CLASS : 12 CHAPTER : 3 Human Reproduction

Human beings reproduce sexually and are viviparous. In humans, the reproductive phase
starts after puberty.

It involves:
 Gametogenesis : Formation of gametes.
 Insemination : Transfer of sperms into female genital tract.
 Fertilisation : Fusion of male and female gametes.
 Implantation : Formation and development of blastocyts and its attachment in uterine
wall.
 Gestation : Embryonic development.
 Parturition : Delivery of the baby
 lactation : Process of milk production in mammary gland and feeding the young
ones.

The Male Reproductive System

It is located in the pelvic region.

● It consists of:

 Testes
 Situated within the scrotum, which protects the testes and also helps in maintaining the
temperature.
 Each testis is 4 to 5 cm in length, and 2 to 3 cm in width, and has about 250
compartments called testicular lobules.
 Testicular lobules have seminiferous tubules which are the sites of sperm formation.
 Seminiferous tubules are lined by two types of cells:

○ Male germ cells − They undergo meiosis to form sperms.

 ○ Sertoli cells − They provide nourishment to the germ cells.

 Region outside the seminiferous tubules is called the interstitial space, which contains
Leydig cells (interstitial cells). The Leydig cells produce androgens(testosterone).

 Accessory Ducts and Glands

 Accessory ducts include:
 Rete testis
 Vasa efferentia
 Epididymis
 Vas deferens

 The seminiferous tubules open into the vasa efferentia through the rete testis.
 The vasa efferentia open into the epididymis, which leads to the vas deferens. The
vas deferens opens into the urethra along with a duct from the seminal vesicle called
the ejaculatory duct.
 The ejaculatory duct stores the sperms and transports them to the outside
 The urethra starts from the urinary bladder, extends through the penis and opens via
the urethral meatus.
 Accessory glands include:
 A pair of seminal vesicles
 Prostate gland
 A pair of bulbourethral glands
 The secretions of these glands make up the seminal plasma, and provide nutrition and
a medium of motility to the sperms.
 External genitalia.
 Penis is the external genitalia.
  It is made of special tissue that helps in
erection of the penis to facilitate insemination.
 The enlarged end of penis is called glans penis.
 Glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin
called foreskin.

The Female Reproductive System

 It is located in the pelvic region:

It includes:
 A pair of ovaries
 A pair of oviducts
 Uterus
 Cervix
 Vagina
 External genitalia
 Mammary glands (not part of the reproductive system, but aids in child care)

Ovaries
 They are the primary female sex organs. They produce the ovum and other ovarian
hormones.
 They are located in the lower abdomen, and are 2 to 4 cm in length.
 They are connected by ligaments to the pelvic walls and to the uterus.
 Each ovary is covered by epithelium, and contains the ovarian stroma.
 The ovarian stroma is made up of:
 Peripheral cortex
 Inner medulla

Oviducts
 They are also called fallopian tubes.
 They are 10 to 12 cm long, and extend from the ovary to the uterus.
 The part of each oviduct lying towards the ovary is funnel shaped, and is called
infundibulum. It has finger-like projections called fimbriae.
 The infundibulum leads to the ampulla, and then to the isthmus, which has a narrow
lumen opening into the uterus.

Uterus
 It is also called womb, and is pear shaped.
 It is connected to the pelvic walls by ligaments.
 The uterine wall consists of:
 External perimetrium
 Middle myometrium
 Internal endometrium, which lines the uterine cavity
 The endometrium undergoes changes during the menstrual cycle.

Cervix and Vagina

 The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina.
 The cervix and the vagina constitute the birth canal.

External Genitalia
 Consists of:
 Mons pubis − Fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair
 Labia majora − Extends from mons pubis and surrounds the vaginal opening
 Labia minora − Fold of skin beneath the labia majora
 Hymen − Partially covers the vaginal opening
 Clitoris − Lies at the junction of labia minora

Mammary Glands
 Present in all female mammals
 It is paired and is glandular.
 Each breast contains 15 to 20 mammary lobes with alveoli which secrete milk.
 The alveoli open into the mammary tubules, which unite to form a mammary duct.
 Many mammary ducts constitute the mammary ampulla, which is connected to the
lactiferous duct.
Gametogenesis
The testis and ovary produce the male and female gametes respectively by gametogenesis
(spermatogenesis in males and oogenesis in females).

Spermatogenesis
 ● In males, sperms are produced by the spermatogonia (immature germ cells), which
are present in the inner walls of the seminiferous tubules.
● Spermatogonia increase in number by mitosis. These are diploid.
● Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo
meiosis.
● After the first meiotic division, two haploid and equal secondary spermatocytes are
formed.
● These further undergo meiosis to give rise to four haploid spermatids.
● These spermatids are converted into sperms by spermiogenesis.
● The sperm head gets embedded in the Sertoli cells after spermiogenesis and is
released from the seminiferous tubules by spermiation.

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis

● Spermatogenesis starts at puberty by the action of the gonadotropin releasing hormone

(GnRH), which in turn causes the release of two gonadotropins called Luteinizing
Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
● LH acts on Leydig cells and causes them to release androgens, which stimulate the
process of spermatogenesis while the FSH acts on the Sertoli cells, which help in
spermiogenesis.

Structure of a Sperm
● A mature sperm consists of:

○ Head
○ Neck
○ Middle piece
○ Tail

● The whole sperm is enclosed in a plasma membrane.

● The head consists of a haploid nucleus and a cap-like acrosome, which contains
enzymes that aid in fertilisation.
● The middle piece contains several mitochondria, which produce energy for the motility
of the sperm.
● Sperms released by the seminiferous tubules are transported by the accessory ducts.
● Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and prostate are essential for
maturation and motility of sperms.
Oogenesis

 The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called oogenesis.

 Some of the germinal epithelial cells divide by mitosis to produce a large number of
gamete mother cells or oogonia
 Oogonia multiply by mitosis and form primary oocytes.

 Growth phase-

 Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and

called primary follicle.
 The primary oocytes enlarge and mature by obtaining food from follicle cells.
 The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers ofgranulosa cells and a new theca
and called secondary follicles.
  The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is characterised by a
fluid filled cavity called antrum
 The theca layer isorganised into an inner theca interna and an outer theca externa.
 The primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size and completes its first
meiotic division which is an unequal division and forms a large secondary oocyte and
tiny first polar body.
 The tertiary follicle changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle.
 The secondary oocyte forms a new membrane called zona pellucida
 The Graafian follicle then ruptures to release the secondary oocyte from the ovary by
the process called ovulation
 If a sperm can enter the secondary oocyte through zona pellucida layer, the secondary
oocyte completes meiosis II and thus results in the formation of second polar body and
an ovum.

fig. Oogenesis

Fig. structure of human ovum

Menstrual Cycle
 
 ● Menstrual cycle is the reproductive cycle in all primates and begins at puberty
(menarche).
● In human females, menstruation occurs once in 28 to 29 days. The cycle of events
starting from one menstruation till the next one is called the menstrual cycle.
● During the middle of the menstrual cycle, one ovum is released (ovulation).
● The cycle starts with the menstrual flow (3 to 5 days), caused due to the breakdown of
the endometrium of the uterus. Blood vessels in liquid state are discharged, but this
occurs only when the ovum is not fertilised.
● It is followed by the follicular phase.In this phase, the primary follicles mature into the
Graffian follicles. This causes the regeneration of the endometrium.

These changes are brought about by ovarian and pituitary hormones. In this phase, the
release of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases. This causes follicular growth and the
growing follicles produce oestrogen.

● The LH and FSH are at their peak in the middle of the cycle (14 th day), and cause the
rupture of the Graffian follicles to release ovum. This phase is called the ovulatory
phase.
● The remains of the Graffian follicles get converted into the corpus luteum, which
secretes progesterone for the maintenance of the endometrium.
● In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates, thereby causing the
disintegration of the endometrium and the start of a new cycle.
● In humans, the menstrual cycle ceases to operate at the age of 50 years. This phase is
known as the menopause.

Fertilisation and Implantation

● During coitus, the semen is released into the vagina, passes through the cervix of the
uterus and reaches the ampullary-isthmic junction of the fallopian tube.
● The ovum is also released into the junction for fertilisation to occur.
● The process of fusion of the sperm and the ovum is known as fertilisation.

● During fertilisation, the sperm induces changes in the zona pellucida and blocks the
entry of other sperms. This ensures that only one sperm fertilises an ovum.
● The enzymatic secretions of the acrosomes help the sperm enter the cytoplasm of the
ovum.
● This causes the completion of meiotic division of the secondary oocyte, resulting in the
formation of a haploid ovum (ootid) and a secondary polar body.
● Then, the haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploid nucleus of the ovum to form a
diploid zygote.
● Mitosis starts as the zygote moves through the isthmus of the oviduct (cleavage) and
forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
● The 8−16 cell embryo is called a morula, which continues to divide to form the
blastocyst. The morula moves further into the uterus.
● The cells in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer trophoblast and an inner cell
mass.
● The trophoblast gets attached to the uterine endometrium, and the process is called
implantation. This leads to pregnancy.
● The inner cell mass gets differentiated to form the embryo.
Pregnancy, Parturition and Lactation

Pregnancy

● After implantation, the trophoblast forms finger-like projections called chorionic villi,
surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood.
● The chorionic villi and the uterine tissue get integrated to form the placenta, which
helps in supplying the developing embryo with oxygen and nutrients, and is also
involved in the removal of wastes.
● The placenta is connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord. The placenta acts as
an endocrine gland, and produces the human chorionic gonadotropins, human
placental lactogen, oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin (later stages of pregnancy).
 ● These hormones support foetal growth and help in the maintenance of pregnancy.
Hormones like oestrogen, progestogen, cortisol, prolactin, etc., are increased several
folds in the maternal blood.
● Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) gets differentiated into the
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, which give rise to the different tissues. This ability
of the inner cell mass is due to the presence of multi-potent cells called stem cells.
● Most of the major organs are formed at the end of 12 weeks of pregnancy; during the
5th month, the limbs and body hair are formed; by the 24 th week, the eyelids separate
and eyelashes are formed. At the end of nine months, the foetus is fully formed.

Parturition and Lactation

● After implantation, finger like projections appears on the trophoblast called chorionic
villi.

● Chorionic villi surrounded by uterine tissue and maternal blood.

● Temporary association between the fetal tissue (chorionic villi) and maternal tissue
(uterine endometrium) is called placenta.
●
● Function of placenta:

● The embryo connected to the placenta by umbilical cord, which transports substances
to and from the embryo. Facilitate transport of oxygen and nutrient from mother to
embryo.

● Removes CO2 and waste material from the embryo.

● Acts as endocrine gland and produces several hormones like:

— Human chorionic gonadotrophins (hCG)

— Human placental lactogen (hPL)

— Estrogen.

— Progesterone

 Relaxin produced from the ovary in the later stage of pregnancy

 Embryonic development

 After implantation the inner cell mass of blastocyst differentiated into an outer layer
called ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm.

 Mesoderm differentiated in-between ectoderm and endoderm.

 The inner cell mass thus called stem cells, having potency to produce all types of cell,
tissues and organs by differentiation.

 After implantation the inner cell mass of blastocyst differentiated into an outer layer
called ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm.

 Mesoderm differentiated in-between ectoderm and endoderm.

 The inner cell mass thus called stem cells, having potency to produce all types of cell,
 tissues and organs by differentiation.

Organogenesis

 Formation of different organs in the embryo is called organogenesis.

 Human pregnancy lasts for 9 months.

 After one month of pregnancy heart is formed in the embryo.

 By the end of 2nd month the foetus develops limbs and digits.

 By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester) most of organ system is formed (limbs and
external genitalia are well developed).

 First movement of foetus and appearance of hairs observed in 5th month.

 By the end of 24th week (2nd trimesters) the body is covered with fine hairs, eye-
lids separate, and eyelashes are formed.

 By the end of 9 months the foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.
PARTURATION AND LACTATION

 The period of pregnancy is called gestation period. (9 months).

 Ejection or expulsion or delivery of foetus is called parturition.

 Parturition is due to vigorous contraction of uterine Myometrium.

 The signal of parturition is originated from the fully developed foetus and the
placenta which induces mild contraction of uterus called fetal ejection reflex.

 Fetal ejection reflex triggers the release of Oxytocin from pituitary.

 Oxytocin induces stronger contraction of uterine endometrium.

 Stimulatory reflex continues stronger contraction leads to expulsion.

 After delivery the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.

Lactation

 The mammary gland of the female more differentiated during pregnancy,

 Mammary gland starts producing milk towards the end of the pregnancy.

 Process of milk production in mammary gland is called lactation.

 Milk produced during initial days of lactation is called colostrum.

 Colostrum contains several antibodies which provide immunity to the new born
baby.

E. BHARATI
PGT BIOLOGY
K V GAJAPATI