval nozzle; v = w − vR - absolute gas velocity;
vR - missile velocity. ⇒ from (5-7) ⇒
Fr = − ρQw = − ρAw2 (5-42)
From the II Newton's law ⇒
dvR
Fr = − M (5-43)
dt
M = M R + M F − ρQt - the missile mass after certain time "t".
M R - the mass of the useful missile load; M F - the fuel mass before the missile start;
ρQt - mass of the burned up gasses.

∴ From the equations (5-42) and (5-43) ⇒ the missile velocity:

dvR Fr ρQw
− = =− (5-44)
dt M M R + M F − ρQt
Since, Q = const and w = const ⇒
t
ρQdt ⎡ ρQt ⎤
vR = w ∫ = w ln ⎢1 + ⎥ (5-45)
0
M R + M F − ρQt ⎣ M R + M F − ρQt ⎦
After time T = M F / ρQ , the maximum missile velocity will be achieved:
⎡ M ⎤
vR max = w ln ⎢1 + F ⎥ (5-46)
⎣ MR ⎦

Fig. 5-26:Missile reaction force and speed

- Basic equation of the turbo machines - Fig. 5.27:

A steady flow of an inviscid fluid in a turbomachine runner is treated.
From the Moment of Momentum, derived equation (5-8)
[ ] ([ ] [ ]) [ ] [ ] [
]
M r = F r , r r = ρQ v1 , r1 − v2 , r 2 − p1 A1 , r1 − p2 A2 , r 2 + G1− 2 , e , for conditions when:
- the flow is in a horisontal plane G ⎜⎜to the axis of rotation ⇒ [G , e] = 0 ,
1− 2 1− 2

- and for cylindrical entrance and exit surfaces ⇒ [A , r ] = 0 , ⇒

i i

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 69
⇒ The turbomachine runner torque will be:

([ ] [
M r = ρQ v1 , r1 − v2 , r 2 ]) (5-47)

Since, for collinear vectors, the intensities of the vector products are:

[v , r ] = v r sin⎛⎜⎝ π2 − α ⎞⎟⎠ = v r cosα

i i i i i i i i ⇒

M r = M r = ρQ(v1r1 cos α1 − v2 r2 cos α 2 ) = ρQ(r1v1u − r2v2u ) (5-48)

where, according Fig. 5.27, vu = v cos α - see Fig. 5.27b).

∴ The equation (5-48) is the fundamental equation of turbomachines.

∴ The corresponding power to this theoretical torque (inviscid fluid) will be:

N = M rω = ρQ(r1ωv1u − r2ωv2u ) = ρQ(u1v1u − u2v2u ) (5-49)

From Fig. 5.27b) ⇒ w2 = u 2 + v 2 − 2vu cos α ⇒

⎛ u12 − u22 v12 − v22 w12 − w22 ⎞
N = ρ Q⎜⎜ + − ⎟ ` (5-50)
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎟⎠
∴ N is theoretical power ⇒ energy losses have to be taken into account.
∴ N > 0 for a turbine - the energy is delivered to the axis of rotation (runner shaft).
∴ N < 0 for a pump - the energy is delivered from the axis of rotation (impeller shaft)

a) b)
Fig. 5.27: Rotating channel of a turbomachine

A. Nospal 5. Some elementary flows of inviscid fluid

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 70

6. Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow

6.1. General concept of viscous fluid flow

All real fluids have some resistance to stress!

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to deform under shear stress.
⇒
dv
∴ The Newton's law for shear stress is valid: τ =μ , (6-1)
dn
- see equation (1-6) and Fig. 1.1 in chapter 1.3
τ - shear stress in N/m2; dv dn - rate of angular deformation (velocity gradient) in s-1;
μ - Dynamic (absolute) viscosity in kg/ms=Ns/m2.
μ
⇒ ν= - Kinematic viscosity in m2/s.
ρ
Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid
friction.
∴ The influence of tangential surface shear force has to be taken into account for real fluids.
The influence of the viscosity, i.e. the shear stress has especially effect at the boundaries of a solid
body ⇒ change of the velocity profile, see Fig. 6.1.

Fig. 6.1: The influence of the shear stress for viscous fluid flow
∴ Flow classification can be defined:
- inviscid (ideal) fluid flow - see chapter 4.;
- viscous (real) fluid flow - basic concepts in this chapter 6.

Depending on the relative magnitudes of the viscous and inertia forces two modes of viscous fluid flow
can be defined:
- laminar flow;
- turbulent flow

Laminar flow, sometimes known as streamline flow, occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers,
with no disruption between the layers.
Laminar flow - an organized flow field that can be described with streamlines. In order for laminar flow to
be permissible, the viscous stresses must dominate over the fluid inertia stresses.

A. Nospal 6. Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 71
Turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes.
Turbulent flow - a flow field that cannot be described with streamlines in the absolute sense. However,
time-averaged streamlines can be defined to describe the average behavior of the flow. In turbulent flow, the
inertia stresses dominate over the viscous stresses, leading to small-scale chaotic behavior in the fluid
motion.

∴ The dimensionless Reynolds number - Re (see later chapter 6.6, and chapter 7) is an important
parameter in the equations that describe whether flow conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow:

inertia force/mass
∝ Reynolds number
frictional force/mass

Re < Re cr - laminar flow; Re > Re cr - turbulent flow.

Re cr - critical Reynolds number, defined later in chapter 6.6.

a) laminar b) turbulent c) Laminar and turbulent water flow

over the hull of a submarine
Fig. 6.2:Examples of laminar and turbulent flow

6.2. Fundamental equations for laminar flow

- The continuity equation is valid - equation (3-28):

∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ (ρvx ) ∂ (ρv y ) ∂(ρvz )
+ div( ρ v) = 0 i.e. + + + =0 (6-2)
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
- The energy equation is also valid - equation (4-60), ⇒ the density change can be obtained:
ρ = f ( p, T , c p , k ,......., )
for barotropic fluid ⇒ ρ = f ( p) (6-3)

- Euler's equations, (4-11a) to (4-11c), can be also applied if tangential or shear stresses are
taken into account ⇒ Navier-Stockes equations!

A. Nospal 6. Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 72

- Stresses in a viscous fluid flow:

P
- Stress, is a measure of the average amount of force exerted per unit area - e.g. σ = .
A
∴ The influence of tangential surface shear force has to be taken into account for real fluids,
besides the forces defined for ideal fluid (see chapter 4.1)
- Infinitesimal fluid element at point M(x,y,z) is considered in the fluid flow
⇒ dV = dxdydz ; dm = ρdV - see Fig. 6.3.

Fig. 6.3: Normal and tangential stresses

- Tangential (shear) stresses:

τ xy = τ yx ; τ xz = τ zx ; τ yz = τ zy (6-4)

From the basic equation (6-1), the following relationships can be derived:
⎡ 1 ⎛ ∂vx ∂v y ⎞⎤ ⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞
τ xy = τ yx = 2 μ ⎢ ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟⎥ = μ ⎜⎜ x + y ⎟⎟ (6-5a)
⎣ 2 ⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠⎦ ⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠

⎛ ∂vx ∂vz ⎞
τ xz = τ zx = μ ⎜ + ⎟ (6-5b)
⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠
⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞
τ yz = τ zy = μ ⎜⎜ y + z ⎟⎟ (6-5c)
⎝ ∂z ∂y ⎠
- Normal stresses:
σ x = − p + ptx ; σ y = − p + pty ; σ z = − p + ptz (6-6)

ptx , pty , ptz - pressure increases due to the friction forces influence = additional normal stresses.

pti = 0 for ideal fluid ⇒ σ x = − p etc (sign "-" for a direction towards the surface).

⇒ Applying the approach for tangential stresses for pti = 0 ⇒

∂vx ⎛ ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎞ ∂v
ptx = σ x + p = 2μ + λ ⎜⎜ x + y + z ⎟⎟ = 2 μ x + λ div v (6-7a)
∂x ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ∂x

A. Nospal 6. Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 73
⇒ also
∂v y
pty = σ y + p = 2μ + λ div v (6-7b)
∂y
∂v
ptz = σ z + p = 2μ z + λ div v (6-7c)
∂z
If the definition for volumetric viscosity is included:
2
(λ + μ ) - volume viscousity - see chapter 5.3.
3
2 2
Stokes assumed: (λ + μ ) = 0 ⇒ λ = − μ
3 3
From the equations (6-7) ⇒ normal stresses:
∂vx 2
σ x = − p + 2μ − μ div v (6-8a)
∂x 3
∂v 2
σ y = − p + 2μ y − μ div v (6-8b)
∂y 3
∂v 2
σ z = − p + 2μ z − μ div v (6-8c)
∂z 3
- Surface forces and friction forces:
∴ The surface forces can be easyly obtained from the previously defined stresses ⇒
Surface force per unit mass dm = ρdV , in "y" direction (see Fig. 6.3):

1 ⎛ ∂σ y ∂τ zy ∂τ xy ⎞
Sy = ⎜ + + ⎟ (6-9a)
ρ ⎜⎝ ∂y ∂z ∂x ⎟⎠
and in the "x and "z" directions:
1 ⎛ ∂σ x ∂τ zx ∂τ yx ⎞
Sx = ⎜ + + ⎟ (6-9b)
ρ ⎜⎝ ∂x ∂z ∂y ⎟⎠
1 ⎛ ∂σ ∂τ ∂τ ⎞
S z = ⎜⎜ z + yz + xz ⎟⎟ (6-9c)
ρ ⎝ ∂z ∂y ∂x ⎠

⇒ By expressing the stresses from the equations (6-8), the surface force in the "y" dirrection will be:

1 ∂p μ ⎛⎜ ∂ v y ∂ v y ∂ v y ⎞⎟ 1 μ
2 2 2

Sy = − + + + + div v (6-10)
ρ ∂y ρ ⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ⎟⎠ 3 ρ
With the vector notations:
∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v
Δv y = 2y + 2y + 2y = ∇ 2v y , where, Δ = ∇ 2 - Laplacian operator
∂x ∂y ∂z

∇=i
∂
∂x
∂
+ j +k
∂y
∂
∂z ∂x
( )
∂v ∂v
∂y
∂v
- vector operator ⇒ gradU = ∇U ; div v = ∇, v = x + y + z
∂z
1 ∂p μ 2 1μ
⇒ Sy = − + ∇ vy + div v = Py + Ty (6-11)
ρ ∂y ρ 3ρ
Py - normal surface force; Ty - tangential surface force (friction force) - see chapter 1.4.
1 ∂p μ 2 1μ
Py = − ; Ty = ∇ vy + div v (6-12)
ρ ∂y ρ 3ρ

A. Nospal 6. Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 74
∴ Similar equation for "x" and "z" directions can be obtained ⇒ S y = Py + Ty ; S z = Pz + Tz

∴ The entire normal surface force will be a vector sum:

1 ⎛ ∂p ∂p ∂p ⎞ 1
P=− ⎜⎜ i + j + k ⎟⎟ = − ∇p (6-13)
ρ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂y ⎠ ρ
⇒ The normal surface force has the same expression as for ideal (inviscid) fluid - see chapter 4.1.

∴ The entire tangential friction surface force will be a vector sum:

T=
μ 2 1μ
ρ
∇ v+
3ρ
∇ ∇, v ( ) (6-14)

- Navier-Stockes equations:
™ Acting forces per unit mass on a viscous fluid element with dm = ρdV (make comparison
with chapter 4.1):
dJ dv
Inertial force per unit mass in N/kg ⇒ J= =−
dm dt
r r ∂U r ∂U r ∂U r
Elementary resultant body force R in N/kg ⇒ R= i+ j+ k = gradU = ∇U
∂x ∂y ∂z
Tangential surface force in N/kg ⇒
μ
T = ∇2 v +
ρ
1μ
3ρ
μ
( )
1
∇ ∇, v = Δv + grad div v
ρ 3
( )
1 1
Normal surface force in N/kg ⇒ P = − ∇p = − grad p
ρ ρ
According the D'Alembert's principle for dynamic equilibrium ⇒ :
J + R + P +T = 0
⇒ Navier-Stockes equations in vector notations:
dv
dt
1
ρ
μ
= ∇ U − ∇p + ∇ 2 v +
ρ
1μ
3ρ
∇ ∇, v ( ) (6-15)

i.e.
dv
dt
1
ρ
μ
= R − grad p + Δv +
ρ
1μ
3ρ
grad div v ( ) (6-15a)

μ
= ν - kinematic viscosity.
ρ

∴ Governing equations of viscous fluid laminar flow (mathematical model)

= Navier-Stockes equations (6-15) + continuity equation (6-2) + energy equation (6-3).
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂(ρvx ) ∂ (ρv y ) ∂(ρvz )
+ div( ρ v) = 0 ; i.e. + + + =0 (6-2)
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
ρ = f ( p, T , c p , k ,......., ) ; for barotropic fluid ρ = f ( p ) (6-3)

A. Nospal 6. Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 75

⇒ The Navier-Stockes vector equation can be expressed as three scalar Navier-Stockes partial
differential equations - equations of motion in Cartesian coordinates (Oxyz):
dvx ∂U ∂p μ ∂θ
ρ =ρ − + + μ∇ 2vx (6-16a)
dt ∂x ∂x 3 ∂x
dv y ∂U ∂p μ ∂θ
ρ =ρ − + + μ∇ 2v y (6-16b)
dt ∂y ∂y 3 ∂y
dvz ∂U ∂p μ ∂θ
ρ =ρ − + + μ∇ 2vz (6-16c)
dt ∂z ∂z 3 ∂y
where is:
d ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂vx ∂v y ∂vz ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
= + vx + vy + vz ; θ = div v = + + ; ∇2 = 2 + 2 + 2
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

∂
In case of 2-D incompressible fluid laminar flow ⇒ θ = div v = 0 ; vz = 0 ; =0
∂z
⇒ the governing equations:
∂vx ∂v y
+ =0 (6-17a)
∂x ∂y
∂vx ∂v ∂v ∂U 1 ∂p μ ⎛ ∂ 2vx ∂ 2vx ⎞
+ vx x + v y x = − + ⎜ + 2 ⎟⎟ (6-17b)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x ρ ∂x ρ ⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ∂y ⎠
∂v y ∂v y ∂v y ∂U 1 ∂p μ ⎛ ∂ 2v y ∂ 2v y ⎞
+ vx + vy = − + ⎜ + 2 ⎟⎟ (6-17c)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y ρ ∂y ρ ⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ∂y ⎠

∴ Analytical solution of the system of governing partial differential equations is

possible only for a few cases of laminar, steady flow of incompressible fluid.
Several approximations are introduced in these cases. ⇒ Results differ from
reality.

6.3. Fundamental concepts and solutions of the governing equations for some cases of
laminar flow

- Steady laminar flow between parallel plates - see Fig. 6. 4:

Approximations:
steady laminar 2-D flow, incompressible viscous fluid, body forces are neglected ⇒
∂
= 0 ; v y = 0 ; vx = vx ( x, y ) ; U = 0 . ⇒ the system (6-17) is simplified ⇒
∂t
∂vx
=0 (6-18a)
∂x
∂v 1 ∂p μ ⎛ ∂ 2vx ∂ 2vx ⎞
vx x = − + ⎜ + ⎟ (6-18b)
∂x ρ ∂x ρ ⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ⎟⎠
∂p
0=− (6-18c)
∂y

A. Nospal 6. Some fundamental concepts of viscous fluid flow

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 76

vxsr = vave ; vx max = vmax

Fig.6.4: Flow between parallel plates

⇒ The system of the partial differential equations (6-18) can be transformed to one ordinary
differential equation:
dp d 2v
=μ 2 (6-19)
dx dy
Because, p = p( x ) , vx = v( y ) = v , after the integration of (6-19), following the boundary conditions
from Fig. 6.4 ⇒ velocity change/velocity distribution along "y":
dp
v( y ) = −
2μ
(
1 2
h − y2 )
dx
(6-20)

h 2 dp
Maximum velocity (at y = 0 ): vmax = − (6-21)
2 μ dx
2 h 2 dp Q
Average velocity: vave = vmax = − = (6-22)
3 3μ dx A
+h
2 3 dp
Where is: A = 2bh and Q = b ∫ v( y )dy = − bh
−h
3μ dx

dp
The pressure distribution is assumed to be a straight line (see Fig. 6.4) ⇒ = const ⇒
dx
3μL
p1 − p2 = vave (6-23)
h2

- Steady laminar flow in a circular tube of a constant diameter - see Fig. 6. 7:

Same approximations (steady laminar 2-D flow, incompressible viscous fluid) and similar approach
as in the previous case:
∴ After simplification and transformation of the system governing partial differential equations in
cylindrical coordinates, an ordinary differential equation can be obtained as well.
The integration with boundary conditions as on Fig. 6.7 gives the velocity distribution :

k ⎡⎛ D ⎞
2
⎤ 1 dp ⎡⎛ D ⎞
2
⎤
v(r ) = ⎢⎜ ⎟ − r 2
⎥ = − ⎢⎜ ⎟ − r ⎥
2
(6-24)
4μ ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 4μ dz ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 77
D 2 dp
Maximum velocity (at r = 0 ): vmax = − (6-25)
16 μ dz
1 D 2 ⎛ dp ⎞ Q
Average velocity: vave = vmax = ⎜− ⎟ = (6-26)
2 32 μ ⎝ dz ⎠ A
D/2
Where is: A = πD / 4 ; Q = ∫ v(r )2rπdr
2

r =0

dp
The pressure distribution along the pipe: = −k = const ⇒ along a length L of the pipe ⇒
dz
32μLvave
Δp = p1 − p2 = (6-27)
D2

vsr = vave
Fig. 6-7: Steady laminar flow in a circular tube of a constant diameter

6.4. Fundamental concepts and equations for creeping motion and two-dimensional
boundary layer

- Creeping flow

Creeping fluid flow or Stokes flow (named after George Gabriel Stokes) is a type of incompressible
fluid flow where inertial forces are small compared with viscous forces. The Reynolds number is
low, i.e. Re → 0 .
This is a typical situation in flows where the fluid velocities are very slow, the viscosities are very
large, or the length-scales of the flow are very small, such as in Microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS) devices or in the flow of viscous polymers.

∴ Inertial forces and body are neglected ⇒ Stokes equations :

grad p = μΔv (6-28)

∂vx ∂v y ∂vz
Using the continuity equation for incompressible fluid flow, div v = + + =0 ⇒
∂x ∂y ∂z
Laplace equation for pressure:
∂2 p ∂2 p ∂2 p
Δp = ∇ 2 p = + + =0 (6-29)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
⇒ the pressure can be obtained directly from the Laplace equation (6-29), taking the boundary
conditions into account.

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 78
- Creeping flow around a sphere - see Fig. 6.9:
This is a characteristic example!
The Stockes equation (6-28) is solved in spherical coordinate system (r, θ,ϕ) - see Fig. 6.9, using
the boundary conditions:
for r = R ⇒ v = 0 ; for r → ∞ ⇒ vx = v∞ and px = p∞

∴ Stokes derived the acting force of the fluid on the sphere in the "x" direction - Fx
= called the Drag force (FD)! :
Fx = 6πμRv∞ (6-30a)
or
v∞2
Fx = FD = CD ρ A (6-30b)
2
24 v 2 Rρ
Where is: A = πR 2 ; CD = - theoretical Ctokes Drag coefficient; Re = ∞
Re μ
24
∴ However, since the inertial forces are neglected ⇒ CD ≠ .
Re
∴ CD has to be obtained with experiment - see Fig. 6.9b.

a) b) C D = f (Re) - solid line = experiments;

(1) - Stokes' equation; (2) - Oseen's equation
Fig. 6.9: Creeping flow around a sphere

- Two-dimensional boundary layer

A boundary layer is that layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface- Fig. 6.10a,b.
In the Earth's atmosphere, the planetary boundary layer is the air layer near the ground affected by
diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface.
On an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing.
The boundary layer effect occurs at the field region in which all changes occur in the flow pattern.
The boundary layer distorts surrounding nonviscous flow.
It is a phenomenon of viscous forces. This effect is related to the Reynolds number.

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 79
∴ Some conclusions:
- With real fluids there is no "slip" at the riigid boundaries. The fluid velocity relative to the
boundary is zero (see Fig. 6.10).
- The velocity gradient and shear stress have maximum values at the boundaries.
- Significant viscous shear occurs only within a thin layer next to the boundary (called
"boundary layer" . Outside this layer viscous shear becomes small.
- Inside the layer, the viscous effects override the inertia effects.
- The stream lines of the main flow beyond the boundary layer conform essentially to a
potential flow!!!

Fig. 6.10 a,b: Boundary layer versus slip flow: (a) flat plate ;(b) cylinder

Fig. 6.10 c: Boundary layers in ducts Fig. 6.10 d:Boundary layer thickness

Numerous theoretical and experimental investigations are realized concerning the boundary layer
phenomena!
General classification: laminar and turbulent boundary layer (see Fig. 6.11).

Fig. 6.11: Laminar and turbulent boundary layer

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 80

In this chapter only a basic approach to the laminar boundary layer is presented.
Laminar boundary layers come in various forms and can be loosely classified according to their
structure and the circumstances under which they are created.

∴ For 2-D laminar boundary layer of creeping incompressible fluid flow (inertial and body
forces are neglected) ⇒
Prandtl derived boundary layer equations from the governing equations for 2-D incompressible
fluid laminar flow (equations (6-17)):
∂vx ∂v y
+ =0 (6-31a)
∂x ∂y
∂vx ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p μ ⎛ ∂ 2vx ∂ 2vx ⎞
+ vx x + v y x = − + ⎜ + ⎟ (6-31b)
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ρ ⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ⎟⎠
∂vx
= 0 for steady flow.
∂t
⇒ The so-called displacement thickness of an imaginary boundary layer δ * can be obtained,
considering the continuity of the mass flow rate adjacent to the boundary layer (see Fig. 6.11):
h
ρUδ = ρ ∫ (U − u )dy
*

where is: u = vx ; U - free stream velocity; ρUδ - mass flow rate in the absence of boundary
*

layer.
h
⎛ u⎞
δ = ∫ ⎜1 − ⎟dy
*
(6-32)
0⎝
U⎠

∴ Difficulties in numerical obtaining of the overall boundary layer thickness δ ⇒ experiments ,

approximations:
∴ δ is defined as the distance to the point where vx = 0.99U (see Fig. 6.11).

6.5. The notion of resistance, drag, and lift

The investigation of the drag and lift concepts are very important for various fields oh Fluid
Mechanics application: aeronautics, turbo machinery, multicomponents flows, chemical reactions etc.
Drag (sometimes called resistance) is the force that resists the movement of a solid object through a
fluid in the direction of its movement - in this case the object is moving in a quiescent fluid.
Drag force (FD ) can be also defined as the acting force of the fluid flow on a immersed body, in
the direction of the flow relative velocity V0 - see Fig. 6.12.
The total drag force FD can be expressed with its components as (see Fig.6.12):

FD = FDf + FDp (6-33)

frictional drag : FDf = ∫ τ 0 sin ϕdS (6-34)

S

pressure drag: FDp = − ∫ p sin ϕdS (6-35)

S

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 81
S - total surface area.
However, using the Stokes approaches (see equation (6-30b)), these components can be expressed
as:
V02
FDf = C Df ρ Af (6-36)
2
V02
FDp = CDf ρ Ap (6-37)
2
CDf and CDp - corresponding drag (resistance) coefficients; Af and Ap - reference areas.
Usually, Af - the actual area over which the shear stresses act, e.g. the planform area of a wing or
hydrofoil (see Fig. 6.13);
Ap - the frontal area of a wing or hydrofoil (see Fig. 6.13).

∴ The total drag force can also be defined as:

V02
FD = CD ρ A (6-38)
2
CD = CDf + CDp (6-39)

A - frontal area normal to V0 ⇒ A = AP

Fig. 6.12: Definition diagram for flow-induced forces

Lift force is the sum of all the fluid dynamic forces on a body perpendicular to the direction of the
external flow approaching that body - see Fig. 6.12 and Fig. 6.13.

The lift force, lifting force or simply lift can also be defined as a mechanical force generated by
solid objects as they move through a fluid.

While many types of objects can generate lift, the most common and familiar object in this category
is the airfoil, a relatively flat object of which the common airplane wing is an example - Fig. 6.13.

For the lift force it is not customary to separate the frictional and pressure components. For bodies
like the hydrofoil (Fig. 6.13), designed particularly for useful lift, the lift force is primarily a
pressure-component effect.
∴ The total lift is defined as:
V02
FL = L = CL ρ A (6-40)
2
CL - lift coefficient;
A - the planform area of a wing (largest projected area of the body, or the projected area normal to V0.

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∴ CD and CL are usually experimentally obtained. Theoretical approaches exist but with many
approximations.

Fig. 6.13:Lift and drag on a hydrofoil section

6.6. Basic concepts of incompressible viscous fluid turbulent flow

Turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes.

Turbulent flow - a flow field that cannot be described with streamlines in the absolute sense. However,
time-averaged streamlines can be defined to describe the average behavior of the flow. In turbulent flow, the
inertia stresses dominate over the viscous stresses, leading to small-scale chaotic behavior in the fluid
motion.
∴ Turbulent flows are more common in the nature and more significant

- Reynolds experiment and Reynolds number

During the later half of the 19th century, Osborne Reynolds demonstrated the difference in laminar
and turbulent flow and developed an equation to predict the transition from one flow regime to the
other.
Experiment includes (Fig. 6.16):
- Water supply tank with clear test section tube and "bell mouth" entrance.
- Dye injector with needle valve control for precision metering of dye.
- Rotometer flow meter to measure water flow rate.
- One bottle of dye.

Fig. 6.16: Scheme of the Reynolds experiment

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 DEREC Fluid Mechanics - Lectures 83
As shown on Fig. 6.16, Reynolds injected a fine stream of dye into water flowing from a large tank
into a glass tube. ⇒:
- With low flow rates through the tube (small velocities), the dye stream persisted as a straight
streak ⇒ ∴ the water moved in parallel stream lines or laminas ⇒ laminar flow.
- As the flow was increased above a certain critical rate, the dye streak broke into irregular vortices
and then (for very high velocities) mixed laterally throughout the cross section ⇒ turbulent flow.
- See also Fig. 6.2.

The dimensionless Reynolds number - Re is an important parameter in the equations that describe
whether flow conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow:

inertia force/mass
∝ Reynolds number (6-41)
frictional force/mass

Re < Recr - laminar flow; Re > Recr - turbulent flow.

Recr - critical Reynolds number.

Re is one of the most important dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics and is used, usually
along with other dimensionless numbers, to provide a criterion for determining dynamic similitude.

Concerning the definition (6-41) in the theory of similarity (see chapter 7) the following expression
is derived:
ρv l v l
Re = 0 = 0 (6-42)
μ ν
v0 - characteristic velocity; l - characteristic length.
For flow in circular pipes ⇒
ρvm d
Re = (6-43)
μ
vm = Q / A - mean velocity; d - pipe diameter.

The transition between laminar and turbulent flow is often indicated by a critical Reynolds number
(Recr), which depends on the exact flow configuration and must be determined experimentally.

Re < Recr - laminar flow; Re > Recr - turbulent flow.

For example:
Recr = 2320 - critical Reynolds number for flow in pipes.
Recr = 1160 - critical Reynolds number for flow wide channnels (the depth is characteristic length).

However, within a certain range around the critical Re value, there is a region of gradual transition
where the flow is neither fully laminar nor fully turbulent, and predictions of fluid behavior can be
difficult.
⇒ Many engineers will avoid any pipe configuration that falls within the range of Reynolds
numbers from about 2000 to 3000 to ensure that the flow is either laminar or turbulent.

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- Velocity in turbulent flow

Turbulent flow has a random nature, making it difficult to describe exactly.

It can be describe by a set of statistical properties.
For this purpose, it is convenient to define the term of instantaneous flow properties

u = u + u′ ; v = v + v′ ; w = w + w′ ; p = p + p′ etc. (6-44)

e.g.: v - instantaneous velocity; v - mean value; v′ - fluctuating component; ⇒ see Fig. 6.17.
Here: u = vx ; v = v y ; w = vz - instantaneous velocities in the corresponding directions x,y,z.

T
1
T ∫0
v= vdt (6-45)

T T
1 1
⇒ v′ = ∫ v′dt ; u′v′ = ∫ u′v′dt ; etc. (6-46)
T0 T0

⇒ Kinetic energy of turbulence per unit mass:

average KE of turbulence 1 2
mass
(
= u′ + v′2 + w′2
2
) (6-47)

⇒ ∴ For other properties the same approach can be applied!

Fig. 6.17: Turbulent flow instantaneous velocity

Introducing the mean values, as given with equations (6-45) to (6-47), it is possible to obtain partial
differential equations for mean flow of incompressible viscous fluid flow (from the governing
equations derived in chapter 6.2).
Reynolds converted the equations of motion for incompressible viscous fluid flow into such form
⇒ Reynolds equations for incompressible turbulent flow.
However, the introduced approximations make that the theoretically predicted behavior is different
from the real behavior - the true details of the fluctuations are not established.

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- Governing equations for turbulent flow

The governing equations derived in chapter 6.2, Navier-Stockes equations (6-16) + continuity
equation (6-2) + energy equation (6-3) , are general and valid for turbulent flow as well.

∴ The mathematical model of a turbulent compressible fluid flow (general case) can be expressed
with the following system of partial differential equations:

∂ρ ∂ ( ρu ) ∂ ( ρv) ∂ ( ρw)
+ + + =0 (6-48)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Du ∂p ∂θ
ρ = ρX − + (λ + μ ) + μ∇ 2 u (6-49)
Dt ∂x ∂x
Dv ∂p ∂θ
ρ = ρY − + (λ + μ ) + μ∇ 2 v (6-50)
Dt ∂y ∂y
Dw ∂p ∂θ
ρ = ρZ − + (λ + μ ) + μ∇ 2 w (6-51)
Dt ∂z ∂z
DT Dp ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
ρc p − = ⎜k ⎟ + ⎜k ⎟ + ⎜k ⎟+Φ (6-52)
Dt Dt ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠
ρ - density;
u = vx , v = v y and w = vz - velocities in x , y and z directions;
For turbulent flow: u = u + u′ ; v = v + v′ ; w = w + w′ ; p = p + p′ etc.
t - time;
p - pressure;
T - temperature;
k - heat conductivity coefficient;
c p - specific heat at constant pressure;
X , Y , Z - body force components per unit mass in x, y and z direction;
2
Φ = (λ + μ )θ 2 - dissipation function;
3
2
(λ + μ ) - volumetric viscosity; μ - dynamic viscosity;
3
∂u ∂v ∂w
θ= + + - local rate of volumetric dilatation;
∂x ∂y ∂z
D ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= +u +v +w - operator for differentiation;
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = + + - Laplace's operator.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

∴ It is obvious that for turbulent flow the governing equations are scientifically complex.

∴ Analytical solution of the system of governing partial differential equations is possible only for
a few cases of laminar, steady flow of incompressible fluid (see chapter 6.3).
∴ Several approximations are introduced in these cases ( θ = 0 ; ρ = cos nt ; T = const ; etc. ).
⇒ Results differ from reality.

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∴ Exact analytical solution of the mathematical model defined with the system partial differential
equations (6-48) to (6-52) is not possible.

6.7. Concepts for solving governing equations of viscous fluid flow

For engineering problems solving, two general methods are available.

• theoretical, and
• experimental.

In the engineering analysis, and especially research work, for every problem it is necessary to figure
out the use of one or the other method
For most of the engineering problems the implementation of both methods is necessary.
Which one will be used more (or less) depends of the nature of the problem and the available
knowledge.
The theory and the experiment have to be compatible. ⇒ more efficiency in solving the problems.

- Features of theoretical methods

The result of the theoretical method is definition of corresponding mathematical model, which gives
the description of the investigated problem.

If analytical solutions of the mathematical model are possible ⇒ overall results are obtained, which
will be valid for different conditions.

∴ The effort has to be in finding analytical solutions first of all.

However, analytical solution of the system of governing partial differential equations is possible
only for a few cases (see previous conclusions).
⇒ Defining of corresponding numerical model.
⇒ Several approximations are introduced in the process of numerical model definition.
⇒
∴ The numerical solutions give predictions for the corresponding process behavior.

The use of sophisticated PC (even so-called "super computers") and software packages enable
solving of such numerical models, for which extremely long execution time was needed in the past
(or it was impossible to be solved).

The features of the theoretical method can be summarized as follows:

1. Often give results that are of general use rather than for restricted application.
2. Invariably require the application of simplifying assumptions. Thus not the actual physical
system but rather a simplified "mathematical model" of the system is studied. This means
the theoretically predicted behavior is always different from the real behavior.
3. In some cases, may lead to complicated mathematical problems. This has blocked
theoretical treatment of many problems in the past. Today, increasing availability of high-
speed computing machines allows theoretical treatment of many problems that could not be
so treated in the past.

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4. Besides theoretical knowledge; require only pencil, paper, computing machines, etc.
Extensive laboratory facilities are not required. (Some computers are very complex and
expensive, but they can be used for solving all kinds of problems. Much laboratory
equipment, on the other hand, is special-purpose and suited only to a limited variety of
tasks.)
5. No time delay engendered in building models, assembling and checking instrumentation,
and gathering data.

Concerning theoretical method for solving governing equations of viscous fluid flow:

- Turbulence modeling is the area of physical modeling where a simpler mathematical model than
the full time dependent Navier-Stokes equations is used to predict the effects of turbulence.

- Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations (RANS) is the oldest approach to turbulence

modeling. An ensemble version of the governing equations is solved, which introduces new
apparent stresses known as Reynolds stresses.
⇒ Mathematically, turbulent flow is represented via Reynolds decomposition, in which the flow is
broken down into the sum of a steady component and a perturbation component
⇒ see previously defined instantaneous, mean and fluctuating flow properties - equations (6-44)
to (6-47).
⇒ Derivation of the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations, which are time-averaged
equations of motion for fluid flow. They have been primarily used while dealing with turbulent flows.

- Joseph Boussinesq was the first practitioner of this, introducing the concept of eddy viscosity. In
this model, the additional turbulent stresses are given by augmenting the molecular viscosity with
an eddy viscosity. This can be a simple constant eddy viscosity (which works well for some free
shear flows such as axisymmetric jets, 2-D jets, and mixing layers).
- Later, Ludwig Prandtl introduced the additional concept of the mixing length, along with the idea
of a boundary layer. For wall-bounded turbulent flows, the eddy viscosity must vary with distance
from the wall, hence the addition of the concept of a 'mixing length'. In the simplest wall-bounded
flow model, the eddy viscosity is given by the equation.

- However, since it is believed that turbulent flows obey the Navier-Stokes equations. Direct
Numerical Simulation (DNS), based on the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations, makes it
possible to simulate turbulent flows with moderate Reynolds numbers (restrictions depend on the
power of computer and efficiency of solution algorithm). The results of DNS agree with the
experimental data. The DNS is widly applied in Computational fluid dynamics approach (CFD).

- Experimental and semi-empirical approach

Especially, for problems being on the edge of knowledge, i.e. there are now enough adequate
theoretical descriptions and predictions, extensive experimental investigations are needed.
However, the links between the existing theory and the experiment have to be defined ⇒
Dimensional analysis and Theory of similarity are of great help.
For conducting the experimental method, defining and realization of a physical model is needed
The physical model has to be similar to the original (prototype) as much as possible.

A corresponding laboratory installation has to be constructed for the defined physical model ⇒
experiments and measurements of the governing properties would be performed.
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The features of the experimental method can be summarized as follows:

1. Often give results that apply only to the specific system being tested. However. techniques
such as dimensional analysis may allow some generalization.
2. No simplifying assumptions necessary if tests are run on an actual system. The true behavior
of the system is revealed.
3. Accurate measurements necessary to give a true picture. This may require expensive and
complicated equipment. The characteristics of all the measuring and recording equipment
must be thoroughly understood.
4. Actual system or a scale model required. If a scale model is used, similarity of all significant
features must be preserved.
5. Considerable time required for design, construction, and debugging of apparatus.

∴ The experimental method can help in resolving the problems of introducing the
approximations in the process of solving the mathematical/numerical model.
⇒
Types of problems that can be resoled by use of the experimental model;

1. Testing the validity of theoretical predictions based on simplifying assumptions;

improvement of theory, based on measured behaviour.
⇒ semi-empirical approach for solving the governing equations.
2. Formulation of generalized empirical relationships in situations where no adequate theory
exists.
Example: determination of friction factor for turbulent pipe flow.
3. Determination of material, component, and system parameters, variables, and performance
indices.
Examples: determination of yield point of certain alloy steel, speed-torque curves for an
electric motor, thermal efficiency of a steam turbine.
4. Study of phenomena with hopes of developing a theory.
Example: electron microscopy of metal fatigue cracks.
5. Solution of mathematical equations by means of analogies.
Example: solution of shaft torsion problems by measurements on soap bubbles.

- CFD approach

The development of the Numerical analysis, and especially the development and application of the
sophisticated computers and software, have introduced numerical methods for solving the
governing equations. These methods can be classified in general as:
- integral method,
- method of finite elements/differences,
- method of finite volumes.

A direct numerical simulation (DNS) is a simulation in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in

which the Navier-Stokes equations are numerically solved without any turbulence model. This
means that the whole range of spatial and temporal scales of the turbulence must be resolved. All
the spatial scales of the turbulence must be resolved in the computational mesh,

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Direct numerical simulation (DNS) captures all of the relevant scales of turbulent motion, so no
model is needed for the smallest scales. This approach is extremely expensive, if not intractable, for
complex problems on modern computing machines, hence the need for models to represent the
smallest scales of fluid motion.

∴
The behavior of fluid flow is described by well-established partial differential equations –
governing equations.
Except for very simple conditions, these equations need to be solved numerically with the aid of
computers.
To this end, the predefined flow domain is covered by a numerical mesh, which defines nodes at
mesh cross-sections and finite volumes or finite elements which are patches of area of volume cells
around nodes or between consecutive mesh lines.
The differential flow-governing equations are then approximated, using numerical discretisation
schemes, as sets of algebraic equations, each pertaining to a node, finite volume or finite element.
The collection of coupled algebraic equation are then solved, by linear-algebra methods, on a
computer to yield discrete values of velocity and pressure at mesh nodes.

The collection of theoretical, numerical and computational techniques that facilitate this process is
called Computational Fluid Dynamics.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is one of the branches of fluid mechanics that uses numerical
methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used
to perform the millions of calculations required to simulate the interaction of fluids with the
complex surfaces used in engineering.

What use is CFD?

Knowing how fluids will flow, and what will be their quantitative effects on the solids
with which they are in contact, CFD assists in:
- building-services engineers and architects to provide comfortable and safe human
environments;
- power-plant designers to attain maximum efficiency, and reduce release of pollutants;
- chemical engineers to maximize the yields from their reactors and processing equipment;
- land-, air- and marine-vehicle designers to achieve maximum performance, at least cost;
- risk-and-hazard analysts, and safety engineers, to predict how much damage to structures,
equipment, human beings, animals and vegetation will be caused by fires, explosions and
blast waves.

CFD-based flow simulations enable:

- metropolitan authorities need to determine where pollutant-emitting industrial plant may
be safely located, and under what conditions motor-vehicle access must be restricted so as
to preserve air quality;
- meteorologists and oceanographers to foretell winds and water currents; - hydrologists and
others concerned with ground-water to forecast the effects of changes to ground-surface
cover, of the creation of dams and aquaducts on the quantity and quality of water supplies;
- petroleum engineers to design optimum oil-recovery strategies, and the equipment for
putting them into practice;
- ... and so on.

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Within a few years, it is to be expected, surgeons will conduct operations which may
affect the flow of fluids within the human body (blood, urine, air, the fluid within the
brain) only after their probable effects have been predicted by CFD methods.

However, even with simplified equations and high-speed supercomputers, still approximate
solutions can be achieved in many cases.
More accurate software that can accurately and quickly simulate even complex scenarios such as
transonic or turbulent flows are an ongoing area of research. Validation of such software is often
performed using experiments on a physical model. .

Fig. 6.18: Examples of CFD solutions

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7. Basic consideration of Experimental Fluid Mechanics

7.1. Basic approach to the Dimensional Analysis

Why Dimensional Analysis?

⇒ A significant help of Dimensional Analysis and Theory of similarity in defining a

connection between the existing theory and the adequate experiment.
⇒ In many cases the Dimensional analysis enables adequate generalizations and formulation
of generalized empiric expressions.
⇒ The gain of the dimensional analysis use is very important in reducing the experimental
work, through transformation of certain functional relationship into relationship of
dimensionless groups.

∴ The bases of the dimensional analysis application are presented with concrete practical
examples.
The presented matter is also useful for figure out the dimensional formulae and measurement
units of significant physical quantities ⇒ see the table in chapter 1.2.

- dimensional homogeneity, Rayleigh method, the significance of non-dimensional

relationships and numbers,

Equations in physics have dimensional homogeneity - not only because of their theoretical
derivation but also due to the way of measurements of the physical quantities.
Definition:
All members in an equation have the same physical meaning and are expressed with same
measurement units.
Example:
A form of the Bernoulli equation
ρv2 ρ v02
p +γh+ = p0 + γ h0 + (7-1)
2 2

⇒ All members have same dimensional formula - [FL – 2 ] i.e. [ML – 1 T – 2 ], and are expressed with
same units - [N/m2].
Another form of the Bernoulli equation:
p v2
+ gh + = gH 0 (7-2)
ρ 2
⇒ each member has dimensional formula [L 2 T - 2 ], i.e. energy per unit mass [Nm/kg].
The most known form:
p v2
+h+ = H0 (7-3)
γ 2g

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⇒ Each member has dimensional formula [L]
⇒ work per unit force in [Nm/N] i.e. [m] = hydraulic head.

In the table Dimensional Formulae and Measurement Units - see chapter 1.2 ⇒ dimensional
formulae for the most used physical quantities in both systems of fundamental dimensions
(M,L,T,θ) (M,L,T,θ) and (F,L,T, θ) ⇒ the corresponding measurement units are given as well.

- Rayleigh's method

Rayleigh's method = practical aproach to the dimensional analysis.

Vaschy' s method = general theory of dimensional analysis.

From his theoretical work in physics and experience, Lord Rayleigh made a conclusion that most of
the solutions of theoretical analysis were in a form of products of powers of the involved variables
and parameters:
P = Cqwr x s yt z (7-4)
A simple example ⇒ the expression for the period of the simple pendulum with length l and driven
by the gravity force:
l
θ = 2π (7-5)
g
∴ θ = Cl x g y = Cl1 / 2 g −1 / 2

Another example ⇒ pressure drop per unit length in a horizontal circular pipe, for laminar steady
flow:
Δp v
= 32μ ave2 (7-6)
L d
μ - dynamic viscosity; vave = Q / A - average velocity.

If it is assumed that the equation (7-6) has not been discovered yet, but it is known that
Δp / L = f ( μ , vave , d ) , from the Rayleigh's approach - expression (7-4) ⇒
Δp
= Cμ x vave
y
dz (7-7)
L
From Rayleigh's method ⇒ the exponents can be obtained as x = 1, y = 1, z = −2 .
The constant C cannot be determined with this method.

In (7-4), in an arbitrarily manner, a function of four independent variables is presented.

There is no loss of generality if other number of independent variables is used - it can be any
number.
However, the discussion should be based on lesser number of fundamental dimensions (M, L, T, θ).

Rayleigh's method is based on dimensional homogeneity ⇒ in the equation (7-4) both sides should
be with equal dimensions.
⇒ it leads to as many algebraic equations as the number of the applied exponents.
However, it is possible: nequations = nexp onents ; nequations > nexp onents ; nequations < nexp onents ⇒ problem?

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The concept of dependent and independent variables:
In the expression (7-4):
P - function (dependent variable; q, r, s and t - independent variables.

Same independent variables can be associated with different functions

E.g., the wall shear stress of a laminar viscous flow in a circular pipe:
vsr
τ w = 8μ (7-8)
d
⇒ the same independent variables as in (7-6), but with different exponents.

Which is dependent variable, and which are the independent variables, is related to the manner how
the problem arises or is formulated.
If in the case of laminar flow in a pipe, the average velocity was of interest ⇒

vave = f ( μ , Δp / L, d ) (7-9)
vave - dependent variable;
μ, Δp/L, d - independent variables.
∴ Important to notice:

In the analysis of a specific problem, it is suggested not to include by mistake one or more
additional dependent variable among the independent variables

∴ A method older than one century but still responds excellent to the problems of the practical
dimensional analysis.

∴ Steps of the procedure :

- Recognition of dependent (P) and independent (q,r,s,t,..) variables in a given problem;
- Application of the general equation (7-4);
- Satisfaction of the dimensional homogeneity;
- Determination of algebraic equation, which correspond to the introduced exponents (w,x,y,z,..);
- Calculation of as many exponents as possible;
- Writing the final results.

The Rayleigh's method will be illustrated through examples ⇒

Simple pendulum
Assumption:
Very little is known about this phenomenon, but enough to conclude that:

θ = f (g, l) (7-10)
According (7-4) ⇒ θ = Cl x g y (7-11)
From table Dimensional Formulae and Measurement Units - 1.2 ⇒ dimensional formulae:
[θ ] = L 0 T 1 ; [l ] = L 1 T 0 ; [g ] = L 1 T - 2 (7-12)
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From (7-10) and (7-12) ⇒ L0T1 = (L)x (LyT-2y) (7-13)

0= x+ y
⇒ ⇒ x = 1/2 and y = - 1/2. (7-14)
1 = −2 y
Finally:
θ = Cl x g y = Cl 1 / 2 g −1 / 2 (7-15)
The constant C cannot be determined with this method ⇒ only with experiment, or analytically.

Stokes law for fluid drag

Laminar creeping flow around a sphere is treated - as in chapter 6.4 ⇒ inertial forces can be
neglected ⇒
∴ the flow is dominated be the viscous forces FD = f ( μ , v, d ) ⇒

FD = C μ x v y d z (7-16)
Dimensional formulae are:
[FD] =MLT-2 ; [μ] = ML-1T-1 ; [v] = M0LT-1 ; [d] = M0L1T0 (7-17)

Applying the dimensional homogeneity in (7-16) ⇒ algebraic equations:

x=1 for M
-x+y+z=1 for L (7-18)
-x-y=-2 for T

⇒ Solutions: x = 1 , y = 1 , z = 1 , ⇒

FD = C μ vd (7-19)
In chapter 6.4, it was shown the procedure for mathematical derivation of Drag force equation from
the Stokes general equation - see equation (6-30) ; Fx = 6πμRv∞ .
∴ The equation (7-19), which doesn't defer from (6-30), was obtained much easier.
The constant C can be obtained with one good experiment.

Venturi flow meter

One of the classical methodologies for flow rate measurements.

Herschell, inspired by Venturi's works, invented the Venturi flow meter.

On Fig.7.1 the usual form of a Venturi meter is given.

In chapter 5.2 the volume flow rate equation for steady flow of inviscid incompressible fluid was
derived, see equation (5.10), i.e:
−1 2
πd 2 2Δp ⎡ d 4 ⎤
Q= 1− (7-20)
4 ρ ⎢⎣ D 4 ⎥⎦

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If the Dimensional analysis is used ⇒

Q = f (Δp,ρ ,d ,D) , i. e. Q = C Δp x ρ y d z D u (7-21)

The fluid is accelerated toward the throat due to the pressure forces; with very little contribution of
the viscous forces ⇒ ∴ the viscous forces can be neglected!
Applying the dimensional formulae ⇒

M 0 L 3 T -1 = M x L -x T -2x M y L -3y L z L u (7-22)

⇒
x+y=0
-x - 3y + z + u = 3 (7-23)
-2x = -1
⇒ nravenki < neksponenti ⇒ x = 1/2, y = -1/2, z = 2 - u

Δp
⇒ Q=C d 2 ( D / d )u (7-24)
ρ

∴ The expression (7-24) is similar to (7-20), but still all members are not defined.
Therefore, it is better to express the volume flow rate as:
Δp
Q= d 2 F (D / d ) (7-25)
ρ
∴ F(d/D) can be determined by experiment.

Δp = Δh (ρm-ρ) g

Fig. 7.1: Venturi pipe

Venturi flow meter for viscous fluid flow - refined analysis:

The viscosity of the fluid is taken into account ⇒ theoretical solution of this problem is not
discovered yet.
⇒ However, the application of the dimensional analysis and corresponding experiments have given
very good results.
Following the Rayleigh's approach (7-4), ⇒

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Q = f (Δ p,ρ ,d ,D, μ ) = C Δ p x ρ y d z D u μ v (7-26)

Applying the dimensional homogeneity and the corresponding dimensional formulae ⇒
3 -1 -1 -2 x -3 y z u -1 -1 v
L T = C (ML T ) (ML ) L L (ML T ) ,

⇒ x+y+v=0 ⇒ x = 1/2 - v/2

-x - 3y + z + u - v = 3 y = - 1/2 - v/2
-2x - v = -1 z=2-u-v

Δ p 2 ⎛ D ⎞u ⎛⎜
v
μ ⎞
⇒ Q=C d ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ (7-29)
ρ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎜⎝ ρΔ p d ⎟
⎠
Rayleigh will define (7-29) as:
Δp d Δp d
Q=C d 2 ⋅ F1( ,ρ ) (7-30)
ρ D ρ μ

πd 2 2Δp ⎛ d ⎞ πd 2 2Δp
or transformed as: Q= ⋅ F ⎜ ,Re ⎟ = Cd (7-30a)
4 ρ ⎝D ⎠ 4 ρ
⎛d ⎞ Q
where is: Cd =F ⎜ ,Re ⎟ = = discharge coefficient (7-31)
⎝ D ⎠ πd 2Δp
2

4 ρ
Δp d
ρ = Re - a form of Reynolds number
ρ μ
∴ Cd can be obtained with experiment. Some of the experimental results for Cd for orifice
meter and Venturi meter are shown on Fig. 7.2.

orifice

orifice
Venturi

Fig. 7.2: Discharge coefficient for orifice meter and Venturi meter in function of Re

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- Dimensionless groups

Some of the examples lead to a transformation of certain functional dependence to another, which
contains less variables.
The new variables consist of products of powers of the old ones.

For example, from the dimensional analysis of Venturi meter ⇒

Q
Q = f (Δp, ρ, d, D) (7-34) ⇒ = F (d D ) (7-36)
2 Δp
d
ρ
Q
Q = f (Δp, ρ, d, D, µ) (7-35) ⇒ = F (Re, d D ) (7-37)
2 Δp
d
ρ
The functions F(d/D)and F(Re, d/D) can be obtained experientially (with measurements), and
sometimes analytically.
Sometimes, the functional relationships can be determined so well, that only a constant remains to
be found.
Ponekoga{ funkcionalnite vrski mo`at da se opredelat taka dobro {to samo
konstantata ostanuva kako nepoznata ⇒:

T Δp L
Examples ⇒ =C; =C (7-38)
(l g )1 2 μv d 2

The last two examples show the essential gain of the dimensional analysis:
∴ The form of the function is completely determined, and only a constant remains to be found.
⇒ In theory, only one good experiment should be enough for this.

The gain is also important in the examples (1-36) and (1-37):

- Suppose that for a function of n = 1 variable, 10 experimental points are necessary (Fig. 7.3).
- For a funcion of n=2 variables, family of 10 curves (102 experimental points) are needed.
- For a funcion of n variables, ⇒ ∴ 10n experimental points.
∴ It is obvious that, e.g. with the reduction of the expression (7-34) to an expression with only one
variable (7-36), ⇒ 1000 times less experiments would be needed to determine the function!

Besides this enormous gain in reducing the amount of experimental work, there are other
advantages in applying the dimensional analysis and introducing of new variables in dimensionless
forms. ⇒ Vaschy's theorem.

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Fig. 7.3: A function of n = 1 variable Fig. 7.4: A function of n = 1 variables

- 10 experimental points - 102 experimental points

- Vaschy's theorem

Any function f(u1 , u2 , u3 ,.. un) = 0, which is a relationship between "n" physical variables ui, and
satisfies the dimensional homogeneity, can be reduced to a function F(G1, G2, G3, ..., Gn-r) = 0 with
"n-r" dimensionless variables - where "r" is the rank of the matrix of the dimensions.
In some literature this theorem is known as π theorem.

The proof of this theorem is based mostly on physical arguments - working with some physical
procedures requirements and data acquisitions..
E.g., suppose that through experiments it is established a table of the values u1, u2, u3, ..., un; which
define the function f(u1 , u2 , u3 ,.. un) = 0 in one usual system of fundamental dimensions (M,L,T
for example):

u1 u2 u3 u4 ... ui ... un
u11 u21 u31 u41 ... ui1 ... un1
in M,L,T system
u12 u22 u32 u42 ... ui2 ... un2

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

⇒ Change of the fundamental dimensions:

Suppose that r = 3, and that the new dimensions are U1,U2,U3 (which correspond to u1 , u2 , u3).
⇒ The units of U1,U2,U3 are identical with the values of u1, u2, u3 in every row in the table.
⇒ The data in all firs three columns become one.
⇒ The other columns obtain values defined with dimensionless combinations of u4, u5, u6, ..., un
with u1, u2, u3:

1 1 1 u4/u1 ... ui/u1u2u3 ... un/u1u2

1 1 1 (u4/u1)1 ... (ui/u1u2u3)1 ... (un/u1u2)1
in U1, U2, U3 system
1 1 1 (u4/u1)2 ... (ui/u1u2u3)2 ... (un/u1u2)2
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

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To show the proof clearer, the case of fluid flow in a pipe, f( τ, ρ, u, d, μ, k) = 0, s presented.
According the previously given approach, data obtained by experiment can be systemized in a table
in M,L,T system:

Example for data systematization in case of investigation

of flow in pipe f( ρ, u, d, μ, k, τ) = 0
ρ u d μ k τ
ρ1 u1 d1 μ1 k1 τ1 in M,L,T system
ρ2 u2 d2 μ2 k2 τ2
ρ3 u3 d3 μ3 k3 τ3

If new dimensions D, V, L (corresponding to ρ, u, d),

⇒ according Vaschy, the function f( ρ, u, d, μ, k, τ) = 0 can be reduced to a funcon
F(μ/ρ ud , k / d , τ/ρ u 2 )= 0, and the table of the data acquisition can be simplified, i.e. the
followingtable can be obtained:

Data acquisition for f(ρ, u, d, μ, k, τ) = 0 with new dimensions

D, V, L (ρ, u, d)
1 1 1 μ/ρud k/d τ/ρu2
1 1 1 μ1/ρ1u1d1 k1/d1 (τ/ρu2)1 in D, V, L system

1 1 1 μ2/ρ2u2d2 k2/d2 (τ/ρu2)2

Re k Cr Re=ρ ud /μ - Reynolds number

Re1 k1 Cr1 k -relative roughness
Re2 k2 Cr2 Cr - resistence coefficient
Re3 k3 Cr3

The data reduction process, illustrated in the previous tables, is irreversible, but most useful for
further analyses.

⇒ Example: Ventury meter

f( ρ, Δp, d, D, μ, Q) = 0 (7-49)
Following the above approach ⇒
The matrix of dimensions has to be writen, in order to determine the rank r of the matrix of the
fundamental dimensions.
∴ The matrix in M,L,T system is:

ρ Δp d D μ Q
M 1 1 0 0 1 0
L -3 -1 1 1 -1 3 (7-50)
T 0 -2 0 0 -1 -1

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- [ ]
Since there is at least one det aij ≠ 0 ⇒ the rank is r = 3 !
- The new system of dimensions hast to be chosen. Here, D, P, L (corresponding to ρ, Δp, d)
are chosen to be the new dimensions;
- The relationships M = M(D, P, L) ; L = L(D, P, L) and T = T(D, P, L) have to be found;

From D = ML-3 ; P = ML-1T-2 ; L = L

- see Table of dimenssional formulae and matrix (7-50)

⇒ M = DL3 ; T = D1/2P-1/2L ;
P L=L, (7-51)
∴ The matrix with the new dimensionsis:

ρ Δp d D μ Q
D 1 0 0 0 1/2 -1/2
P 0 1 0 0 1/2 1/2 (7-52)
L 0 0 1 1 1 2

⇒ Forming of n-r dimensionless groups with ρ, Δp i d; ⇒ from f ( u1 , u2 ,..., un) = 0

⇒ F(G1, G2,..., Gn-r) = 0.

Here, n = 6, and r = 3; ⇒ three dimensionless groups G1, G2 i G3, for which, using the dimensions
of D, μ and Q in the new D, P, L system (see matrix (7-52)), it can be obtained:

D μ Q
G1 = ; G2 = ; G3 = (7-53)
d ρ Δp d
12 12
ρ −1 2
Δ p1 2 d 2
∴ The final result is:
⎛ Q d ⎞
F⎜ 2 , ,Re ⎟ = 0 (7-54)
⎜ d Δp ρ D ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Compare (7-54) with (7-31)!

7.2. Basic approach to the experimental investigation and application of the similarity
theory - similitude

Similitude is a concept used in the testing of engineering models.

Engineering models are used to study complex fluid dynamics problems where calculations and
computer simulations aren't reliable. Models are usually smaller than the final design, but not
always. Scale models allow testing of a design prior to building, and in many cases are a critical
step in the development process.

⇒ Idea for experiments on a phenomenon in certain scale, in order to obtain data that can be
converted to another scale.

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⇒ To know the relationships between the results obtained in a model phenomenon, and the
results that would be obtained in a prototype phenomenon.
∴ Galileo Galilei was among the firsts that recognized that the relationships between the model
and prototype are not simple.

⇒ Definition of model and prototype:

A physical model is used in various contexts to mean a physical representation of some thing. That
thing may be a single item or object (for example, a bolt) or a large system (for example, the Solar
System).
A prototype (or original) is an original type, form, or instance of some thing serving as a typical
example, basis,or standard for other things of the same category.

∴ A model is said to have similitude with the prototype (real application) if the two share
geometric similarity, kinematic similarity and dynamic similarity - see Fig. 7.4..
• Geometric similarity - The model is the same shape as the application, usually scaled.
• Kinematic similarity - Fluid flow of both the model and real application must undergo
similar time rates of change motions. (fluid streamlines are similar)
• Dynamic similarity - Ratios of all forces acting on corresponding fluid particles and
boundary surfaces in the two systems are constant.

Fig. 7.5: Concept of similarity

∴ Procedure for obtaining results from experimental analysis on certain physical model in
laboratory conditions:
- Analysis of the problem and defining of the governing equations (laws) and properties;
- Defining the similarity criteria between the model and the prototype;
- Construction of the corresponding physical model;
- Experiments on the model, measurements and data acquisition;
- Systematization and analysis of the obtained results;
- Transfer pf the obtained results from the model investigation to the prototype, using already
defined similarity criteria.

∴ The advantage of the physical model investigation is obvious!

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- Fundamental scales of similarity:

Following the concept of fundamental dimensions M,L,T; fundamental scales of similarity can be
defined as well:

Geometric symilarity:
lp
SL = (7-55)
lm
l p - characteristic length in the prototype; lm - characteristic length in the model.

∴ S A = Ap Am = S L2 - for area; SV = V p Vm = S L3 - for volume; etc.

Kinematical symilarity:
vp
Sv = = S L ST−1 (7-56)
vm
v p - characteristic velocity in the prototype; vm - characteristic velocity in the model.

∴ S a = a p / am = S L ST−2 - for acceleration; SQ = S L2 Sv = S L3 ST−1 - for volum flow rate; etc.

Material symilarity:
mp
SM = (7-57)
mm
ρ Δm p ΔV p
or Sρ = p = = S M SV−1 = S M S L− 3 (7-58)
ρ m Δmm ΔVm

m p - mass in the prototype; mm - mass in the model; etc.

Dynamic symilarity:
Fp mpap
SF = = = S M S L ST− 2 (7-59)
Fm mm am

or S F = S L2 S v2 S ρ (7-60)

Fp - force in the prototype; Fm - force in the model

r r
( Fp , drp )
⇒ SW = r r = S F S L = S L2 ST−2 S M - for work
( Fm , drm )
1
m p v 2p
S Ek = 2 = S M S v2 = S L2 ST−2 S M - for kinetic energy
1
mm vm2
2
∴ SW = S E k
∴ If two quantities have the same dimensional formulae, they will have the same formulae of
the similarity scales - see the table billow.

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Scales and dimensional formulae for some physical

quantities
Scale Quantity Dimensional
formula

SL Length L

ST Time T

SM Mass M

SM SL
−3
Density ML-3
−2
S L ST S M Force MLT -2

Moment of a force;
2 −2
S L ST S M Kinetic energy; ML2T -2
Work
Pressure; Shear
−1 −2
S L ST S M stress; Turbulent ML-1T-2
(Reynolds) stress
−1
S L ST S M Impuls; MLT-1
Momentum
−2
S L ST S M Momentum flux; MLT -2
2 −1
S L ST S M Moment of momentum ML2T -1
−2 −2
S L ST S M Pressure gradient ML-2T -2

- similarity criteria for characteristic flow conditions

Viscous forces:

Flow of incompressible fluid with linear viscous behavior (Newtonian fluid) is treated.

dv
According Newton (see chapter 6.1) ⇒ τ = μ ⇒
dn
dv
Fμ = μ A (7-61)
dn
∴ The scale of similarity for viscous forces will bee:
dv p
μ p Ap
Fμ . p dn p
S Fμ = = = S μ S L2 ST−1 (7-62)
Fμ .m dvm
μ m Am
dnm
From the fundamental laws of Mechanics (D'Alembert's principle) ⇒

Any force scale determined for a particular type of force must be equal to the determined scale of
inertial force - see equation (7-59) ⇒
S Fμ = S F ⇒ S μ S L2 ST−1 = S M S L ST−2 (7-63)

⇒ From (7-63) the scale for dynamic viscosity can be obtained:

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S μ = S M S L−1ST−1 = S ρ S L Sv (7-64)

Expressing the scales of symilarity for the separate quantities in equation (7-64) ⇒
ρp l p v p
S ρ S L S v ρ m l m vm
= =1 (7-65)
Sμ μp
μm
∴ The Reynolds criterion or law of similarity for viscous flows (in which there is an
interaction between viscous and inertial forces) is derived.
∴ The Reynolds number of the prototype( Re p ) should be equal to the Reynolds number of the
model( Re m ):
ρ p v pl p ρ mvmlm
Re p = = = Re m (7-66)
μp μm

Obviously the definition given in chapter 6.1 is valid.

inertia force/mass
∝ Reynolds number
frictional force/mass

Gravitational forces:
Gp γ pV p
SG = = (7-67)
Gm γ mVm
G p - gravitational force in the prototype; Gm - gravitational force in the model.
G = mg = ρVg = γV
Any force scale determined for a particular type of force must be equal to the determined scale of
inertial force - see equation (7-59) ⇒
SG = S F ⇒ Sγ SV = S M S L ST−2 (7-67)

Since: SV = S L3 , S M = S L3 S ρ and ST = S L Sυ−1 ⇒ a form of the Froude's criterion:

Sυ2 S L−1
=1 (7-68)
Sγ S ρ
lp vp ρp
Taking: S L = ; Sv = ; Sρ = ; γ ρ = g ; etc. ⇒
lm vm ρm
vp vm
Frp = = = Frm (7-69)
gl p glm

∴ The Froude's number of the prototype ( Frp ) should be equal to the Froude's number of the
model ( Frm ).

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∴ In a similar way other similarity criteria for other accting forces can be determined.
For example:
v p vm
Mp = = = Mm - Mach's criterion for elastic forces (7-70)
c p cm
1
⎛E ⎞2
c = ⎜⎜ V ⎟⎟ - acoustic velocity in the substance.
⎝ ρ ⎠
vp vm
We p = = = We m - Weber's criterion for surface tension (7-71)
σp σm
ρ pl p ρ m lm

pp p
Eu p = = m 2 = Eu m - Euler's criterion (7-72)
ρ p v p ρ m vm
2

Flow dominated by two forces - model and prototype in the same gravity field, and with same
fluids:
Example: Very often viscous and gravitational forces have to be taken into account. ⇒

Sυ S L S 2 S −1
Re p = Re m and Frp = Frm ⇒ = 1 and υ L = 1 (7-73)
Sμ Sρ Sγ S ρ

⇒ SL =
(S
μ Sρ )
23

(7-74)
(S γ Sρ )
13

If the model and the prototype have to be in the same gravitational field - which is reality ⇒:
S g = Sγ / S ρ = 1

Sv S L
⇒ =1 and S v2 S L−1 = 1 (7-75)
Sν
S ν = S μ / Sρ - scale of kinematic viscousity; Sv = v p / vm ; S L = l p / lm .

⇒ S L = ( Sν ) 2 3 (7-76)
∴ SL and Sν are directly relate.
If SL is chosen, the viscosity scale Sν would be fixed.
Example: if SL = 20 ⇒ Sν ≈ 90 - If the fluid of the prototype is water, it is impossible to find
corresponding fluid for the model!

In practice, usually same fluids are used in the model and the prototype ⇒ S ν = S μ / Sρ = 1

⇒ Problem ⇒ To solve it, use the art of symulation:

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⇒ From case to case it is necessary to figure out which kind of forces is dominant ⇒ the
corresponding criterion will be used as the basic criterion of similarity, and the others criteria as
control criteria!

Examples:

- If it is concluded that viscous forces are more dominant ⇒ the Re law will be the basic one,
and Fr will be used for control ⇒

Sv S L vp
in = 1 , for S ν = S μ / Sρ = 1 ⇒ S L Sv = 1 ⇒ Sv = = S L−1 (7-77)
Sν vm
Example: for S L = 50 ⇒ vm = 50v p ⇒ Problem can arise for large scales!

- If it is concluded that gravitational forces are more dominant ⇒ the Fr law will be the basic one,
and Re will be used for control ⇒

vp
from (7-75) ⇒ S v2 S L−1 = 1 ⇒ Sv = = S L1 / 2 (7-78)
vm
∴ No problem of using the same fluid in the prototype and model.
Whenever is possible to use the Froude's criterion as basic criterion, and others for control.

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8. Methods and examples of Applied Fluid Mechanics

In the engineering practice, very often the methods of applied fluid mechanics are used.
Often the Applied fluid mechanics is known as Hydraulics.
∴ Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the
engineering uses of fluid properties.
Hydraulic topics range through most science and engineering disciplines, and cover concepts
such as pipe flow, dam design, fluid control circuitry, pumps, turbines, hydropower,
computational fluid dynamics, flow measurement, river channel behavior and erosion, etc.
⇒ Some of characteristic cases of Applied Fluid Mechanics are presented in this chapter.

8.1. Basic equations of flow in conduits and pipes

The flow of liquids and their transport through a bounded space (pipes) is treated ⇒

This flow corresponds to a flow through a stream tube (stream filament) with defined cross-
section - see chapter 5.
∴ The derived basic equations in chapter 5.1 can be used, if the friction due to the fluid
viscosity is taken into account ⇒
∴ The viscous friction is a cause for:
- energy losses (see energy balance on Fig. 8.1), and
- change of the velocity in certain cross-section (see Fig. 8.1 and Fig. 8.2)

⇒ Correction of the derived equations in chapter 5.1.

a) b)
Fig. 8.1: Energy balance and energy losses

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- velocity distribution and average velocity; pressure; continuity equation; Bernoulli

equation; momentum law

- Velocity profile, average velocity and velocity correction factors;

Due to the viscous friction ⇒ velocity change in the pipe cross-section

⇒ velocity profile (see Fig. 8.2):
v = v(r ) - at certain radius;
v = 0 for r = R - at the pipe walls;
v = vmax for r = 0 - at the pipe centerline.

Many of the fluid flow properties can be expressed through the average velocity, vave .
For example, the Reynolds number:
ρvave D vave D
Re = = (8-1)
μ ν
D = 2 R ; ν - kinematic visosity.

Fig. 8.2: Velocity distribution in a pipe cross-section

The average velocity can be obtained from the equation:

vave A = Q = ∫ v(r )dA (8-2)

A

Since, A = R 2π and dA = 2rπdr (infinitesimal area dA on Fig. 8.2) ⇒

R
Q 1 2
vave = = ∫ v(r )dA = 2 ∫ v(r )rdr (8-3)
A AA R 0

∴ If the profile v(r ) is known, the vave can be easily obtained!

Upon an analogy derived from the averaged velocity definition (8-2), correction factors for some
quantities can be defined:
1
For quantities comprising v 2 (r ) ⇒ β = 2 ∫ v 2 (r )dA (8-4a)
vave A A
1
v A ∫A
For quantities comprising v 3 (r ) ⇒ α= 3
v 3 (r )dA (8-4b)
ave

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For inviscid (ideal) fluid flows: v(r ) = const ⇒ α = β =1
For viscous (real) fluid flows: v(r ) ≠ const ⇒ α > 1 and β >1
For turbulent flows: α ≈ β ≈1
For laminar flows: α > 1 and β > 1:
According Joseph Boussinesq: β = 1 + λ = 1.037 ; α = 1.111

In the engineering practice usually α ≈ β ≈ 1 - if the flow is not characteristically laminar.

- Continuity equation

Following the average velocity concept, the continuity equation for incompressible fluid flow (5-4),
as derived in chapter 5.1, is valid in this case as well. ⇒:

Q = ∫ vdA = ∫ vdA =v1 A1 = v2 A2 = vA = const (8-5)

A1 A2

According Fig. 8.1, ⇒ v1 , A1 = velocity and area at the cross-section (1); v2 , A2 = velocity and area
at the cross-section (2).

- Bernoulli's equation

If the average velocities, in sections (1) and (2) on Fig. 8.1, are v1 and v2 ; for steady viscous
incompressible fluid flow, the energy losses have to be taken into account ⇒ the equation (4-25) has
to be transformed (see also chapter 5.1) ⇒
v12 p v2 p
+ z1 + 1 = 2 + z2 + 2 + hm (8-6)
2g γ 2g γ
⎡ Nm ⎤
hm - specific energy loss between section (1) and (2) = head loss in ⎢ or [m] -.see Fig. 8.1,
⎣ N ⎥⎦
Bernoulli's energy equation can be expressed in Nm/kg as:
v12 p v2 p
+ gz1 + 1 = 2 + gz2 + 2 + Em (8-7)
2 ρ g ρ
E1 = E2 + Ew (8-7a)
Nm
Ew = ΔEw = ghm - specific energy losses between (1) and (2) in .
kg
For unsteady flow, the time dependent member has to be added:
( 2)
v12 p v2 p 1 ∂v
2g
+ z1 + 1 = 2 + z2 + 2 +
γ 2g γ g ∫ ∂t ds + h
(1)
m (8-8)

For strongly laminar flow, the correction factors (8-4) have to be taken into account ⇒
( 2)
v2 p v2 p 1 ∂v
α1 1 + z1 + 1 = α 2 2 + z2 + 2 +
2g γ 2g γ g ∫ β ∂t ds + h
(1)
m (8-9)

In the engineering practice usually α ≈ β ≈ 1 , usually the equations (8-6) and (8-8) are used.

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- Momentum law

( ) ( )
The equation (5-38), F r = − p1 + ρv12 A1 − p2 + ρv22 A2 + G1− 2 , derived chapter 5.4, is transformed
following the previously given definitions:

For: G1− 2 = 0 - no body forces; p = const in the corresponding cross-section;

z = 0 - horizontal plane; and streight pipe ⇒ A2 → + dA2 ; A1 → −dA1 ⇒

∫ ( p + ρv )dA − ∫ ( p + ρv )dA = Fr
2 2
1 2 (8-10)
A1 A2

From the correction factor definition (8-4a) ⇒

∫ ( p + ρv )dA = ( p + βρv )A
2 2
ave
A

⇒ ( p + β ρv )A − ( p
1 1
2
1 1 2 + β 2 ρv22 )A2 = Fr = − F1− 2 (8-11)

v1 and v2 are average velocities in cross-sections (1) and (2).

In the engineering practice usually α ≈ β ≈ 1 , than the equations derived in chapter 5 are valid here
as well.

- energy losses - linear and local losses

As explained previously in this chapter, the energy losses are expressed through the head loss
hm - see Fig. 8.1 and equation (8-6).
In general, head losses are caused by all resistances to the flow.
The flow resistances in conduits and pipes can be classified in three groups:
- flow resistance due to the friction in the straight pipe part - linear head losses;
- local flow resistances - local head losses;
- losses due to the hydraulic machine (pump/turbine/motor) built in the pipeline - built in
hydraulic machine head losses.

- Linear head losses

The linear head losses are caused by the friction forces in the fluid flow. They can be express by the
pressure drop Δp = p1 − p2 between the observed cross-sections (1) and (2) (see Fig. 8.1):

l ρv 2
Δp = ξ f (8-12)
D 2
The equation (8-12) is obtained by use of Dimensional Analysis and Theory of similarity.
v = vave = Q / A - average velocity;
l and D - pipe length and diameter between the observed cross-sections;
ξ f = λ - pipe friction factor, usually obtained experimentally.

ξ f = λ = f (Re, k / D) (8-13)

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k / D - relative roughness of the pipe wall.
Nm
The head loss hm in (or m l. c.) can be expressed with the equation - Darcy's formula:
N
Δ p Δp l v2
hm = = =λ (8-14)
γ ρg D 2g
The hydraulic gradient (drop) , or pressure drop per unit length is defined as:
dhm d (Δp / γ ) v2
I= = =λ (8-15)
ds ds 2 gD
For a pipe with D ≠ const , i.e. D = D(s ) , hm can be obtained by integration of (8-15) ⇒
( 2)
1 λ
hm = ∫ D v ds
2
(8-15a)
2g (1)

If the cross-sections changes ( Di ) are on separate pipe parts ( li ), the total linear head loss can be
obtained as sum of the separate linear head losses:
1 i = n li 2
hm = ∑ λi vi
2 g i =1 Di
(8-16)

As shown on Fig. 8.3 and Fig. 8.3A, the velocity profile changes, from the pipe entrance to certain
length L0 = lE , after which the flow is fully developed (stabilized) fluid flow ⇒ after L0 the profile
doesn't change ⇒ ∂v / ∂y = const .
The length of entrance L0 = lE , can be obtained according Boussinesq, with the folloing
expressions:
D D
L0 = 3.84 - for laminar flow; L0 = 0.52 - for turbulent flow (8-17)
λ λ

Fig 8.3: Length of flow development

Fig. 8.3A: Developmet of uniform boudary layers: a)circular tube; b) 2-D open channel
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A fully developed fluid flow is considered in this chapter.
If the flow is fully developed, since ∂v / ∂y = const , the shear stress (Fig. 8.4) will be also constant
along the entire pipe length ⇒:
⎛ ∂v ⎞
τ w = μ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = const (8-18)
⎝ ∂y ⎠ y = R
∴ The friction force will be:
Fw = τ wOl = τ w A0 (8-19)
O - wetted perimeter of the pipe cross-section;
A0 = Ol - wetted area of the pipe walls on a distance L - between sections (1) and (2) - Fig.8.4.

The pressure force between (1) and (2) is:

Fp = ( p1 − p2 ) A (8-20)
A = πD 2 / 4 - area of the pipe cross-section.

Fig. 8.4: Shear stress at pipe wall

Summing all forces in the flow direction ⇒

( p1 − p2 )A = ΔpA = τwOl
⇒ head loss hm = Δp / γ :
Δp Ol
hm = = τw (8-21)
γ Aρg
⎛ A⎞
∴ hm = f ⎜ ⎟ = f (Rh )
⎝O⎠
A
Hydraulic radius: Rh = (8-22)
O
A - area of the fluid flow cross-section; O - wetted perimeter.
Some examples given on Fig. 8.5.

Fig. 8.5:Conduit cross-sections and hydraulic radius

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For circular pipe, with a fully filled out cross-section ⇒ A = πD 2 / 4 ; O = Dπ ⇒
πD 2 / 4 D
Rh = = (8-23)
πD 4
⇒ hydraulic diameter:
4A
D = Dh = 4 Rh = (8-23a)
O
∴ The Darcy's formula can be transformed into:
l v2 l v2
hm = λ' = λ' (8-24)
4 Rh 2 g Dh 2 g
∴ The equation (8-24) can be used for linear head loss for flow in conduits with any shape cross-
sections - noncircular sections as well (see Fig. 8,5).
λ' = Gλ - corrected friction factor; the coefficient G is different for different cross sections.
λ' ≈ λ - for turbulent flow;
λ' = (0.4 ÷ 1.5)λ - for laminar flow
∴ The Chezy formula for the average velocity over the flow section can be determined from the
equation (8-24):
8g
v = vave = Rh I = C Rh I (8-25)
λ
I = hm / l - hydraulic gradient, defined according the equation (8-15)

C = 8 g / λ = f (v, ρ, μ, k , channel size, chanel shape) - flow resistance factor (8-26)

8g
⇒ λ= (8-26a)
C2
Manning obtained experimentally the following equation;
1/ 6
1 1⎛ D ⎞
C = Rh1 / 6 = ⎜ h ⎟ (8-26b)
n n⎝ 4 ⎠
8 g 8 gn 2
⇒ λ = 2 = 1/ 3 (8-26c)
C Rh
n - Manning's roughness coefficient; depends of the conduit roughness - see the Literature.
n = 0.040 - for very rough surfaces; n = 0.009 - for smooth pipes.
For circular pipes with normal roughness n ≈ 0.012 ⇒ λ ≈ 0.0179 D −1 / 3

The Chezy formula is especially used for hydraulic computations of open channel flows (se Fig. 8.6)
⇒ more details in chapter 8.4.
The hydraulic gradient in this case (Fig. 8.6) can be easilly expressed as:

hm ( p1 − p2 ) / γ h1 − h2
I= = = = sin α (8-27)
l l l

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Fig. 8.6: Oppen channel - hydraulic gradient

- Local head losses:

Local head losses = local flow resistances that appear in nonuniform flows in conduits, as:
- Increase or decrease in fluid velocity and pressure - e.g., change of the size or the shape
of the conduit cross section (pipe diameter for example, or inflow in a reservoir);
- Built in of metering devices - e.g., Venturi meter;
- Flow control devices - e.g., valves, hydraulic components of automatic control, etc;
- Change in flow direction - e.g., elbows etc;
- Flow around immersed objects - e.g., flows in heat exchangers, porous media flows,
multiphase flows etc.

∴ Adequate energy dissipation or local head loss

The local head losses can be express by the pressure drop Δp due to the local resistance, or as a
corresponding head loss hm :

Δp Δp v2
hm = = =ξ (8-28)
γ ρg 2g
v = vave = Q / A - average velocity in the uniform flow region;
ξ - local head loss coefficient;
ξ = f (geometry, Re) (8-29)

⇒ ξ is experimentally obtained ⇒ see corresponding values for different local resistances in the
literature.

Usually there are several local resistances in a hydraulic conduit system (pipeline for example).
In that case, the total local head loss will be:
m
vi2 1 m
hm = ∑ ξi = ∑ ξi vi2 (8-30)
1 2 g 2 g i =1
m - number of the local resistances

Examples for solving problems concerning energy losses - linear and local - will be presented
on the tutorials classes.

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- Losses due to a built in hydraulic machine:

The head loss due to built in hydraulic machine (pump/turbine/motor) can be defined as:
NM
hM = (8-31)
ρgQ
NM - hydraulic power of a hydraulic machine. ⇒ see also equation (5-50) in chapter 5.4.
NT
NM = > 0 - for turbine/motor; N M = N pη p - for pump (8-32)
ηT
NT - power delivered to the turbine shaft; N P power delivered from a motor to the pump shaft.

∴ hM > 0 - for a built in turbine; hM < 0 - for a built in pump (8-33)

∴ The total head loss in a pipeline with "n" partial pipe parts an "m" local resistances in the
pipeline with built in hydraulic machine will be - see Fig. 8.7:

1 ⎛ i=n l i=m
⎞ N
hm = ⎜⎜ ∑ λ i i vi2 + ∑ ξ j v 2j ⎟⎟ + M (8-34)
2 g ⎝ i=1 Di i =1 ⎠ ρgQ

vB
vp
v

vA
vII
vv

a) built in pump b) built in turbine

Fig. 8.7: Schemes of pipelines with built in hydraulic machine

8.2. Laminar and turbulent incompressible flows in pipes

- velocity profiles for laminar flow - velocity and friction laws

Steady laminar flow in a circular pipe with uniform cross-section ( D = const ) is treated.
According chapter 6.3 (Fig. 6.7) ⇒ velocity profile for steady laminar flow in a pipe, as on Fig. 8.8
(see also Fig. 8.2 in this chapter):

Fig. 8-8: Steady laminar flow in a circular tube of a constant diameter

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1 ⎛ dp ⎞ ⎡⎛ D ⎞ ⎤
2

v = v(r ) = ⎜− ⎟ ⎢⎜ ⎟ − r ⎥
2
(8-35)
4μ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎣⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
Since in a cross-section (along the normal) ⇒ − dp / dz = const ⇒
D/2
πD 4 ⎛ dp ⎞
Q = ∫ v(r )2rπdr = ⎜− ⎟ (8-36)
r=0
128μ ⎝ dz ⎠
∴ average velocity:
D/2
Q 1 D 2 ⎛ dp ⎞
( )
A A r ∫= 0
vave = = v r 2rπdr = ⎜− ⎟ (8-37)
32μ ⎝ dz ⎠
1
According equation (6-26), vave = vmax
2

∴ The pressure distribution along the pipe (equation (6-27) in chapter 6.3) ⇒
32μLvave
Δp = p1 − p2 = (8-38)
D2
∴ Head loss, obtained theoretically:
Δp 2
L vave μ 2
64 L vave
hm = = 64 = (8-39)
ρg D 2 g ρvave D Re D 2 g
ρvave D vave D
Where is: L - pipe length between two secctions (1) and (2); A = πD 2 / 4 ; Re = =
μ ν
Re < 2320 for laminar flow.
l v2
Comparing with Darcy's formula (8-14), hm = λ ,⇒
D 2g
64
Pipe friction factor for laminar flow: λ= (8-40)
Re
According equation (8-18) and velocity distribution (8-35)
⇒ the shear stress at any point in a cross-section:
dv 1 dp
τ=μ = r (8-41a)
dr 2 dz
⇒ maximum shear stress at pipe wall:
1 dp τ r
τw = R and ⇒ = (8-41b)
2 dz τw R
Taking (8-37) into account ⇒ :
4μ
τw = −
vave (8-41c)
R
Using the velocity profile equation (8-35) ⇒ the correction factors α and β (equations (8-4)) can
be easily obtained:
α = 2.0 and β = 1.33

∴ Laminar flow in pipes is very rare.

∴ Most of the flows in pipes are turbulent.
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- velocity profiles for turbulent flow, velocity and friction laws, roughness effects

Most of the flows in pipes are turbulent.

Data based mostly on experiments ⇒ semi-empiric methods and experiments.
CFD is playing a significant role it this field as well.

- Velocity profiles for turbulent flow in pipes

For friction factor determination, the velocity profile is important!

Profiles of mean velocity v are considered. v = v + v′ , see expressions (6-44).
Several empirical formulae are obtained, mainly based on Prandtl and Karman theories.
The following conclusion can be derived from the performed experiments and obtained expressions:

∴ The velocity profile in turbulent flow in pipes varies with the Reynolds number! - see Fig. 8.10.

∴ Experiments show that, with respect to the nonuniform boundary layers, it is possible to
represent the pipe-velocity profiles by a power law - see Fig. 8.10. ⇒ :
n n
vx ⎛ y⎞ ⎛ r⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜1 − ⎟ (8-42)
vx max ⎝ R⎠ ⎝ R⎠
⇒ the exponent n = f (Re) .
From the Nikuradse experiments (see also ⇒ Fig. 8.10):

Re 4×103 2.3×104 1.1×105 1.1×106 2×106 3.2×106

1/ n 6.0 6.6 7.0 8.8 10 10
vxave / vx max 0.791 0.806 0.817 0.853 0.865 0.865

Fig. 8.10: Velocity profiles in pipe according Nikuradze

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From the equation (8-42) and the average velocity definition (8-3, the ratio of the average velocity
can be obtained: ⇒
vave 2
= (8-43)
vmax (1 + n )(2 + n )

1/ 7 1/ 7
vx ⎛ y⎞ ⎛ r⎞ vave
For most common case: n = 1 / 7 ⇒ =⎜ ⎟ = ⎜1 − ⎟ ; = 0.817
vx max ⎝ R⎠ ⎝ R⎠ vmax

- Friction factor for turbulent flow in circular smooth pipes

According the equation (8-21) and the Darcy's formula (8-14) for a circular smooth pipe ⇒

Δp OL 4L 2
L vave
⇒ head loss, hm = = τw = τw =λ (8-44)
γ Aρg Dρg D 2g
L
⇒ pressure drop, Δp = τ w (8-45)
D/4
Where: vave = vave - average mean velocity.
From equation (8-44), the following quantities can be derived:
ρvave
2
pipe wall shear stress τw = λ (8-46)
8
shear velocity vτ = τ w / ρ (8-47)

The shear velocity is defined in the Prandtl turbulent boundary layer theory (see also chapter 6).

From (8-46) and (8-47) ⇒

λ
vτ = vave (8-48)
8
vave 8
= (8-49)
vτ λ

From the Prandtl's theory for turbulent flows and Nikuradze's experiments, also ⇒
vx ⎛v y⎞
= 5.75 log⎜ τ ⎟ + 5.5 (8-50)
vτ ⎝ ν ⎠
vx max ⎛v R⎞
for the circular pipe axis = 5.75 log⎜ τ ⎟ + 5.5 (8-51)
vτ ⎝ ν ⎠
μ
Where: ν = ; vx = vx . vx max - velocity at the pipe centerline ( y = R ).
ρ
Taking into account the equation (8-49), the equation (8-51) can be transformed, and ⇒
∴ Friction law for smooth pipes:
1
λ
(
= A log Re λ + B ) (8-52)

vave D
Re = - Reynolds number; A and B - constants, which can be experimentally obtained.
ν
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Experiments of many researchers show that A = 2.0 and B = −0.8 ⇒

1
λ
( )
= 2.0 log Re λ − 0.8 (8-52a)

However, for different regimes of flow in smooth pipes, expressions for certain values of Re are
derived:
For laminar flow Re < 2329 , the equation (8-40) is valid:
64
λ= (8-53)
Re
For flows with 2000 < Re < 10 , Blasius derived an empirical expression:
5

λ = 0.316 / (Re )
1/ 4
(8-54)

∴ λ = f (Re ) for flows in smooth pipes

- Roughness effects - friction factor for turbulent flow in rough circular pipes

The general funcional dependence (8-13) has to be concidered:

λ = f (Re, ks / D) (8-55)
k s - sand grain roughness (absolute rougness)

However, for "fully rough" conditions, using the previous approach, the experiments have
shown that Re has a very little influence, and the following dependence can be derived:
1
= C log(R / k s ) + E (8-56)
λ
C and E - constants, which can be experimentally obtained.
Nikuradze, with his experiments for fully developed rough flow, derived the equation:
1
= −2 log(k s / D ) + 1.14 (8-56a)
λ
Where, D = 2 R

For the transition zone, between smooth and fully rough conditions, obviously λ = f (Re, k s / D) ,
and the Colebrook-White semi-empirical formula gives acceptable results:
1 ⎛k ⎞ ⎛ D / ks ⎞
+ 2 log⎜ s ⎟ = 1.14 − 2 log⎜ 1 + 9.35 ⎟ (8-57)
λ ⎝ D⎠ ⎝ Re λ ⎠

∴ Using the preceding results for smooth, rough, and smooth-to-rough transition factors, Moody
developed a general resistance diagram for uniform flow in conduits. A form of the Moody's diagram
(which has been widely used) is presented on Fig. 8.11.

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Fig. 8.11: Fricion factor versus Reynolds number - Moody's diagram; f = λ = f (Re, k s / D)
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- examples for pipe-flow computation

The computation of steady flow of constant-density fluids flow through pipes involves the
simultaniuos solutions of the two equations:

Continuity equation: Q = VA = vave A

Δp L V2
Darcy' formula: hm = =λ
ρg D 2g
VD
Where: Re = ; λ = f = f (Re, k / D) - obtained from the diyagram on Fig. 8.11
ν

There are three basic problems, namely:

(a) Head loss ⇒ for given: Q, L, D,ν, k; ⇒ find hm

(b) Flow rate ⇒ for given: hm , L, D,ν, k; ⇒ find Q

(c) Diameter ⇒ for given: hm , Q, L,ν, k; ⇒ find D

∴ Examples for solving this kind of problems, as well as problems concerning energy losses
(linear and local) in pipeline systems will be presented on the tutorial classes.

8.3. Incompressible flow in noncircular ducts

Some of flow patterns in noncircular ducts are shown in Fig. 8.12.

Some theoretical and experimental investigations lead towards a conclusion that for the cases when
the cross section has a ratio A/O close to circumscribing circle or semicircle, the head loss per unit
lenght will be nearly the same as for a pipe. A/O = area/wetted perimeter.
This is the case for sections like squares, equilateral triangles, and ovals
∴ The friction-loss data for circular pipes may be used.

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- friction losses in closed conduits, two dimensional flows

- Friction losses in clossed conduits

The friction-loss data for circular pipes may be used.

The Darcy equation can be employed in a slightly different form.

Summing all forces in the flow direction, as on Fig. 8.13, ⇒

( p1 − p2 )A = τwOL
Δp Ol
From the previously defined procedure - equations (8-20) to (8-24) ⇒ hm = = τw
γ Aρg
2
L vave L V2
hm = λ' = λ' (8-58)
4 Rh 2 g Dh 2 g

Steady flow in a constant area conduit (as shown on Fig. 8.13) is cocidered.

∴ The equation (8-24) can be used for linear head loss for flow in conduits with any shape cross-
sections - noncircular sections as well (see Fig. 8.13 and Fig. 8.5).
λ' = Gλ - corrected friction factor
λ' ≈ λ - for turbulent flow;
λ' = (0.4 ÷ 1.5)λ - for laminar flow
⇒ The previously explained procedure and diagrams (e.g., diagram on Fig. 8.11) for determining
λ = f = f (Re, k s / D) can be used as well, with taking into account that:
A 4A
Rh = ; D = Dh = 4 Rh =
O O
4VRh ks k
Re = and = s (8-59)
ν D 4 Rh

- Friction losses in 2-D flows;

A flow between two plates (Poiseuile flow) can be treated as 2-D flow.
The basic equation for steady laminar flow are derived in chapter 6.3. ⇒ see equations (6-20)
to (6-22).
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The friction factor for laminar flow between two plates can be calculated from the expression:

96
λ= (8-60)
Re
4VRh A
Re = ; Rh = = h
ν O

For 2-D turbulent flow, experimental results for fully developed turbulent flows in rectangular
channels with cross-section as shown on Fig. 8.12, with A : B = 60 : 1 and A : B = 12 : 1 , the
friction laws can be expressed as follows:

1 ⎛ 2 BV ⎞
for λ in smooth channels = 2.03 log⎜ λ ⎟ − 0.47 (8-61)
λ ⎝ ν ⎠
1 ⎛ B/2⎞
for λ in rough channels = 2.03 log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 2.11 (8-62)
λ ⎝ k s ⎠
V = vave ; B = 2h -see Fig. 8.14.

Fig. 8.14: Two dimensional flow between two plates

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8.4. Flow in prismatic open channels

Open channel is a conduit in which a dense fluid flow under gravity with a definite interface
separating it from an overlying lighter fluid.
Usually: dense fluid = liquid; overlying lighter fluid = gas ⇒ e.g., water and air.
⇒ Free surface = the interface between the liquid and the gas.
Natural open channels (e.g., rivers etc.) vary in size, shapes, and roughness ⇒ irregular nonuniform
sections to the flow.
Artificial channels also vary in size, but have a narrower range of roughness ⇒ usually built with
regular geometric shapes.
⇒ Prismatic channels = channels with constant channel section and bottom slope.
⇒ Rectangles, trapezoids, triangles, circles, parabolas and combinations are commonly used as
prismatic channel sections.

Fig. 8.15: Some open channel surface profiles

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Open channels are, in general, noncircular.
Many open channels are wide ⇒ the velocity-friction relations can be examined on a two
dimensional basis.
∴ Usually, the relations among energy flux, momentum flux, flow depth, and friction are treated
by one-dimensional analysis.
∴ A basic approach and basic equations, using one-dimensional relations for prismatic open
channel, are presented in this chapter. .⇒ Uniform flow in a prismatic open channel is
considered.

- one dimensional open-channel equations, head-loss equations

The one-dimensional total head or energy per unit weight H (in Nm/N) for each fluid element ⇒
p V2
H = h+ + (8-63)
γ 2g
V = vave ; γ = ρg ;
The basic notation and expressions for flow in open channels are given in the table below,
according Fig. 8.17.

P = O - according previous notation ⇒ Rh = A / O

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Fig. 8.17: Notations for one-dimensional open channels

According Fig. 8.17, and the given notations, it is assumed that:

- The flow is uniform or gradually varying in the flow direction ⇒
The following quantities can be neglected: acceleration normal to the bottom, static pressure
variation due to turbulence. ⇒
p
+ h = const , over a normal to the channel floor ("y" direction), ⇒ according Fig. 8.17:
γ
bottom slope sin α 0 = −dh0 / dx = S0 (8-64)

Since, from Fig. 8.17 ⇒ y0 - depth; ( p / γ )0 = y0 cos α 0 - pressure head on the channel floor ⇒
the total head equation (8-63) is transformed into:
V2
H = h0 + y0 cos α 0 + (8-65)
2g
For small slopes (e.g. α 0 < 100 , S0 < 0.018 ) ⇒ cos α 0 ≈ 1 ⇒
V2
H = h0 + y0 + = h0 + H 0 (8-66)
2g
H 0 = y0 + V 2 2 g - specific head.

∴ The head loss on a distance L will be:

L
dH
H L = H1 − H 2 = (h0 + H 0 )1 − (h0 + H 0 )2 = ∫ dx (8-67)
0
dx
dH / dx = − S H - energy grade line slope.

dH dh0 dH 0 dH 0
Differentiating eq. (8-66) ⇒ = + ⇒ − S H = − S0 + ⇒
dx dx dx dx
dH 0 dH 0 dy0
= = S0 − S H (8-68)
dx dy0 dx
dy0 S − SH
Basic differential equation for one-dimensional open channel flow: = 0 (8-69)
dx dH 0 / dy0
For steady uniform flow ⇒ y0 = const ; V = const ; ⇒ S = S H = S0 ⇒ H 0 = const

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∴ The head loss equation reduces (from eq. (8-67)) to:

H L = h01 − h02 = S H L = S0 L = h f (8-70)

Comparing the equation (8-70) with equation (8-27), it is obvious that:

h f hm ( p1 − p2 ) / γ h1 − h2
I=S= = = = = sin α 0
L L L L
I = S - hydraulic gradient or slope; hm = h f - linear head loss.

Free surfaces are subjects to gravity waves ⇒ "c" - celerity = speed of the wave.
The free surface behavior = f(V/c).

For elementary gravity waves (with depths small compared to wavelength) ⇒

c = gy0 (8-71)

Froude number for open channels:

V
Fr = (8-72)
gy0
Fr = 1 ⇒ V = c - critical velocity;
Fr < 1 ⇒ V < c - subcritical; Fr > 1 ⇒ V > c - supercritical

- velocity and friction laws for two-dimensional channels, computation examples

- Head loss, friction factor and average velocity

Darcy equation expressed in the form for noncircular conduits is widely used ⇒ the hydraulic
radius and Chezy-Maning formulae are applied - see equations (8-21) to (8-26) in chapter 8.1.
⇒
L V2
h f = hm = λ (8-73)
4 Rh 2 g
A
Rh = = flow cross section/wetted perimeter
O
λ = λ(v, ρ, μ, k , channel size, chanel shape)

∴ For channel sections Rh close to that of a circumscribing circle or semicircle, λ can be

evaluated from the pipe-friction diagram (Fig. 8.11).
⇒ To use Fig. 8.11, ⇒
4VRh ks k
Re = ; = s
ν D 4 Rh
∴ For very wide channels, the pipe-friction factors become less applicable!

∴ Most open channels are physically large compared to pipes and other closed ducts. ⇒
Re → very large, ⇒ turbulent flow in fully rough regime ⇒
⎛k ⎞
λ = λ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟
⎝ Dh ⎠

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∴ Chezy and Manning formulae are widely applied - see equations (8-25) and (8-26) ⇒

8g
V = vave = Rh S = C Rh S (8-74)
λ
hf
S = S0 = S H = − dH / dx - hydraulic gradient or slope (see equation (8-70));
L
C = 8 g / λ = f (v, ρ, μ, k , channel size, chanel shape) - flow resistance factor
Manning derived corresponding formulae:
1/ 6
1 1⎛ D ⎞
C = Rh1 / 6 = ⎜ h ⎟ (8-75)
n n⎝ 4 ⎠
8 g 8 gn 2
λ = 2 = 1/ 3 (8-76)
C Rh
1
V = Rh2 / 3 S 1 / 2 (8-77)
n
n - Manning's roughness coefficient; depends of the conduit roughness - see the Literature.
n = 0.040 - for very rough surfaces (earth with weeds and stones);
n = 0.012 - for normally rough surfaces (finished concrete).

- Velocity profile:
Consider:
- open channel whose width is many times its depth;
- the flow is approximately two-dimensional;
- fully developed velocity profiles for steady uniform flow;
- Velocity profiles are logarithmic (as found for pipes) - see Fig. 8.3A(b), and Fig. 8.18.
(see about Prandtl and Karman theories in chapter 8.2).

Fig. 8.18: Velocity profile for steady uniform 2-D flow in open channel

vmax − vx 2 y
= − log (8-78)
vτ k y0

vτ = τ w / ρ = gRh S 0 ; k ≈ 0.4 - Karman's constant

- Computation examples:

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The three basic problems for open channel flow are:
(a) Channel slope (Head loss)
Given: Q, L, ν = μ / ρ , size, shape, and roughness. ⇒ Find: S0 = S H
(b) Flow rate
Given: S0, L, ν = μ / ρ , size, shape, and roughness. ⇒ Find: V and Q
(c) Size (Rh for a given shape)
Given: S0, Q, L, ν = μ / ρ , size, shape, and roughness. ⇒ Find: Rh

These problems are solved with steps analogous to pipe flow problems ⇒ examples will be
presented on the tutorial classes.
∴ In all three problems, the fundamental step is determination of λ .
⇒ Application of the Darcy pipe friction approach or Chazy approach.

8.5. Immersed bodies, drag and lift

The investigation of the drag and lift concepts are very important for various fields oh Fluid
Mechanics application: aeronautics, turbo machinery, multicomponents flows, chemical reactions etc.

- hydrodynamic forces and force coefficients, drag of symmetrical bodies, lift and drag of
nonsymmetrical bodies

Some of the definition from chapter 6.5 are repeated here:

Drag (sometimes called resistance) is the force that resists the movement of a solid object through a
fluid in the direction of its movement - in this case the object is moving in a quiescent fluid.
Drag force (FD ) can be also defined as the acting force of the fluid flow on a immersed body, in
the direction of the flow relative velocity V0 - see Fig. 6.12.
∴ The total drag force FD is defined as (see Fig.6.12):

V02
FD = D = CD ρ A (8-79)
2
A - frontal area normal to V0 ⇒ A = AP

∴ The total lift is defined as (see Fig.6.12):

V02
FL = L = CL ρ A (8-80)
2
CL - lift coefficient;
A - the planform area of a wing (largest projected area of the body, or the projected area normal to V0.

∴ CD and CL are usually experimentally obtained.

∴ CFD application in solving numerical models with the contemporary PCs, using the
experimental verifications, give reasonable results.
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Following the dynamic similitude (see chapter 7) ⇒

CD = CD (geometry, Re, Fr, M) (8-81)

CL = CL (geometry, Re, Fr, M) (8-82)

For example, consider the drag coefficient for characteristic flow and fluid conditions ⇒:

- Incompressible fluids in enclosed systems: CD = CD (geometry, Re )

- Incompressible fluids in systems having an interface: CD = CD (geometry, Re, Fr )
- Compressible fluids: CD = CD (geometry, M)

⇒ Some data for the drag coefficients for symetric bodies are shown in the diagrams on Fig. 8.19.
See Literature!

Fig. 8.19: Some data for the drag coefficients for symetric bodies

Some experimental data for the lift and drag coefficients for nonsymetric body are shown in the
diagrams on Fig. 8.20. ⇒ See Literature!

Recently, numerous data of numerical CFD solving of the governing equations are available!

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⇒
Airfoil geometry

Fig. 8.20: Experimental data for the lift and drag coefficients for an airfoil

8.6. Basic approach to turbulent jets and diffusion processes

- free turbulence, diffusion processes in nonhomogeneous fluids

The term wall turbulence is used to describe turbulence generated in velocity gradients caused by
the no-slip condition.
The term free turbulence, on the other hand, describes turbulent motions which are not affected by
the presence of solid boundaries.
Some examples of free turbulent flows are shown in Fig. 8.21 and Fig. 8.22:
(a) the spreading of the edge of a plane jet;
(b) (b) a round jet issuing from a slot into a surrounding fluid of the same phase (water into
water or air into air); and
(c) (c) the flow in the wake of an immersed body.
In all cases velocity gradients are generated. If the Reynolds numbers are sufficiently high, the flow
is unstable and zones of turbulent mixing are developed.

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Fig.8.21: Free turbulent flows

Fig. 8.22: Development of a turbulent jet

Diffusion is the spontaneous net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration in a given volume of fluid (either liquid or gas) down the concentration
gradient.
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For example, diffusing molecules will move randomly between areas of high and low concentration
but because there are more molecules in the high concentration region, more molecules will leave
the high concentration region than the low concentration one.
Therefore, there will be a net movement of molecules from high to low concentration. Initially, a
concentration gradient leaves a smooth decrease in concentration from high to low which will form
between the two regions. As time progresses, the gradient will grow increasingly shallow until the
concentrations are equalized.

∴ Diffusion is a characteristic process for turbulent jets, and turbulent buoyant jets and plumes!

∴ In hydrodynamics, a plume is a column of one fluid moving through another- see Fig.8.23 and
Fig. 8.24.

∴ A thermal plume is one which is generated by gas rising from above heat source. The gas rises
because thermal expansion makes warm gas less dense than the surrounding cooler gas.

⇒ Some flow field characteristics of buoyant jets and plumees can be seen on Figres 8.23.

Fig. 8.23 : Buoyant jets in uniform surrounding

⇒ Several effects control the motion of the fluid, including:

momentum, buoyancy and density difference.
- When momentum effects are more important than density differences and buoyancy effects, the
plume is usually described as a jet - buoyant jet.
- Usually, as a plume moves away from its source, it widens because of entrainment of the
surrounding fluid at its edges.
This usually causes a plume which has initially been 'momentum-dominated' to become 'buoyancy-
dominated' (this transition is usually predicted by a dimensionless number called the Richardson
number).
- A further phenomenon of importance is whether a plume is in laminar flow or turbulent flow.
Usually there is a transition from laminar to turbulent as the plume moves away from its source.
This phenomenon can be clearly seen in the rising column of smoke from a cigarette.

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- Another phenomenon which can also be seen clearly in the flow of smoke from a cigarette is that
the leading-edge of the flow, or the starting-plume, is quite often approximately in the shape of a
ring-vortex (smoke ring).

∴ Plumes and buoyant jets are of considerable importance in the dispersion of air pollution -
see Fig. 8.24.

The problem of reducing the pollution of our water bodies and of the atmosphere has been and still
is a serious problem; and concerns to legislators, scientists and engineers.

In order to minimize the impact of some unavoidable emission of pollutants into our environment,
the dispersion of pollutants should be predictable.
The fluid motion governing this dispersion is mostly turbulent and under gravitational influence, it
is important to study turbulent buoyant flows and to develop reli able methods for their prediction.

A number of methods have been proposed for calculating the practically important cases of
turbulent buoyant jets and plumes, ranging from simple empirical formulae to complex models
involving partial differential equations - see chapter 6.
Experimental data are required by all the methods, either as a direct basis for the empirical
formulae or to determina empirical constants or functions appearing in the methods. They are also
needed to define the range of validity of a method.

Simple Plume Modelling

Quite simple modelling will enable many properties of fully-developed, turbulent plumes to be
investigated.
1) It is usually sufficient to assume that the pressure gradient is set by the gradient far from the
plume (this approximation is similar to the usual Boussinesq approximation)
2) The distribution of density and velocity across the plume are modelled either with simple
Gaussian distributions or else are taken as uniform across the plume (the so-called 'top hat' model).
3) Mass entrainment velocity into the plume is given by a simple constant times the local velocity -
this constant typically has a value of about 0.08 for vertical jets and 0.12 for vertical, buoyant
plumes. For bent-over plumes, the entrainment coefficient is about 0.6.
4) Conservation equations for mass flux (including entrainment) and momentum flux (allowing for
buoyancy) then give sufficient information for many purposes.
For a simple rising plume these equations predict that the plume will widen at a constant half-angle
of about 6 to 15 degrees.
A top-hat model of a circular plume entraining in a fluid of the same density ρ is as follows:

The Momentum M of the flow is conserved so that:

Aρv 2 = M = const
The mass flux J varies, due to entrainment at the edge of the plume, as
dJ / dx = dAρv / dx = krρv

where k is an entrainment constant, r is the radius of the plume at distance x, and A is its cross-
sectional area.

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∴ This shows that the mean velocity v falls inversely as the radius rises, and the plume grows at a
constant angle dr/dx= k'.

Atmospheric dispersion modeling

Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in
the ambient atmosphere.
It is performed with computer programs that solve the mathematical equations and algorithms
which simulate the pollutant dispersion.
The dispersion models are used to estimate or to predict the downwind concentration of air
pollutants emitted from sources such as industrial plants and vehicular traffic.
Such models are important to governmental agencies tasked with protecting and managing the
ambient air quality.
The models are typically employed to determine whether existing or proposed new industrial
facilities are or will be in compliance with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
in the United States and other nations.
The models also serve to assist in the design of effective control strategies to reduce emissions of
harmful air pollutants.

∴ Both theoretical and experimental methods have been widely applied for buoyant jets and
plumes flows quantities determination.
∴ The CFD approach for solving the governing equations of different flow casesinduced by
buoyan jets and plumes is widely used ⇒ see chapter 6.7.

The use of sophisticated PC (even so-called "super computers") and software packages enable
solving of numerical models, for which extremely long execution time was needed in the past (or it
was impossible to be solved). Reducing many of the aproximations that were needed.

⇒ Some results of CFD solving the buoyant jets governing equations are given on Fig. 8.25:

Industrial air pollution plumes Large Natural Convection Plume

Fig. 8.24 : Some examples of turbulent buoyant jets

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Fig. 8.25: Some results of CFD solving the buoyan jets governing equations

8.7. Basic approach to multiphase flow

In fluid mechanics, multiphase flow is a generalisation of the modelling used in two-phase flow to
cases where the two phases are not chemically related (e.g. dusty gases) or where more than two
phases are present (e.g. in modelling of propagating steam explosions).

Each of the phases is considered to have a separately defined volume fraction (the sum of which is
unity), and velocity field. Conservation equations for the flow of each species (perhaps with terms
for interchange between the phases), can then be written down straightforwardly.

The momentum equation for each phase is less straightforward.

It can be shown that a common pressure field can be defined, and that each phase is subject to the
gradient of this field, weighted by its volume fraction.
Transfer of momentum between the phases is sometimes less straightforward to determine, and in
addition, a very light phase in bubble form has a virtual mass associated with its acceleration. (The
virtual mass of a single bubble is about half its displaced mass).

These terms, often called constitutive relations, are often strongly dependent on flow regime.

Two-phase flow is a particular example of multiphase flow.

In fluid mechanics, two-phase flow occurs in a system containing gas and liquid with a meniscus
separating the two phases.

Historically, probably the most commonly-studied cases of two-phase flow are in large-scale power
systems. Coal and gas-fired power stations used very large boilers to produce steam for use in
turbines.
In such cases, pressurised water is passed through heated pipes and it changes to steam as it moves
through the pipe.
The design of boilers requires a detailed understanding of two-phase flow heat-transfer and pressure
drop behaviour, which is significantly different from the single-phase case.
Even more critically, nuclear reactors use water to remove heat from the reactor core using two-
phase flow.

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A great deal of study has been performed on the nature of two-phase flow in such cases, so that
engineers can design against possible failures in pipework, loss of pressure, and so on (a loss-of-
coolant accident (LOCA)).
Another case where two-phase flow can occur is in pump cavitation.
Here a pump is operating close the vapor pressure of the fluid being pumped. If pressure drops
further, which can happen locally near the vanes for the pump, for example, then a phase change
can occur and gas will be present in the pump. Similar effects can also occur on marine propellors;
wherever it occurs, it is a serious problem for designers. When the vapor bubble collapses, it can
produce very large pressure spikes, which over time will cause damage on the propellor or turbine.
The above two-phase flow cases are for a single fluid occurring by itself as two different phases,
such as steam and water. The term 'two-phase flow' is also applied to mixtures of different fluids
having different phases, such as air and water, or oil and natural gas. Sometimes even three-phase
flow is considered, such as in oil and gas pipelines where there might be a significant fraction of
solids.
Other interesting areas where two-phase flow is studied includes in climate systems such as clouds,
and in groundwater flow, in which the movement of water and air through the soil is studied.
Other examples of two-phase flow include bubbles, rain, waves on the sea, foam, fountains,
mousse, and oil slicks.

Several features make two-phase flow an interesting and challenging branch of fluid mechanics:
• Surface tension makes all dynamical problems nonlinear (see Weber number).
• In the case of air and water at Standard Temperature and Pressure, the density of the two
phases differs by a factor of about 1000. Similar differences are typical of water liquid/water
vapor densities.
• The sound speed changes dramatically for materials undergoing phase change, and can be
orders of magnitude different. This introduces compressible effects into the problem.
• The phase changes are not instantaneous, and the liquid vapor system will not necessarily be
in phase equilibrium.

∴ Both theoretical and experimental methods have been widely applied for multiphase flows
quantities determination.
∴ The CFD approach for solving the governing equations of different multiphase flows cases
is widely used ⇒ see chapter 6.7.

CFD has been used to improve process design by allowing engineers to simulate the performance of
alternative configurations, eliminating guesswork that would normally be used to establish
equipment geometry and process conditions.

A CFD analysis yields values for pressure, fluid velocity, temperature, and species or phase
concentration on a computational grid throughout the solution domain.

Example:

Major advancements in the area of gas-solid multiphase flow modeling offer substantial process
improvements that have the potential to significantly improve process plant operations.
Prediction of gas-solid flow fields, in processes such as pneumatic transport lines, risers, fluidized
bed reactors, hoppers and precipitators are crucial to the operation of most process plants.

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An initially stationary bed of solids is fluidized by the action of a central jet.

Red indicates regionsof maximum solids volume fraction(~0.6), and blue indicates regions of maximum air
volume fraction (1.0).

Flow field of a process in Velocity vectors in a boiler furnace

a fluidised bed

Fig 8.26: Some results of Fluent CFD solving of fundamental equations of some multiphase flow processes

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COURSE LEARNING MATERIALS

Textbook
Street R.L., Watters G.Z., Vennard J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, 7th editiond, 1996,
ISBN: 978-0-471-01310-5

Bundalevski T., : Mechanics of Fluids (in Macedonian), University Ss Cyril and Methodius, publisher MB-3,
Skopje, 1995, ISBN 9989-704-01-5

Nošpal A., Stojkovski V.,: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the DEREC subject,
edition of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje, 2007/2008
Professors from EU DEREC Universities: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the
DEREC subject, Educational Material prepared by professors from EU DEREC Universities, 2007/2008

Tutorial
Nošpal A., Stojkovski V.,: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the DEREC subject,
edition of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje, 2007/2008
Professors from EU DEREC Universities: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the
DEREC subject, Educational Material prepared by professors from EU DEREC Universities, 2007/2008

Lab practicum
Nospal A.: "Fluid Flow Measurments and Instrumentation" (in Macedonian), University Ss Cyril and
Methodius, publisher MB-3, Skopje, 1995, iSBN 9989-704-02-3
Stojkovski V., Nošpal A., Kostic.Z.,: "Practicum for Laboratory Works for the Subject Fluid Flow
Measurements and Instrumentation", edition for students of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje,
1993.
Stojkovski V., Nošpal A.,: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the DEREC subject,
edition of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Skopje, 2007/2008
Professors from EU DEREC Universities: Fluid Mechanics - Prepared lecures and tutorials material for the
DEREC subject, Educational Material prepared by professors from EU DEREC Universities, 2007/2008
Web support
http://www.derec.ukim.edu.mk

BACKGROUND

TEMPUS JEP DEREC MATERIALS

UNIVERSITIES CONSORTIUM: University of Florence, University Sts. Cyril and Methodius,
Aristotele University of Thessaloniki, Ruhr University Bochum, Vienna University of Technology

A. Nospal Course Learning Materials

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics 140

Fluid Mechanics

Theory Homework No. 1

1. What are the definitions for fluid and fluid mechanics?

2. Define the dimensional homogeneity!
3. Which are the basic definitions and formulae for pressure, temperature, density, specific weight
and viscosity?
4. Which are the dimensional formulae and SI units for pressure, temperature, density, specific
weight and viscosity?
5. Write down the definitions, corresponding formulae and SI units for specific heat, specific
internal energy, and specific enthalpy!
6. Define compressibility, bulk modulus of elasticity and velocity of sound! Write down the
corresponding formulae!
7. Give the basic definitions for vapor pressure (cavitation pressure) and surface tension!
8. Give the definition for an equation of state! Which are the basic equations of state for liquids
and gasses?
9. What kinds of forces generally act on a fluid element?
10. Define and write down the basic expressions for body force and surface force!
11. Give the definition and basic equatioin for pressure!
12. Define the hydrostatic pressure! Which are the two important characteristics ohf hydrostatic
pressure?
13. Write down the expressions for elementary pressure force and resultant pressure force!
14. Derive the Euler's equation - Fig. 2-3!
15. Define the potential of a force and equipotential surface!
16. Derive the basic equations for equilibrium in gravity field!
17. Derive basic equations for equilibrium of incompressible fluid in gravity field - Fig.2.6! Define
(write down the corresponding expressions) the absolute pressure, gauge pressure and vacuum.
18. For open interconnected vessels p1 = p 2 = p a (Fig. 2.7), prove that h2 − h1 = 0 !
19. For the hydrostatic manometers on Fig. 2.8, write down the expressions for gauge pressure and
vacuum!
20. Write down the definition of the Pascal's Law, and prove it - Fig 2.10!
21. Derive the expression for the force on the piston K1 ( P1 = ? ) - Fig. 2.11, if the force on K2 is
a
P2 = P !
b
22. Derive the basic equations for a container with linear movement with constant acceleration -
Fig. 2.12.
23. Derive the basic equations for rotation of a liquid container around vertical axis - Fig. 2.13.
24. What are the expressions for the pressure force P, and the coordinates of its acting point D? -
Fig. 2.14.

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25. For a case as on Fig. 2.16, write down thw exprwssions for the Pressure force P, and its
componennt PH and PV !
26. Give the expressions for pressure and pressure force for each of the cases presented on Fig. 2.17!
27. What are the pressure force componenents acting on a curved surface - Fig. 2.18, Fig. 2.19. Fig. 2.21?
28. Give a definition for buoyant force! Which are the expressions for the acting forces on a
immersed body - Fig. 2.23? Which one is the Archimed force?
29. Describe the cases shown on Fig. 2.24 and Fig. 2.25!

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Fluid Mechanics

Theory Homework No. 2

1. Define velocity field!

2. Why Eulerian approach has advantage compared to Lagrangian?
3. What is a steady flow?
4. Write down the expressions for velocity components in Cartesian and polar coordinate system!
5. Define streamline and pathline? What is the difference between them in case of steady flow?
6. Express the velocity component using a stream funcion! Which is the stream funvtion along a
streamline?
7. Define stream tube!
8. Write down the rate of change of the velocity in the x-direction (total derivative)! Indicate the
velocity gradients and "local" change in the expression.
9. Write down the expressions for volume flow rate and mass flow rate!
10. Derive the continuity equation (Fig. 3.16)!
11. Write down the equations of continuity for unsteady compressible fluid flow and steady
incompressible fluid flow.
12. Write down the expressions for the acceleration vector and its components for 3-D fluid flow.
13. Write down the expressions for total velocity derivative and acceleration for one dimensional
flow along a stream line "s" - Fig. 3.17!
14. Define relative, periferial and absolute velocity for a flow along a rotating stream line (Fig. 3.20)!
Write down the corresponding equations.
15. Write down the expression for the overall acceleration vector in case of 2-D flow with rotation
axis normal to the flow plane (Fig. 3.20)!

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Fluid Mechanics

Theory Homework No. 3

1. Which are the acting forces in case of an inviscid fluid flow? Write down the basic expressions
and basic vector equation.
2. Write down the Bernoulli equation for unsteady inviscid compressible fluid flow along a
streamline (Fig. 4.1a).
3. Write down the Bernoulli equation for steady inviscid incompressible fluid flow. Explain its
meaning according Fig. 4.2.
4. What is the pressure change if the stream line (Fig. 4.1) is a straight line ( rk = ∞ ), for steady
inviscid incompressible fluid flow.
5. Write down the Bernoulli equation for compressible fluid flow along a rotating streamline (Fig
4.4). What is the difference if the fluid is incompressible?
6. Define irrotational (potential) fluid flow!
7. What are the expressions for velocity components v x and v y obtained with the potential and stream
functions (Fig. 4.5)?
8. Write down the continuity equation in integral form for flow without singularities for
compressible and incompressible fluid flow.
9. Write down the expressions for Momentum Law and Moment of Momentum Law for a closed
control surface K bounding a mass m (see Fig. 4.18).
10. Give the definition of the first law of thermodynamics! Write down the corresponding equation
that describes it.
11. What is the expression for specific enthalpy?

A. Nospal Homework No. 3

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Fluid Mechanics

Theory Homework No. 4

1. Write down and explain the continuity equation in integral form and Bernoulli's equation for a
flow in a stream tube (Fig. 5.1 and Fig. 5.2).
2. What is the expression for the Momentum Law for flow through stream tube (Fig 5.3)? Give the
expression for the resultant force F R acting on the fluid mass bounded by the control surface!
3. Give the expression for the acting force from the fluid to the solid boundaries - Fig. 5.4.
4. Derive the expression for volume flow rate (discharge) through a Ventury tube (Fig. 5.5).
5. Derive the Torricelli's formula - Fig. 5.7.
6. What is the general expression fror the entire discharge Q, for discharge into the atmosphere
through large openings - Fig. 5.10.
7. What is the expression for the discharge through the entire opening in case of submerged
discharge as on Fig. 5.12.
8. Write down the Bernoulli's equation from cross-section "0" to cross-section "A", and for the the
rotating pipe (from "A" to "2") - Fig. 5.16.
9. Give the definition for cavitation!
10. Write down the Bernoulli's equation for steady adiabatic fluid flow! What is κ ?
r
11. What are the expressions for the force on bended pipe Fr - Fig. 5.24?
12. Write down the expression for the the reaction to the jet force Frx - Fig. 5.25.
13. What is the expression for the missile reaction force - Fig. 5.26? Explain the procedure of
obtaining the expression for the missile velocity!

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Fluid Mechanics

Theory Homework No. 5

1. Define fluid shear stress, dynamic and kinematic viscosity.

2. Explain Fig. 6.1.
3. Give basic definitions for laminar and turbulent flow. Define Reynolds number.
4. Which is the procedure for obtaining the Navier-Stockes equations (give a general explanation)?
5. Which are the governing equations of viscous fluid laminar flow? For which cases the system
of governing equations can be solved?
6. What are the approximations for solving the governing equations for the cases presented on Fig 6.4
and Fig. 6.5? Which properties can be obtained?
7. Give the basic definition for creeping fluid flow! Write down the expression for the Drag force
for the flow as on Fig. 6.9 - name the properties in the expression!
8. Give the basic definition and characteristics concerning boundary layer!
9. Explain Fig. 6.10!
10. Give the definitions for Drag force and Lift force - Fig. 6.12 and Fig. 6.13! Write down the
general expressions for Drag and Lift force (name the properties in the expressions).
11. Give the definition, and write down the general expression for Reynolds number - name the
properties in the expression! Define the critical Reynolds number!
12. What does the mathematical model (6-48) to (6-52) present? Write down the general
expressions for the instantaneous flow properties u, v, w, and p!
13. Which are the basic features of the theoretical method for solving engineering problems? Give
a short comment!
14. Which are the basic features of the experimental method for solving engineering problems?
Give a short comment!
15. Shortly explain the CFD approach!

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Fluid Mechanics

Theory Homework No. 6

1. Write down the dimensional formulae and SI units for: acceleration, volume flow rate,
circulation, kinematic viscosity, pressure, density, work, dynamic viscosity, bulk modulus of
elasticity, mass flow rate, surface tension, quantity of heat, specific enthalpy.
2. Derive the expression for volume flow rate in Venturi meter using the Rayleigh's method!
3. Show the significance of the dimensionless groups with the example of the use of Rayleigh's
method for Ventiri meter.
4. Derive the expression for flow in Venturi meter using the Vaschy's theorem.
5. Write down the fundamental scales for geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarity. What is
the meaning of the properties in the corresponding scale expressions?
6. Write down the expressions of similarity scales for flow gate, force and work. What is the
meaning of the properties in the corresponding scale expressions?
7. Derive the similarity criteria for flow dominated by viscous forces!
8. Which are the similarity criteria for model and prototype in the same gravity field and with
same fluids?

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Fluid Mechanics

Theory Homework No. 7

1. How is treated a flow of liquids through pipes? What are the causes of viscous friction
existence in this case?
2. Define the term velocity profile! Derive the expression for average velocity (fig. 8.2)!
3. Write down the basic equations for incompressible fluid flow in pipes!
4. Write down the Darcy's formula. What every member in the formula presents?
5. Derive the head loss expression according Fig. 8.4! Define the term of hydraulic radius and
write down the corresponding formula!
6. Write down the equation for linear head loss for incompressible fluid flow in conduits with any
shape cross-section! What every member in the formula presents?
7. Write down the Chezy formula for the average velocity over a flow section! What every
member in the formula presents?
8. Write down the expression for hydraulic gradient for open channel flow as on Fig. 8.6.
9. Write down the expression for local head loss! What every member in the formula presents?
What is the general dependence of the local head loss coefficient?
10. Write down the expression for total head loss in a pipe line as shown on Fig. 8.7.
11. What expression is used for pipe friction factor λ in case of laminar flow? What is the
magnitude of the average velocity in this case?
12. Explain the Fig. 8.10! For most common case what is approximately the magnitude of the
average mean velocity vave ?
13. Write down the dependence formulae (general forms) for friction factor of turbulent flow in
pipes - smooth pipes, fully rough and transition zone!
14. Write down the formula for total head in one-dimensional open channel (Fig. 8.17)! What
every member in the formula presents?
15. What is the expression for head loss on a distance L according Fig. 8.17? What is the head loss
equation for steady uniform flow?
16. Write down the Darcy's equation foropen channel flow . What every member in the formula
presents?
17. Write down the Chezy formula for the average velocity in open channel flow! What every
member in the formula presents?
18. Give the definitions for drag force and lift force and write down the corresponding equations!
What are the general dependence expressions for the drag and lift coefficients?

A. Nospal Homework No. 7

 DEREC Fluid Mechanics 148

Fluid Mechanics

Theory Homework No. 8

1. Give the definition for free turbulence!

2. Give the definition for diffusion! For which flows the diffusion is characteristic?
3. What are the definitions for turbulent jets, buoyant jets and plumes (Fig. 8.23)?
4. Define the term of entrainment! What is the result of the entrainment into a buoyant jet?
5. Give a definition for dispersion of air pollution! Which fluid motions are characteristic for this
dispersion?
6. What are the bases for atmospheric dispersion modelling?
7. Give the definition for multiphase flow! Give a general quotation of the processes and equations
which govern this flow!
8. Define two-phase flow in fluid mechanics! Give characteristic examples for two-phase flow!
9. Which features make two-phase flow an interesting and challenging branch of fluid mechanics?
10. Why it is important the modelling of gas-solid multiphase flow? For which processes of the
process plants operation, the prediction of gas-solid flow fields is crucial?

A. Nospal Homework No. 8