DIGESTIVE SYSTEM c.

Esophagus (Gullet)
-runs from the pharynx through the diaphragm to the
PART I: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY stomach
OF THE DIGESTIVE SYTEM -25 cm (10 inches) long
I. Anatomy of Digestive System Four Basic Tissue Layers or Tunics of the Walls of the
Alimentary Canal Organs
Consists of :
1. Mucosa-innermost layer, a moist membrane that
1. Alimentary Canal lines the body cavity or lumen of the organ
-performs the whole digestive functions 2. Submucosa-found beneath mucosa; soft
2. Accesory Digestive Organs connective tissue layer containing blood vessels,
-assist the process of digestive breakdown nerve endings, lymph nodules and lymphatic
vessels
A.Organs of the Alimentary Canal 3. Mascularis externa-is a muscle layer typically
(Gastrointestinal Tract) made up of an inner circular layer and an outer
longitudinal layer of smooth
-a continuous, coiled, hallow mascular tube that winds 4. Serosa-outermost layer of the wall; contains
through the ventral body cavity and is open at both ends. viscelar peritoneum is is continous with the lick,
slick, slippery parietal peritoneum, which lines
a. Mouth (Oral Cavity) the abdominopelvic cavity by way of membrane
extension, the mesentry; contains two important
-a mucous membrane-lined cavity. intrinsic nerve plexus- a. Submucosal nerve b.
-masticated (chewed) Myentric nerve plexus

-includes ; d. Stomach

 Lips (Labia) -protect its anterior opening -C-shaped ; located on the left side of the abdominal
 Cheeks-form the its lateral walls cavity; 15 -25 cm (6-10 inches)
 Hard palate-forms its anterior roof
-acts as a primary “storage tank” for food as well as site
 Soft palate-forms the posterior roof for food breakdown
 Uvula-a fleshy fingerlike projection of the soft
palate, which extends inferiorly from the Regions of the Stomach
posterior edge of the soft palate
 Vestibule-the space between the lips and cheeks 1. Cardiac Region-surrounds the cardioesophageal
externally and the teeth and gums internally. sphincter, through which foods enters the
 Oral cavity proper-area contained by the teeth stomach from the esophagus.
 Tongue- occupies the floor of the mouth; 2. Fundus-the expanded part of the stomach lateral
attached to hyoid bone and styloid processes to the cardiac region
 Lingual frenulum-a fold mucous membrane that 3. Body-the midportion and as it narrows inferior ly
secures the toungue the tongue to the floor of 4. Pyloric antrum-funnel shaped
the mouth and limits its posterior movements 5. Pylorus-the terminal part of the stomach;
 Palatine tonsils-paired masses of lymphatic at the continous with the small intestine through the
posterior end of the oral cavity pyloric sphincter or valve
 Lingual tonsil-covers the base of the tongue
 Rugae- large folds of the stomach; disappear
when the stomach is full
b. Pharynx  Greater Curvature-convex lateral surface of the
stomach
-food passes posteriorly into the oropharynx and  Lesser Curvature-concave medial surface
laryngopharynx.  Lesser Omentum-a double layer of peritoneum
that extends from the liver to the lesser curvature
  Greater Omentum-drapes downward & covers Three Structures of Small Intestine the Absorptive
the abdominal organs like lacy apron before Surface
attaching to the posterior body wall
 Gastric Juice-an acid digesting fluid secreted by  Microvilli
glands in mucous membrane -tiny projections of the plasma membrane of
 Intrinsic Factors- produced by some stomach cells the mucusa cells; brush border
which is needed for absorption of Vitamin B12 -plasma membrane bears “brush border
from the small intestine enyme” that complete the digestion of
 Chief cells-produces protein-digesting enzymes proteins and carbohydrates of the small
(pepsinogens) intestine
 Parietal cells-produce corrosive hydrochloric  Villi
acid, which makes the stomach contents acidic & -fingerlike projections of the mucosa that give
activates enzymes it velvetly appearance
-contains rich capillary bed and lacteal used
 Mucous neck cells-produce thin acidic mucus
for absorption of the digested foodstuff
 Enteroendocrine cells-produces gastrin
 Circular Folds (Plicae Circularies)
 Chyme-a semifluid mass partly digested food
-deeps folds of both mucosa & submucosa
expelled by the stomach into the duodenum
layers
e. Small Intestine
f. Large Intestine
-body’s major digestive organ
-much larger in diameter than the small intestine but
-longest section of the alimentary tube, 2.5 to 7 m (8-20 shorter in length; 1.5 m (5 ft) long
ft)
-major funtion are to dry out the indigestible foofd
-where chemical digestion of foods begins residue by absorbing water & to eliminate these
residuesrom the body as feces
Three Divisions of Small Intestine:
Divisions:
a. Duodenum-first section of the small intestine
leading to jejunum; they ducted the enzymes 1.Cecum – a saclike part of the large intestine
produced by the pancreas through the pancreatic
2.Appendix - a potential trouble spot because this is the
ducts; bile also enters here
ideal location for the bacteria to accumulate & multiply
b. Jejunum-located between the duodenum and
ileum 3.Colon
c. Ileum –it meets the large intestine at the ileoccal
valve  Ascending colon
 Transverse colon
 Ileocal valve-joins the large & small intestine  Descending colon
 Pyloric sphincter-control food movement into the  Sigmoid colon
small intestine from the stomach & prevents the
small intestine from being overwhelmed 4.Rectum
 Pancreatic duct-a duct that joins the pancreas to
5.Anal Canal – has an external voluntary sphincter &
the common bile duct to supply pancreatic juice
internal involuntary sphincter which closes and opens the
 Bile duct-a duct by which bile passes from the anus
liver or gallbaldder to the duodenum
 Hepatopancreatic ampulla-forms from the joining
of main pancreatic & bile ducts
 Duodeanal papilla-the bile & pancreatic juice B. Accesory Digestive Organs
travels here
a.Teeth

-use for masticating or chewing the food

 d. Liver
Shapes: -largest gland in the body; loacted under the diaphragm,
more to the right side of the body; produces bile
 Incisors – for cutting
 Canines – for tearing or piercing -it has four lobes & is suspended from the diaphragm &
 Premolars - for grinding abdominal wall by a delicate mesentry cord, the falciform
 Molars – grinding ligament

Anatomy of a Tooth: Bile -a yellow-green, watery solution containing

bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol,
 Crown phospholipids and electrolytes
 Root
 Gingiva or Gum -only the bile salts & phospholipids aids the
 Neck – connects crown and root digestive process
 Cementum – substance that covers the outer
surface of the root e. Gallbladder
 Periodental membrane
-a small, thin-walled green sac that snuggles in a shallow
 Dentin – a bonelike material that underlies the
fossa in the inferior surface of the liver
enamel & forms the bulk of then tooth
 Pulp cavity – contains connective tissue, blood
vessels & nerve fibers (pulp)
 Root canal – provides a route for blood vessels, Functions of the Digestive System
nerves & other pulp structures
1. Ingestion
Enamel –hardest substance in the body and a mineralized *Food is placed into the mouth before it can be
calcium salts acted upon
2. Propulsion
b. Salivary Glands
*foods must be propelled from one organ to the
1. Parotid Glands next ,for example swallowing, a food movement
that depends on peristalsis
-lie anterior to the ears; when inflammed causes 3. Food breakdown : Mechanical Digestion
mumps *it prepares food for further degradation byb
enzymes by physically fragmenting te foods into
2. Submandibular Glands smaller particles
*mixing food by the tongue, churning of food in
3. Salivary Glands – produces saliva, a mixture of
the stomach and segmentation in the small
mucus & serous fluids. intestine are examples of mechanical digestion
4. Food breakdown : Chemical Digestion
*The mucus moistens & helps to bind together into a *it is the sequence of of steps in which large food
mass called a bolus. molecules are broken down to their building
blocks by enzymes
*Salivary amylase, a clear serous enzyme that is rich in *it is a type of hydrolysis reaction
bicarbonate juice that begins the process of starch *water is an important dissolving medium & a
digestion in the mouth. softening agent for food digestion
5. Absorption
*it is the transport of digested end products from
c. Pancreas the lumen of the GI tract to the blood or lymph
*to occur, food must first enter the mucosal cells
-soft, pink, triangular gland that extends acrosss from the by active or passive transport
spleen to the duodenum *small intestine is the major absorptive site

-the only one that produces enzymes that breakdown all

categories of digestible foods
 6. Defecation Activities of the Stomach
*it is the elimination of ingestible residues from
trhe GI tract via the anus in form of feces
Food Breakdown

 When food enters the stomach , its walls

Peristalsis – is an involuntary & involves alternating begins to stretch ( at the same time the
waves of contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the gastric juices are being secreted). Then the
organ wall. three muscles layers of stomach wall become
active. They compress and pummel the food,
breaking it apart physically, all the while
continously mixing the food with enzyme
Activities Occuring in the Mouth, containing gastric juice so that the semifluid
Pharynx and Esophagus chyme is formed.
 When food enters the stomach , gastric
Food Ingestion and Breakdown secretion is stimulated by vagus nerves and
by gastrin ( a hormone). Hydrochloric acid
 Once the food has been placed in the mouth,
activates the protein digesting-enzyme
mechanical and chemical digestion begin.
pepsin, and chemical digestion of protein
First, the food is physically broken down into
begins.
smaller particles by chewing. Then, as the
food is mixed with saliva, salivary amylase Food Propulsion
begins the chemical digestion of starch,
breaking down it to maltose  The pylorus of the stromach, which holds
 No absorption happens in the mouth about 30 ml of chyme, acts like a meter that
 The pharynx and esophagus have no digestive allows only quick liquids and very small
function, they simply provide passageways to particles to pass through the pyloric sphincter
carry food to the stomach  When the duodenum is filled with chyme &
its wall is strecthed, a nervous reflex, the
Food Propulsion – Swallowing and Peristalsis enterogastric reflex occurs. The reflex puts
the break on gastric activity & slows the
 Swallowing or deglutition, is a complex
emptying of the stomach by inhibiting the
process that involves the coordinated vagus nerves & tight pyloric sphincter, thus
activity of several structures including allowing time for intestinal processing to
tongue, soft palate, pharynx, & catch up.
esophagus);  It takes 4-6 hours for the stomach to empty
Two Major Phases completely.

i. Buccal Phase Activities of the Small Intestine

- voluntary; occurs in the mouth; the
Food Breakdown and Absorption
tongue pushes the bolus into the pharynx
 Chemical digestion of fats, proteins, and
ii. Pharyngealesophageal Phase carbohydrates is completed in the small
intestine by intestinal enzymes and pancreatic
-involuntary; involves the closing off of enzymes. Alkaline pancreatic juice neutralizes
nasal & respiratory passages & acid chyme and provides the proper
conduction of food to the stomach by environment for operation of its enzymes.
peristalsis Both pancreatic juice (the only source of
lipases) and bile are necessary for normal fat
breakdown & absorption. Bile acts as a fat
emulsifier. Secretin and cholecystokinin,
 hormones produced by the small intestine, PART II: NUTRITION AND METABOLISM
stimulate release bile and pancreatic juice.
 Most nutrient absorption occurs by active I. Nutrition
transport into the capillary blood of the villi.
Fats are absorbed by diffusion into both *the energy value of foods is measured in units called
capillary blood and lacteal in the villi kilocalories (kcal)
Food Propulsion Nutrient – is a substance in food that is used by the body
to promote normal growth, maintenance and repair
 Peristaltic movements move foodstuff along
small intestine; segmental movement mix Categories of Nutrients and Their Sources
foods
Major Nutrients:
Activities of the Large Intestine 1. Carbohydrates
Food Breakdown and Absorption -provides your body with heat & energy & are
made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
 What is finally delivered to the large intestine -sugars and starches can be obtained from
contains few nutrients. The colon do notr plants
produce digesting enzymes. However, the 2. Lipids
resident bacteria that live in its lumen -are triglycerides (neural fats)
metabolize some of the remaining nutrients, a. Saturated Fats – obtained from animals
releasing gases (methane & hydrogen sulfide) b. Unsaturated Fats – obtained from plants
or also called as flatus. 3. Proteins
 Bacteria in the large intestine also make some -molecules that are basically amino acids
vitamins, including vitamin K and B. polymers
 Absorption by the large intestine is limited to -animal products has the highest quality
the absorption of the vitamins, ions, and most proteins
remaining water a. Essential Amino Acids – amino acids that
 Feces, the more or less solid product are body cannot make and that we must
delivered to the rectum, contain undigested obtain through our diet.
residues, mucus, millions of bacteria and
enough water to allow their smooth passage. Minor Nutrients

4. Vitamins
Propulsion of the Residue and Defecation
-are organic nutrients of various forms that
the body requires in small amounts
 The movements that are mostly seen in colon
-they also function as coenzymes that act
are haustral contractions, slow segmenting
with the enzyme to accomplish a particular
movements lasting one minute that occur
type of catalysis.
every 30 minutes.
-can be obtained in all major food groups
 Mass movements are long slow-moving but 5. Minerals
powerful contractile waves that move over -Seven Minerals;
large areas of the colon three or four times a. Calcium
daily & force the contents toward the rectum; b. Potassium
occurs after eating; bulk or fibers in the diet c. Sulfur
increases the strength of the colon d. Sodium
contractions and softens the stool. e. Chloride
 Defecation reflex is a spinal a spinal reflex f.Magnesium
that causes the walls of the sigmoid colon & g. Phosphorus
the rectum to contract and anal sphincters to -most mineral rich foods are vegetables,
relax. legumes, milk and meats
 Protein Metabolism
METABOLISM
-refers to all chemical reactions that are necessary to
 Proteins form the bulk of cell structure and most
functional molecules. They are usually conserved
maintainlife
by the body cells.
Two Types:  Amino acids are actively taken up from blood by
tissue cells
1. Catabolism  Essential amino acids, are amino acids that our
-substances are broken down to simpler body cannot synthesize and can be obtained from
substances; degradative our diet.
 Amino acids are oxidized to form ATP mainly
2. Anabolism when our other fuel sources are not available
 Amonia, released as amino acids are catabolized,
-larger molecules or structures are built from is detoxified by liver cells that combine it with
smaller ones; constructive carbon dioxide to form urea.

Carbohydrate Metabolism CENTRAL ROLE OF THE LIVER IN THE

 Carbohydrates, the most important of which is METABOLISM
glucose, are the bodys major energy fuel. As
glucose is oxidized, water & ATP are formed
Liver Functions:
(cellular respiration).
 Manufactures bile
 The sequental pathways of glucose catabolism are  Liver cells detoxify drugs and alcohol, degrade
glycolysis, which occurs in the cytosol, and the
hormones, make many substances vital to the
Krebs Cycle and electron transport chain (which body such as albumin and cholesterol .
occurs in mitochondria)
 Plays the central role in metabolism
 Hyperglycemia, high glocuse level in the blood  Important in maintaining blood glocuse level
;during Hyperglycemia, glucose is stored as
glycogen or converted into fat. Glycogen – a combined glucose molecules removed from
 Hypoglycemia, low blood glocuse level in the the blood to; stored in the liver
blood; in Hypoglycemia, glycogenolysis,
gluoconeogenesis and fat breakdown occur to Glycogenesis – literally means “ glycogen formation”;
restore normal blood glocuse levels formation of glycogen from glucose

Glycogenolysis – means “glycogen splitting”; breakdown

of glycogen to glocuse
Fat Metabolism
Gluconeogenesis – means “ formation of new sugar” ;
 Fats insulate the body, protect organs, build liver makes glocuse from
some cell structures ,such as cell membrane and noncarbohydrate substances, such as
myelin sheaths. fats and proteins.
 It also acts as an energy storage  Thyroxine, insulin and glucagon plays an
 When carbohydrates are in limited supply, more important role in controlling blood glocuse level
fats are oxidized to produce ATP. and in the handling of glocuse in all body cells
 Excessive fat breakdown causes blood to become  Some of the fats and fatty acids picked up by the
acidic ( acidosis ). liver cells are oxidized for energy for use by the
 Excess dietary fat is stored in subcutaneous tissue liver cells themselves and the rest is broken down
and other fat depots into acetic acid and acetoacetic acid and released
in the blood or stored in the liver.
  It reflects the energy supply a persons body
need s just to perform essential essential life
Cholesterol Metabolism and Transport activities such as breathing, maintaining the
Cholesterol heartbeat and kidney function
 An average 70 kg adult has a BMR of about 60
 it serves as the structural basis of steroiod -72 kcal/hour
hormones and vitamin D and as a major building  Factors affecting BMR:
block of plasma membrane. a. Surface area
 Fatty acids, fats and cholesterol cannot circulate
b. Sex
freely in the bloodstream because they’re
c. Age
insoluble in water. Instead they are transported
bound to the snall lipid-protein complexes called d. Thyroxin production (important factor)
lipoproteins. e. Sttong emotions
 Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) transport
cholesterol and lipids to body cells ; tagged as
Total Metabolic Rate
“bad lipoproteins if large amount is transported in  is the number of calories used by the body to
the bloodstream accomplish all ongoing daily activities.
 High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) transport  When TMR equals total caloric intake, weight
cholesterol from the tissue cells or arteries to the remains constant
liver for disposal in bile; considered as “good
lipoproteins” because cholesterol is destined to Body Temperature Regulation
be broken down and eliminated from the body.
 As foods are catabolized to form ATP, more than
Body Energy Balance 6o percent of energy released escapes as heat,
warming the body.
Energy Intake  Hypothalamus is the body’s thermostat
 is the energy liberated during food oxidation –  The hypothalamus initiates heat-loss process or
that is, during the resctions of glycolysis, the heat promoting process as necessary to maintain
Krebs cycle, and the electron transport. body temperature within normal limits.
 Heat-Promoting Mechanism is initiated when
Energy output the environment temperature is low. This is
accomplished through vasoconstriction of blood
 includes the energy we immedietly lose as heat , vessels of the skin and shivering.
plus as the heat, plus that used to do work plus
 Heat –Loss Mechanisms happens when the body
energy that is stored in form of fat or glycogen.
temperature increases above what is desirable.
Regulation of Food Intake The blood vessels in skin become flushed within
warm blood. Heat loss occurs through the skin via
 When energy intake and energy output are radiation or evaporation
balance, body weight remains stable. When they
are not, weight is either gained or lost.
 Researchers believe that several factors –such as
rising or falling blood levels of nutrients,
hormones or body temperature and psychological
factors have an effect controlling the food intake.

Metabolilc Rate and Body Heat Production

Basal Metabolic Rate

 it is the amount of heat produced by the body

per unit of time when it is under basal
conditions- that is, at rest.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
 Tongue-tied  Constipation
-born with short lingual frenulum and restricts the -food residue remains in the large intestine for a
movement of the tounge leading to distorted long time, too much water is absorbed and the
speech stool becomes hard and difficult to pass
 Peritonitis  Hyperthyroidism
-an infection of the peritoneum; peritoneal -excessive metabolic rate
membranes tend to stick together around the  Hypothyroidism
infection site -slowed metabolism, obesity & diminished
 Impacted Teeth thought process
-teeth remain embedded in the jawbone  Frostbite
 Gallstones -the skin cells is chilled by internal ice crystals and
-a small, hard crystalline mass formed abnormally deprived of oxygen & nutrients begin to die
in the gallbladder or bile ducts from bile  Hypothermia
pigments, cholesterol and calcium salts. Causes -extremely low body temperature due to
severe pain and blockage of the bile duct. prolonged exposure to cold
 Jaundice  Hyperthermia
-yellowish pigmentation of the skin, tissues and -exceptionally high body temperature
body fluids caused by the deposition of bile  Heat Stroke
pigments -due to high body temperature permanent brain
 Hepatitis damage becomes distinct possibility
-a condition marked by the inflammation of the  Heat Exhaustion
lliver -heat associated collapse of an individual during
 Cirrhosis or following vigorous activity
-a chronic inflammatory condition in which the  Gastroenteritis
liver is severly damaged andx becomes hard and -inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract
fibrous  Appendicitis
 Heartburn -inflammation of the appendix
-a burning discomfort behind the lower part of  Cleft Palate/ Cleft Lip Defect
the sternum due especially to spasmodic reflux of -a congenital defect where a child is unable to
acid from the stomach into the esophagus suck properly
 Esophagitis  Tracheoesophageal fistula
-inflammation of the esophagus -the condition where esophagus is connected to
 Hiatal hernia trachea
-the superior part of the stomach protrudes  Cystic fibrosis (CF)
slightly above the diaphragm -primarily affects the lungs but it also impairs the
 Pancreatitis activity of pancreas
-a rare but extremely serious inflammation of the  Phenylketonuria (PKU)
pancreas -involves an inability of tissue cells to use
 Diverticulosis phenylalanine; brain damage and retardation
-the mucosa protrudes through through the colon ocurs
walls
 Diverticulitis
-inflammation of diverticula
 Diarrhea
-result from any condition that rushes food
residue through the large intestine before that
organ has had the sufficient time to absorb water