MODULE 22 STUDY GUIDE

Key Terms
Sustainability
MARPOL
Economics
Private Efforts
Environmental Input Statement
Local Government
Lobbying
Henry Thoreau
John Muir
Theodore Roosevelt
Jane Goodall
Jacques Cousteau
Voting
Comsumer Choices
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Learning Objectives
•Explain MARPOL and the international agreement that has produced results
•Describe environmental agencies and laws, specifically the EPA
•Define local governments and their impact in local communities
•Distinguish between the influential individuals and describe their importance
•Understand the steps
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Key Concepts
•Economics is the study of choices people make when utilizing and distributing
resources
•Government agencies must file an EIS for any project that would affect the
environment
•Lobbying is the organized efforts to influence lawmakers’ votes or viewpoints
•Influential individuals whose actions have increased attention to environmental
issues
•We should be guided by the environmental slogan, “think globally, act locally”
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Important People/Events
MARPOL
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

Module 22.1

Economics and International Cooperation

Although education standards and lifespan have generally improved in the last 50 years, more work
still needs to be done to enhance sustainability of the Earth's resources. Sustainability is a condition
in which the present generation uses the Earth's resources prudently to enable future generations to
benefit from the same resources. This is important considering that certain resources, such as
energy and freshwater are becoming scarce by the day.

A view across a reverse osmosis desalination

plant. Photo by James Grellier

International Development and Cooperation

Globalization has ensured that economic and environmental conditions in different countries are
related and linked. This has prompted various world leaders to collaborate in developing common
goals for addressing these interlinked environmental problems.

Sustainable Development

The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil was the most prominent meeting that brought
together various global stakeholders to address sustainable development. One product from this
summit was Agenda 21, which was general plan for addressing various environmental concerns
while improving economic development.

The Earth Summit of 1992 in Rio de Janeiro‚ Brazil.

Climate and Atmosphere

Various international agreements emerging from these meetings have experienced mixed fortunes
as far as addressing environmental concerns is concerned. The Montreal Protocol is an example of
an international treaty that was successful in reducing the amount of ozone-destroying chemicals in
the environment. However, the Kyoto Protocol, which seeks to reduce greenhouse gases emission
and global warming, has not been as successful due to opposition from certain countries. The U.S. is
the most notable critic of the protocol and argues that it is unfair towards developed countries and
favors developing countries. Its argument is that implementation of the protocol is costly
considering that it may not even reduce global warming. Critics also argue that developing countries
will continue to use fossil fuels while preventing the developed countries from doing so.
Nonetheless, U.S. companies operating in countries that have signed the treaty may have to abide
by the conditions.

Other Agreements

MARPOL, known as marine pollution, is an example of an international agreement that has produced
results. It prevents large ships from dumping garbage close to shores as well as oil tankers from
washing out their tanks. These regulations have resulted in the fining of various cruise lines, which
has reduced the rate of tar pollution along beaches. Also, the 2016 Paris Climate Accord was held to
discuss on how to minimize global warming. The United States pulled out of this agreement in 2017.

Lagos, Nigeria is exempt from Kyoto Protocol requirements.

Photo by Stefan Magdalinski cc-by-2.0

Economics and the Environment

Within the traditional model of economics, the study of choices people make when utilizing and
distributing resources - markets are considered self-contained system where money and products
flow in cycles. Within this model, a successful economic system is equated with economic growth in
which flow of money and products increase within the system. However, these arguments do not
consider the environmental cost or ramifications of the use of these products.

As an external factor, environmental failures are perceived as market failures, in which case, the
affected product does not reflect its true cost. In this context, gasoline can be said to not reflect its
true cost because it does not consider its environmental effects, such as emission of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere. However, pricing the environmental costs of a product is a challenging
undertaking.

Regulation and Economic Incentives

Governments exercise control over economic systems through regulations, punishment, or

economic incentives to people who engage in actions that benefit the environment. These incentives
may be in the form of monetary rewards or other rewards, such as rebates that are usually given to
people who purchase energy-saving appliances. Nonetheless, certain regulations may encounter
opposition especially when they are costly to implement.

The Nature Conservancy’s main objective is to preserve ecosystems.

Private Efforts

Businesses and private organizations may also boost environmental conservation efforts by donating
land for preserves or parks as well as money to various environmental initiatives. These
organizations may also cooperate with government agencies in researching or creating strategies for
environmental management. Other manufacturers may adopt environmentally friendly practices,
such as recycling of waste products. The Nature Conservancy is an example of a nonprofit
organization that has worked hard on environmental management by creating preserves all over the
U.S., as well as 28 other countries worldwide by collecting donations of land and money. These funds
have helped the organization to buy land, which it then converts into preserves.

Module 22.2

Environmental Policies in the United States

Environmental issues have been featured prominently in both local and national elections in the
United States. Millions of dollars have also been pumped into various environmental initiatives by
individuals, businesses, and private organizations. These contributions have complemented the
billions of federal tax dollars that the government has set aside for implementing environmental
policies and managing resources.

Many national forests and parks, and agencies to manage them, were established around the early
1900s.

History of U.S. Environmental Policy

Following the reckless and rapid use of natural resources in the 1800s, the 1900s was a period during
which the United States realized the need to protect and prudently manage its national resources. It
was during this time that many environmental agencies were established as well as parks and
forests.

Environmental Agencies and Laws

Many soil conservation policies were adopted in the 1900s, around that same time, many people
started to demand better waste disposal methods. The same year the first Earth Day was celebrated
in 1970, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established with the mandate of enforcing
the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act. The EPA uses regulations and economic incentives to
encourage people to abide by the provisions of these Acts.

Glen Canyon Dam in Arizona.

Environmental Impact Statements

Regulations require that government agencies file an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for any
project or policy that would significantly affect the environment. These projects may be highways,
airports, dams, as well as other projects that are controlled or funded by federal government.
Contents of an EIS include the rationale for the project, its environmental impact, and strategies for
minimizing its negative impact. EISs are often subject to public comments although these comments
are rarely sufficient to warrant cancellation of the project. However, these opinions or suggestions
can enable the authorities alter the project or policy. An example of an EIS conducted was in the
1980s when federal agencies were exploring alternative ways of releasing water from the Grand
Canyon Dam.

Unfunded Mandates and Economic Impacts

In 1995, Congress passed a law barring unfunded mandates, which prevent federal agencies from
developing regulations without funding for state or local governments to implement these
regulations. Because laws, such as the Clean Water Act require more than $50 million to implement,
Congress is barred from passing such laws. Even when laws like this are passed, the federal
government must provide funding for their implementation. Federal agencies are also expected to
assess the environmental and economic ramifications of their policies.

Public use greenways are appearing along the Hudson River.

Influencing Environmental Policy

At an individual level, you can influence environmental policies in your area by reaching out to your
local representatives. You can contact them individually or as part of a lobby group including
business organizations, media, and nonprofit organizations.

Local Governments

Local governments are influential in determining environmental policies in local communities. They
bring together locals to discuss environmental issues in town hall meetings. Local governments are
also responsible for urban planning, including plans for waste disposal facilities as well as recycling.
To be successful, this local environmental planning should be coordinated among many groups to
ensure that all stakeholders are working towards the same goal.

State Governments

While the federal government passes minimum standards related to specific environmental issues,
individual state governments may set higher standards for these environmental issues. An example
are the standards set by California for vehicle emissions within the state. State governments are also
free to decide how to implement laws set at the national level and manage public resources.

Lobbying

Lobbying is the organized efforts to influence lawmakers' votes or viewpoints on particular

environmental issues. As an individual, you can become part of this organized attempt to influence
your lawmakers. Lobby groups may include industry and environmental groups advocating for a
specific cause.

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska.

The Media and Sources of Information

Various media, such as radio, TV, and newspapers provide information on the current environmental
issues affecting you, such as Congress's debate on the oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge. However, these media may not provide you with the full information needed to make an
informed decision. You can find more information on the Internet where you can read through
numerous environmental reports and magazines on various environmental issues. While searching
the Internet for information, you should be wary of biased and inaccurate information.

Module 22.3

The Importance of the Individual

As an individual, increased awareness of environmental problems and their solutions will enable you
to make responsible decisions on how you use your environment.

Henry D. Thoreau and John Muir were two of the earliest notable naturalists.

Influential Individuals
The following are some people whose actions have increased attention to environmental issues
throughout history:

Henry D. Thoreau (1817-1862): A conservationist and writer who is renowned for his memoirs about
his stay in a cabin at Walden Pond in Massachusetts.

John Muir (1838-1914): A Scottish naturalist and writer who established the Sierra Club, explored the
American West, and fervently advocated for the preservation of the western lands as wilderness.

Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt (1858-1919): First American president to strongly advocate for
environmental conservation and established the Forest Service while expanding national forests by
400 percent. He also pioneered the establishment of the first National Monuments.

Jane Goodall (1934-): Her study and subsequent book on chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National
Park, Tanzania raised awareness on the plight of endangered species. She also prompted new
thinking about primate behavior.

Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997): A renowned French oceanographer whose various books, programs,
and films documented over 40 years of his undersea expeditions.

Rachel Carson, author of Silent Spring.

The 1960s Decade

During the 1960s, biologists, such as Garrett Hardin, Paul Ehrlich, Barry Commoner, and Rachel
Carson brought public attention to environmental issues, such as rapid population growth, resource
depletion, and pollution. Rachel Carson, in particular, authored a book in which she argued that
most public lands and resources were inadequately protected. Her book partially influenced the
writing of the Wilderness Act of 1994, which required that certain federal lands were to be used as
wilderness areas for human activities that were restricted to low-impact recreation, such as camping
and hiking.

Rising Awareness

The 1960s were also marked with many environmental disasters, including increased air pollution in
New York, that caused 300 deaths, as well as the endangerment of the bald eagle as a result of
widespread use of DDT. These incidents, coupled with the excessive pollution of Lake Erie and
massive oil spill near Santa Barbara, led to the first Earth Day in 1970. This was a demonstration of
the increasing public awareness and concern for environmental issues.

Many community groups engage in nature cleanup efforts.

Applying Your Knowledge

Your knowledge of environmental science will be critical in making individual decisions on how to
use the resources in your environment.

Voting

You can decide how the resources in your environment are to be managed by voting for candidates
who value environmental conservation as part of their agenda. By seeking out information from
voter organizations, the Internet, and the media, you can make an informed decision on the
candidate that best represents your environmental issues or concerns. You can also join groups with
similar interests as yours, such as lobby groups or volunteer groups, some of which participate in
environmental clean-up activities.

Weighing the Evidence

We should be conscious of how our different actions impact the environment around us. Thus, we
should be guided by the environmental slogan, "think globally, act locally".

Preserving our environment is the greatest gift to pass on to future generations.

Consumer Choices

Our consumer choices should be influenced by the phrase, "reduce, reuse, recycle". We should
purchase products that are manufactured sustainably and cause minimal damage to the
environment. We should also avoid disposing of products or materials that could still be useful for
other activities. Instead, we can recycle or reuse them.

As you learn more about Environmental Science, hopefully you make decisions that only positively
impact your environment and preserve it for future generations to come.