Thermal Agitation noise :

Shot noise :
Digital Modulation
For a better quality and efficient communication, digital modulation technique is employed.
The main advantages of the digital modulation over analog modulation include permissible
power, available bandwidth and high noise immunity. In digital modulation, a message
signal is converted from analog to digital message, and then modulated by using a carrier
wave.

The carrier wave is keyed or switched on and off to create pulses such that the signal is
modulated. Similar to the analog, here the parameters like amplitude, frequency and
phase variation of the carrier wave decides the type of digital modulation.

Types of Digital Modulation

Digital modulation is of several types depending on the type of signal and application used
such as Amplitude Shift Keying, Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying, Differential
Phase Shift Keying, Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, Minimum Shift Keying, Gaussian
Minimum Shift Keying, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing, etc., as shown in the
figure.

Amplitude shift keying changes the amplitude of the carrier wave based on the base band
signal or message signal, which is in digital format. It is used for low-band requirements
and is sensitive to noise.
 Digital Modulation
In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier wave is varied for each symbol in the
digital data. It needs larger bandwidths as shown in the figure. Similarly, the phase shift
keying changes the phase of the carrier for each symbol and it is less sensitive to noise.

To avoid making this article complex, some mathematical equations and in-depth
information about digital communication systems have been exempted from it. However,
the efforts put in to bring forth this article ensure basic information on different types of
modulation in communication system. And therefore, the readers can share their ideas,
suggestions and comments in the comment section below.

In this lesson, we'll go over what bandwidth is in relation to computers and digital gadgets. We'll also talk about
bandwidth usage, bandwidth limits, and how bandwidth is measured.
What is Bandwidth?
Bandwidth is about throughput. In networks, bandwidth refers to how much digital information we can send or
receive across a connection in a certain amount of time. Sometimes it's called data transfer rate too.
Most of the time, bandwidth refers to maximum throughput, and the information that is sent through is expressed in
bits per second (a bit is the smallest unit of digital data that is represented as a 1 or 0). Since the number of bits can
be a really large number, we might use a term like kilobits per second (Kbps or 1,000 bits per second) or megabits
per second (Mbps or 1,000,000 bits per second) for how many bits can be sent or received in a second. An example
of a common internet speed is around 10Mbps (megabits per second), which works out to about 1.3MBps
(megabytes per second). That's pretty fast!
By the way, if you're wondering how 10Mbps works out to approximately 1.3MBps, simply divide by 8, which is the
number of bits in each byte.
Bear in mind that this kind of bandwidth is used to describe networking. Bandwidth can also refer to processor
bandwidth, which is measured in hertz. So, if you might sometimes feel confused, just remember that network
bandwidth usually refers to maximum bits per second.

A Metaphor for Bandwidth

Maybe it would help if we used a familiar example to help visualize what bandwidth means. Long ago, ships used to
use signal lamps (also called Aldis lamps) to communicate across the water. The signal lamps could be on or off (1
or 0), a lot like how bits in computers can be on or off. By opening and closing a kind of shutter, bits of information
(flashes of light) could be exchanged (similar to 1s and 0s). The maximum amount of these flashes of light that
could be sent was about 14 wpm (14 words per minute), which works out to 5 bits per second, more or less. So you
see, 5 bits per second was the bandwidth of an Aldis lamp (with a really good operator!). Now compare that to
bandwidth today, with speeds like 1 million or more 'flashes' per second. If that were a signalman, he or she would
get awfully tired!

Picture of an Aldis Lamp

Bandwidth Limits and Issues

A good way to think of bandwidth limits is by thinking of an internet connection like a water hose, and the limits in
terms of the rates of water that you can get in a fixed amount of time. The physical hose is only so big, the amount
of water is limited, and service providers might limit you by the hour, day, and/or month. You may be allowed 10
gallons per hour, for example, and 100 gallons per day. If you go over that, your provider may shut off your water
supply. Digital bandwidth from many internet service providers (ISPs) is a lot like that. A bigger issue, though, is how
your throughput can get congested, and limit the speed of your network connection. If you're the only one in your
house streaming videos, your network bandwidth probably won't be as congested as you streaming videos while a
family member video conferences with someone overseas and other folks in your house are playing online video
games. All those network intensive activities add up and limit your overall throughput and speed.

Bandwidth is like water through a hose

Bandwidth Usage
So far, we've been talking about maximum throughput. You may end up using part or all of your maximum
throughput. That's your usage. Say you don't download much of anything one month, and the next month a great
video comes out so you do a lot of downloading of that movie. Each time you transfer data, that's part of your
total bandwidth usage.

Bandwidth from QUORA::::::::::::::::::;

Bandwidth basically is a measure of how much information you can theoretically or practically
communicate in a given period of time, typically defined in so many bits or 8 bit bytes per second, with an
optional SI prefix as it is more convenient to write 8MBps than 8,000,000 Bytes per second.

For example with Gigabit Ethernet, the underlying protocols for the physical layer operate at 1,000,000,000
bits per second. This doesn’t take into account the practical needs of inter packet gaps, Ethernet packet
overhead, pre and post amble, protocol overhead (eg TCP/IP headers etc), etc. The max actual bandwidth
experienced in practice is around 90% of the theoretical for Ethernet, and a reasonable expectation is 60%
for computers with reasonable hardware and network protocols. See What is the actual maximum
throughput on Gigabit Ethernet? - CableFree for further details.

Congestion and the algorithms to handle it affect actual bandwidth because TCP/IP’s congestion handling
results in some fluctuation as it keeps on retesting the limits, so some packets will be lost, and there will
be periods where the tcp/ip stream has been throttled down below the max possible bandwidth. In
contrast there are some network protocols (eg ATM) that you can request and receive a guaranteed
bandwidth.

Another ::::::::::::
VENKATRAMAN S
, M.E Communication Systems, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering (2020)
Answered September 21, 2019
Originally Answered: What is the role of bandwidth in communication?
To improve the data rate- in short!

Bandwidth plays an important role in communication- be it wired or wireless. The amount of bandwidth
available determines the throughput, a QoS parameter, of the communication system. The more the
bandwidth, the more the achievable throughput and hence the data rate. In most cases, throughput is
lesser than the bandwidth. In the context of communications, unlike networking which uses the same SI
unit of data rate (which is bits per second or bps) for bandwidth, Hertz (Hz) is used as the SI unit. kHz,
MHz and GHz are predominantly used.

Human voice bandwidth: 4kHz (310Hz to 3400Hz)

Audio bandwidth: 19.98kHz

Consider a corridor whose width can permit the passage of only 4 to 5 people at any point in time. If the
width is increased, few more can be accommodated. Hence, the number of bits flowing down the network
per second at any given point in time is more when compared to the previous case with a narrower width.

The bandwidth of a signal determines the range of operation.

When an antenna is designed to yield a large 10dB impedance bandwidth, the data rate attained will be
well high but the range covered will be less. This is predominantly the case with UWB communications
wherein the signal bandwidth is 500MHz or greater than that (specifically 528MHz, 14 channels from
3.1GHz to 10.6GHz). The design of wideband antennas is also quite difficult.

Applications of Fourier Series to Differential Equations

So these are some other basic applications of fourier series in daily life.

1. Signal Processing. It may be the best application of Fourier analysis.

2. Approximation Theory. We use Fourier series to write a function as a trigonometric
polynomial.
3. Control Theory. The Fourier series of functions in the differential equation often gives some
prediction about the behavior of the solution of differential equation. They are useful to find out
the dynamics of the solution.
4. Partial Differential equation. We use it to solve higher order partial differential equations by
the method of separation of variables.
5. However,in many cases, (electromagnetism, heat conduction, quantum theory,etc.) the wave forms
are not simple and, unlike sines and cosines, can be difficult to treat analytically.Fourier methods
give us a set of powerful tools for representing any periodic function as a sum of sines and cosines.

This problems  you can found it when you design a system like Mobile Communication Systems that
you see it today ; As Telecommunication engineer you need infinite Bandwidth (BW)* if you
send Square Pulse Wave!  and that not possible because we can't make a transfer media can hold
 infinity number of data...so we escape to Fourier series  to represent this square wave as cosine and
sine wave with contain same data [0,1].

*(Bandwidth refers to the data throughput capacity of any communication channel).

As you can see in this fig by increase number of n the Fourier series be more close to this rectangular
pulse:

but you can ask

• Why digital signals (rectangular pulse , square pulse...) need infinity BW ?

The answer is: the digital signals (ex. rectangular pulse) it's go from Vmin to Vmax in zero second!
practically that not possible! system need time to charge capacitor  to store data [0,1]! so anything
(except zero) divided by zero is infinity.

Ashik Imran
, Have analysed the Fourier series from multiple perspectives
Answered July 15, 2016
Originally Answered: What are the applications of fourier series in electrical engineering?
In Electrical Engineering, there are several instances where one deals with signals(waveforms) and
manipulations of signals. The manipulation may be any operation such as addition, multiplication,
differentiation, integration etc. This manipulation maybe a result of a tangible electrical circuit(RC, LC, RLC)
or simply an abstract system. Hence, a strong analytical method is needed to examine the results and side-
effects.

The number of possible waveforms are obviously infinite. Trying to change the analytical approach every
time we encounter a new signal is extremely impractical. Hence, what we need is a representative signal ie.
a single signal which can capture the essence of almost any signal. This is essentially what the Fourier
series offers. It says that any signal can be decomposed into sum of sinusoids. Now the problem of
analyzing signals reduces to the problem of analyzing sinusoids. This is also the reason that a sinusoidal
source is considered in electrical circuit analysis. It virtually captures all possible sources. It is also to be
noted that sinusoids retain their form under operations like differentiation and integration ie. differetiation
of a sinusoid is again a sinusoid. This aspect highly simplifies circuit analysis. The concept is quite useful in
digital signal processing as well where the Fourier series tells us how each frequency component
influences the signal characteristics and which components you need to modify to convert the signal to
your desired form.

Additionally, it presents a finite way to represent signals. Consider a simple scenario in which you need to
approximately represent a waveform as a finite series of samples. We can simply use the required number
of Fourier coefficients(depending upon the approximation we need) since the resulting signal can easily be
reconstructed from them.

Noise : Bad gese

 Wiki:::::::::::::::::::::::::

Noise figure
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

Noise figure (NF) and noise factor (F) are measures of degradation of the signal-to-noise

ratio (SNR), caused by components in a signal chain. It is a number by which the performance of an
amplifier or a radio receiver can be specified, with lower values indicating better performance.
The noise factor is defined as the ratio of the output noise power of a device to the portion thereof
attributable to thermal noise in the input termination at standard noise temperature T0 (usually 290 K).
The noise factor is thus the ratio of actual output noise to that which would remain if the device itself
did not introduce noise, or the ratio of input SNR to output SNR.
The noise figure is simply the noise factor expressed in decibels (dB).[1]

Contents

 1General
 2Definition
 3Noise factor of cascaded devices
 4Noise factor as a function of additional noise
o 4.1Derivation
 5See also
 6References
 7External links

General[edit]
The noise figure is the difference in decibels (dB) between the noise output of the actual receiver to
the noise output of an “ideal” receiver with the same overall gain and bandwidth when the receivers
are connected to matched sources at the standard noise temperature T0 (usually 290 K). The noise
power from a simple load is equal to kTB, where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the absolute
temperature of the load (for example a resistor), and B is the measurement bandwidth.
This makes the noise figure a useful figure of merit for terrestrial systems, where the antenna
effective temperature is usually near the standard 290 K. In this case, one receiver with a noise
figure, say 2 dB better than another, will have an output signal to noise ratio that is about 2 dB better
than the other. However, in the case of satellite communications systems, where the receiver antenna
is pointed out into cold space, the antenna effective temperature is often colder than 290 K.[2] In these
cases a 2 dB improvement in receiver noise figure will result in more than a 2 dB improvement in the
output signal to noise ratio. For this reason, the related figure of effective noise temperature is
therefore often used instead of the noise figure for characterizing satellite-communication receivers
and low-noise amplifiers.
In heterodyne systems, output noise power includes spurious contributions from image-
frequency transformation, but the portion attributable to thermal noise in the input termination at
standard noise temperature includes only that which appears in the output via the principal frequency
transformation of the system and excludes that which appears via the image
frequency transformation.

Definition[edit]
The noise factor F of a system is defined as[3]
where SNRi and SNRo are the input and output signal-to-noise ratios respectively. The SNR quantities
are power ratios. The noise figure NF is defined as the noise factor in dB:
where SNRi, dB and SNRo, dB are in decibels (dB). These formulae are only valid when the input
termination is at standard noise temperature T0 = 290 K, although in practice small differences in
temperature do not significantly affect the values.
The noise factor of a device is related to its noise temperature Te:[4]
Attenuators have a noise factor F equal to their attenuation ratio L when their physical
temperature equals T0. More generally, for an attenuator at a physical temperature T, the noise
temperature is Te = (L − 1)T, giving a noise factor

Noise factor of cascaded devices[edit]

Main article: Friis formulas for noise

If several devices are cascaded, the total noise factor can be found with Friis' formula:[5]
where Fn is the noise factor for the n-th device, and Gn is the power gain (linear, not in dB)
of the n-th device. The first amplifier in a chain usually has the most significant effect on
the total noise figure because the noise figures of the following stages are reduced by
stage gains. Consequently, the first amplifier usually has a low noise figure, and the noise
figure requirements of subsequent stages is usually more relaxed.
 Noise factor as a function of additional noise[edit]

The source outputs a signal of power  and noise of power . Both signal and noise get amplified. However, in
addition to the amplified noise from the source, the amplifier adds additional noise to its output denoted .
Therefore, the SNR at the amplifier's output is lower than at its input.

The noise factor may be expressed as a function of the additional output referred noise
power  and the power gain  of an amplifier.
Derivation[edit]
From the definition of noise factor[3]
and assuming a system which has a noisy single stage amplifier. The signal to noise
ratio of this amplifier would include its own output referred noise , the amplified
signal  and the amplified input noise ,
Substituting the output SNR to the noise factor definition,[6]

See also[edit]

 Noise
 Noise (electronic)
 Noise figure meter
 Noise level
 Thermal noise
 Signal-to-noise ratio
 Y-factor

References[edit]

1. ^ http://www.satsig.net/noise.htm
2. ^ Agilent 2010, p. 7
3. ^ Jump up to:a b Agilent 2010, p. 5.
4. ^ Agilent 2010, p. 7 with some rearrangement from Te = T0(F − 1).
5. ^ Agilent 2010, p. 8.
6. ^ Aspen Core. Derivation of noise figure equations (DOCX), pp. 3–4

 Agilent (August 5, 2010), Fundamentals of RF and Microwave Noise Figure

Measurements  (PDF), Application Note, 57-1
SNR ::::::::::::::::::::::;
Short for signal-to-noise  ratio, the ratio of the amplitude of a desired analog or digital data signal to the amplitude of noise in a

transmission channel at a specific point in time. SNR is typically expressed logarithmically in decibels (dB).

SNR measures the quality of a transmission channel or an audio signal over a networkchannel. The greater the ratio, the easier it is to

identify and subsequently isolate and eliminate the source of noise. A SNR of zero indicates that the desired signal is virtually

indistinguishable from the unwanted noise.

SNR also is abbreviated as S/N.

Ekhane ekta pic hbe boi theke