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Product defects in aluminum extrusion and their impact on operational cost

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The 6th Saudi Engineering Conference, KFUPM, Dhahran, December 2002 Vol. 5. 137

PRODUCT DEFECTS IN ALUMINUM EXTRUSION

AND THEIR IMPACT ON OPERATIONAL COST

A.F.M. Arif1, A. K. Sheikh1, S.Z. Qamar1, M.K. Raza1, K.M. Al-Fuhaid2

1:Mechanical Engineering Department, KFUPM, Saudi Arabia;

2:Aluminum Product Co. Ltd., Dammam, Saudi Arabia
E-mail: afmarif@kfupm.edu.sa

ABSTRACT

Commercial hot extrusion of aluminum involves different operations, such as billet preheating
and shearing, loading and deformation, stretching and roll correction, age hardening, and
painting/anodizing. Because of the high tool and equipment investment involved, it is vital to
understand the relationship between the condition of the extrusion press and ancillary equipment
and their performance measured in terms of productivity and recovery. This in turn necessitates
an understanding of the contributing and controlling factors related to product defects in
extrusion.

The quality of any extruded product is a function of various factors, such as chemical
composition, geometrical dimensions, appearance and regularity of the microstructure, variation
of mechanical properties over the extruded length and cross section, and surface finish. Extrusion
defects may arise in extruded products from the starting material or billet, the deformation
process itself, or from other post-processing corrective measures. An attempt is made in the first
part of the paper to describe various types of product defects in commercial aluminum extrusion,
to trace their mechanical and metallurgical causes, and to suggest viable corrective/preventive
measures. Some defects not covered in earlier works have been described, exhibits of actual
defects from the industry are presented that are not available in published literature, a complete
category-wise defect classification has been carried out that has not been attempted in any
previous study, some preventive/remedial measures prevalent in the industry are elucidated that
cannot be found in earlier studies.

As all unacceptable defects involve rework or rejection, they directly lead to production losses.
The latter part of the paper proposes a generalized cost model for hot metalworking (specifically,
extrusion), based on the probability of producing a defective part at each processing or post-
processing stage. Real world data from local industry is used for partial cost analysis.

Keywords: Hot metal forming, extrusion, anodizing, painting, defects, origin, classification, flow
patterns, cost, model, analysis
‫‪Vol. 5.‬‬ ‫‪138‬‬ ‫‪A.F.M. Arif, A. K. Sheikh, S.Z. Qamar, M.K. Raza, K.M. Al-Fuhaid‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻤﻠﺨﺹ‬

‫ﺘﺸﻤل ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺒﺜﻕ ﺍﻷﻟﻭﻤﻨﻴﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻴﺔ ﻋﺩﺓ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﻤﺜل ﺍﻟﺘﺴﺨﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﻕ ﻟﻠﺨﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺩ ﻟﻠﺘﺸﻜﻴل ‪ ،‬ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺹ‪،‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺤﻤﻴل ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺸﻭﻩ ﻭﺍﻹﺴﺘﻁﺎﻟﺔ ﻭﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺘﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﺍﻟﺩﻟﻔﻨﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺘﻴﻕ ﻭﺍﻟﻁﻼﺀ‪ ،‬ﻭﻴﻌﺘﺒﺭ ﻓﻬﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺒﻴﻥ ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﻤﻜﺒﺱ ﺍﻟﺒﺜـﻕ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻷﺠﻬﺯﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﺤﻘﺔ ﻭﻜﻔﺎﺌﺘﻬﺎ ﻤﻥ ﻨﺎﺤﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ ﺤﻴﻭﻴﹰﺎ ﻟﻬﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻴﻼﺯﻤﻬﺎ ﺍﺴﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭﹰﺍ ﻤﺭﺘﻔﻌ ﹰﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻨﻔﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻷﺠﻬﺯﺓ‪ ،‬ﻜﻤﺎ ﻴﺴﺘﻠﺯﻡ ﺫﻟﻙ ﺃﻴﻀ ﹰﺎ ﻓﻬﻤﹰﺎ ﺠﻴﺩﹰﺍ ﻟﻠﻌﻭﺍﻤل ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻫﻤﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻴﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻤﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺜﻕ‪.‬‬

‫ﻭﺘﻌﺘﺒﺭ ﺠﻭﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻤﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺜﻕ ﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻌﺩﺓ ﻋﻭﺍﻤل ﻤﺜل ﺍﻟﺘﺭﻜﻴﺏ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺌﻲ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﻴﺔ ﻭﻤﻅﻬﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﻨـﺎﺀ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺨﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﺨﺎﻡ ﻭﺘﻐﻴﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻨﻴﻜﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻁﻭل ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺜﻭﻕ ﻭﻤﺴﺎﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻁﻊ ﻭﺃﻤﻠﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻁﺢ‪ .‬ﻭﻴﻤﻜـﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺘﻨـﺘﺞ‬
‫ﻋﻴﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻐﻭﻻﺕ ﺒﺩﺍﻴﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺩ ﻟﻠﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﺃﻭ ﻤﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴل ﺃﻭ ﻤﻥ ﺒﻌﺽ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﺘﻠـﻲ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺜﻕ‪ .‬ﻭﻴﺭﻜﺯ ﺍﻟﺠﺯﺀ ﺍﻷﻭل ﻤﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻭﺭﻗﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﺼﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔﺒﺜﻕ ﺍﻷﻟﻭﻤﻭﻨﻴـﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺘﺠﺎﺭﻴ ﹰﺎ ﻭﻤﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺘﺘﺒﻊ ﺃﺴﺒﺎﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻨﻴﻜﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ ﻋﻥ ﺘﻜﻭﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺩﻥ‪ ،‬ﻤﻊ ﻭﻀﻊ ﺍﻗﺘﺭﺍﺤﺎﺕ ﻟﻤﻨﻊ ﺃﻭ ﺘﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﻫـﺫﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻭﺏ‪ ،‬ﺤﻴﺙ ﺃﻨﻪ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺭﻭﻑ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭ ﻤﻘﺒﻭﻟﺔ ﺘﺴﺘﻠﺯﻡ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﺃﻭ ﺭﻓﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻤﻤﺎ ﻴﺘﺭﺘـﺏ ﻋﻠﻴـﻪ‬
‫ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻜﺎﻟﻴﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل‪ .‬ﻭﻴﻤﺜل ﺍﻟﺠﺯﺀ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻨﻲ ﻤﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻭﺭﻗﺔ ﻨﻤﻭﺫﺝ ﺘﻜﻠﻔﺔ ﻤﻘﺘﺭﺡ ﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺴـﺎﺨﻥ‬
‫ﻭﺨﺎﺼﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺜﻕ‪ ،‬ﻭﻴﻌﺘﻤﺩ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻭﺫﺝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺤﺘﻤﺎﻻﺕ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺠﺯﺀ ﻤﻌﻴﺏ ﻤﻥ ﻜل ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺘﺸﻐﻴل ﺃﻭ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻤﺎﺒﻌـﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴل‪ .‬ﻫﺫﺍ ﻭﻴﺘﻡ ﺍﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﺒﻴﺎﻨﺎﺕ ﺤﻘﻴﻘﻴﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻌﻤل ﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺤﺴﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪1. INTRODUCTION‬‬

‫‪Commercial aluminum extrusion is generally a hot metal-forming operation. The basic‬‬

‫‪process consists of forcing a preheated billet (usually round), placed in a heated chamber,‬‬
‫‪through a die opening by a ram. A typical process flow is outlined in Fig-1 [Arif et al.,‬‬
‫‪2001]; there might be slight deviations from this general arrangement from plant to plant.‬‬

‫‪1.1 Defects in Extrusion‬‬

‫‪An extruded profile may be deemed to be a reject (unacceptable product that does not‬‬
‫‪fulfill standard or customer specifications), owing to any of the following reasons:‬‬
‫)‪(i‬‬ ‫‪Defective billets (slag/impurity inclusion, scales/flakes, internal cracks,‬‬
‫)‪undissolved oxides, etc‬‬
‫)‪(ii‬‬ ‫‪Faulty or unsuitable tooling (billet and die preheat furnaces, dies/mandrels,‬‬
‫)‪dimensional correction equipment, etc‬‬
‫)‪(iii‬‬ ‫‪Defects arising during extrusion (inappropriate extrusion pressure, chamber‬‬
‫)‪temperature, friction, ram speed, etc‬‬
‫)‪(iv‬‬ ‫‪Flaws resulting in the course of post-extrusion operations (saw cutting,‬‬
‫‪stretching/straightening, roll correction, age hardening, anodizing, painting,‬‬
‫‪etc).‬‬

‫‪Top‬‬
Product Defects in Aluminum Extrusion and Their Impact on Operational Cost Vol. 5. 139

1.2 Current Work

Some researchers have attempted to analyze a few of the process defects encountered in
extrusion. However, no exhaustive and systematic study has yet been reported in this
area. That is why many defects do not have a unique name, different workers coining
different terms for the same flaw from time to time. Also, very few references are
available on properly categorizing extrusion related flaws. Moreover, only a handful of
researchers have come up with appropriate preventive or corrective measures for these
defects. Some of the salient features that differentiate the current work from hitherto
published material are:
(i) Exhaustive definition, together with visual exhibits in most of the cases, of all
defects arising in aluminum extrusion
(ii) Scientific and systematic classification of extrusion related defects into logical
categories
(iii) Probe into the causes (mechanical, metallurgical, equipment or process
related) of all the defects, and description of practical remedies and
precautionary measures generally carried out in the industry.

Wherever not referenced, visual exhibits are photographs of actual defect samples
collected over time from the industry. Pictures of some of the defects could not be
included due to space restrictions.

Any attempt at analyzing the productivity and profitability of a production process would
be incomplete without a suitable cost analysis. Unfortunately, related literature does not
provide any such reference specifically targeted at the extrusion industry. The current
paper proposes a cost model to determine the cost of rejects during any given period of
study that incorporates the probability of producing a defective section at each stage in a
typical extrusion setup. The model is then used to partially study rejection patterns over
the last few years, based on data from a local industry.

2. METAL-FLOW RELATED DEFECTS

These extrusion defects are the result of nonuniformity and nonhomogeneity of metal
flow in the container. The four characteristic patterns in direct extrusion using a square
die are shown in Fig-2 [Laue and Stenger, 1981], classified according to the increasing
order of nonuniformity of flow. Pattern S is characterized by the maximum possible
uniformity of flow in the container. Flow type A occurs when there is virtually no friction
between the container and the billet, but significant friction at the surface of the die and
its holder. Flow pattern B occurs if there is friction at both the container wall and at the
surfaces of the die and die holder. Also, the dead metal zone is not completely rigid and

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Vol. 5. 140 A.F.M. Arif, A. K. Sheikh, S.Z. Qamar, M.K. Raza, K.M. Al-Fuhaid

can influence (to a limited degree) the flow of the metal. Type C flow occurs when the
friction is high (as in type B) and the flow stress of the material in the cooler peripheral
regions of the billet is considerably higher than that in the center.

Funnel formation is the metal-flow related defect caused due to the movement of the
peripheral zones of the billet close to the die and die holder surfaces, independent of the
nonuniform flow in the container caused by friction, results in shearing. Material in the
axis region flows more rapidly towards the die orifice than at the edge. A funnel-shaped
hollow is thus formed in the rear portion of the billet [Pearson and Parkins, 1961]. A
funnel can also occur in indirect extrusion [Thomsen et al., 1954], because shearing at the
die is not prevented.

Pipe Formation, also called extrusion defect, fishtailing, or back-end defect, is the most
common flaw encountered during aluminum extrusion, especially in the 6xxx series
alloys: an annular separation in the cross section (due to division into an inner core and an
external zone) in the rear third of the extrusion. Billet-container friction results in the
billet surface layers remaining stationary at the container wall while the billet core is
sheared past. The region of dead metal that exists in the center directs the flow forwards
giving rise to a cone shaped defect [Sheppard, 1999] as shown in Fig-3 (a-b).
Internal cracking is the development of cracks in the center of an extruded product. Also
known as centerburst, center cracking, arrowhead fracture, or chevron cracking
[Kalpakjian, 1997], these cracks are attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress (also
called secondary tensile stress) at the centerline of the deformation zone in the die. The
situation is similar to the necked region in a uniaxial tensile test specimen.

Internal defects in hollow extrusions are produced due to friction between the mandrel
and the internal billet surface, giving rise to a significant distortion of the material flow at
the internal surface. The result is a blotchy, torn internal surface, and material welded to
the mandrel is difficult to remove.

When lubricant traces are present in unlubricated extrusion or lubrication breaks down in
lubricated extrusion, forming a partial dead metal zone, lubricant trapped at the boundary
of the dead metal zone extrudes into the product to form subsurface defects. Upon
subsequent heating, escaping gases cause blistering at these locations. These defects,
close to the extrusion surface, result from the formation of scales or blisters and can
develop in flow patterns of type A or B. Sometimes the blisters do not appear immediately
after extrusion but during a subsequent heat treatment; Fig-4 (a) [Aluminum Association,
1993].

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Product Defects in Aluminum Extrusion and Their Impact on Operational Cost Vol. 5. 141

3. SURFACE DEFECTS

Various defects mar the surface appearance of extrusion, including die lines, scoring,
pick-up, and tearing. Pick-up defect is observed as intermittent score lines of varying
lengths between 3 mm and 12 mm and often terminates in a fleck of aluminum debris
referred to as pick-up deposit; Fig-4 (b). The problem is usually thought to be enhanced
by inclusions in the cast billet, inadequate homogenization treatment [Langerweger,
1982] and die deflection. The defect is also temperature sensitive.

The Aluminum Association defines die lines as “longitudinal depressions or protrusions

formed on the surface of the drawn or extruded material due to imperfections on the die
surface”. Die lines, shown in Fig-5 (a), are also believed to be caused by the interaction of
the die land area. Even with an optimum die land length and extrusion temperature,
together with highly polished die lands, die lines are still observed to occur. These die
lines are finer and shallower and are termed micro die lines.

4. WELD DEFECTS

It is now common practice to extrude billet on billet using a welding chamber or feeder
ring to hold the back of the previous billet in the die and provide a surface for the next
billet to weld on to. This can lead to defects known as weld defects. If the mating surfaces
of the billets were perfectly clean, there would be no weld problem. In practice, the billet
ends are always oxidized, and the sheared face is often contaminated by stray lubricant
and oxidized metal from the shear blade. As a result the billet-to-billet weld or
transverse weld is usually defective and represents a discontinuity in the extruded
product; Fig-5 (b).

Whereas in a solid section the transverse weld merges into the section surface, in a hollow
it also merges into the longitudinal weld line.

5. METALLURGICAL DEFECTS

Most of the metallurgical defects in aluminum extrusion can be divided into three major
categories. Streaking defects on the surfaces of anodized extrusions consist of bands or
lines appearing darker or lighter, brighter or duller, in color and tone than the remainder
of the surface; Fig-6 (a, b). The basic cause of this streaking is a difference in
microstructure between the streaked portion of the extrudate surface and the remainder,
which leads to a difference in response in etching and anodizing [Cote et a., 1969].

Non-uniform appearance defects originate from occasional irregularities of the etching,

anodizing and/or coloring processes. The two more important subcategories are hot spots

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Vol. 5. 142 A.F.M. Arif, A. K. Sheikh, S.Z. Qamar, M.K. Raza, K.M. Al-Fuhaid

and spangle. Hot spots characteristically appear as dark (gray or black) rough patches, at
regular or random intervals along the extruded length. Originating due to localized coarse
precipitation resulting from different cooling rates of adjacent parts of the section,
spangle appears as a pronounced grainy surface. The cause of this defect is a preferential
grain attack, visually emphasized by a stepwise appearance of adjacent grains owing to
the dependence of the rate of attack on the orientation of the crystallographic planes of
individual grains.

Silicon Marks are black burn marks formed on the section surface during extrusion due
to inclusions of very hard particles such as Si or Mg in the billet material, creating very
high local friction and temperatures.

6. DEFECTS RELATED TO TEMPERATURE AND SPEED

The onset of mill finish (no subsequent surface treatment) surface defects is related to the
temperature rise generated at the surface of the product as it is deformed. The level of
temperature rise increases rapidly with exit speed due to the greater rate of work input
and reduced heat loss to tooling. At a high enough exit speed local melting might occur.
This condition gives rise to the classic hot shortness or U-shaped cracking defect.

Surface cracking occurs by local tensile failure at areas of melting due to the tensile
stress state present at the edge of the die bearing. If the exit temperature or speed is too
high, tearing initially starts at the edges of the extrusion and then develops over the
remainder of the surface, giving rise to what is commonly called fir-tree cracking or
speed cracking (circumferential surface cracks) as shown in Fig-6 (c).

7. EQUIPMENT AND TOOLING RELATED DEFECTS

The billet preheat ovens, billet shearing and transfer stations, die preheat ovens, extrusion
press and die set, extrudate conveyors, and the post-extrusion correction stations, can all
contribute to defects that can lead to rejection. Some of these equipment and tooling
generated defects are briefly described below.

Black Lines are burnt surfaces on the extrudate due to a local high pressure in the
extrusion press; Fig-7. This can happen in the welding chamber for hollow dies, or at any
aberration in a solid die that results in a localized high pressure. The defect generally
becomes visible after etching.

Nonuniform heating in any of the billet preheat ovens (due to local malfunction, deposits,
etc) can cause localized high temperatures. The resulting alloy segregation may cause

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Product Defects in Aluminum Extrusion and Their Impact on Operational Cost Vol. 5. 143

streaks of pure (whitish) aluminum in certain locations, appearing as white lines after
extrusion.

Runout marks, also called graphite lines, appear on the extruded surface (especially for
heavy sections) due to friction of the hot section against conveyor rollers made of
graphite; Fig-8 (a).
Whenever, due to a malfunction of a furnace or press component, the extrusion is
temporarily stopped, die stop marks are formed on that particular section; Fig-8 (b).

Stains/oil patches are formed when oil splashes during saw cutting (to get required
section lengths after extrusion) spread on the extruded sections and burn because of high
temperature; Fig-9 (a). These stains can further deteriorate in the aging furnaces.

Several factors can cause dissimilar metal flow in the cavities of a multi-hole die,
resulting in bending or twisting; Fig-9 (b). Similar problems can arise if the billet is not
uniformly heated on all sides, resulting in a nonuniform temperature distribution. Some
bending can also occur due to improper support during stacking.

If the die surface is not smooth enough (due to wear, lack of hardness, hard inclusions on
die surface) or if the conveyor belts are damaged, scratches might appear on the extruded
surface. There can also be general damages such as ends not being smoothly cut off by
saw cutting, or sections being damaged by falling down or collision during movement by
overhead cranes, etc. Damages can also occur during the stretching/straightening and roll
correction stages; Fig-10 (a). Dents, as shown in Fig-10 (b), can occur during transferring
long extruded sections from one place to another by moving rollers or overhead-cranes.

In multicavity dies, extruded sections may rub against each other while coming out of the
die openings. This chafing of hot extruded sections crates hot rub marks. Whenever the
surface quality is below a specified industry standard, due to excessive die lines or any
other surface problem, the unacceptable defect is termed rough surface.

The extrusion industry has various standards prescribing dimensional tolerances for
acceptable architectural and other extruded products. A section can be out of angle due to
nonuniform metal flow in the die, or because of the problems on the die-bearing surface.
A concave or convex or uneven surface is another die related problem. It can also occur
due to over-stretching of a critical surface in the correction area. A section is termed off
dimensions if it is out of shape, or it has uneven wall thickness. It can happen, for
instance, if the mandrel in hollow extrusion is not properly centered.

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Vol. 5. 144 A.F.M. Arif, A. K. Sheikh, S.Z. Qamar, M.K. Raza, K.M. Al-Fuhaid

As-extruded aluminum is quite soft and is therefore heat-treated by age hardening in

furnaces for prescribed temperature-time cycles depending on the aluminum alloy. Due to
any number of malfunctions or problems in the furnaces, the aging process may produce
low hardness.

8. ANODIZING DEFECTS

When there are small contaminations in the water in rinse tanks, and the sections are left
immersed for more time than necessary, small local corrosion spots called black pits are
formed. Corrosion can sometimes happen due to damp or salty atmosphere, especially in
certain geographical locations. Fig-11 (a) shows a surface marred by pitting and
corrosion. When the sections are left in the caustic/etching tanks longer than required, a
more than optimal surface layer is removed. The result is a grainy appearance, giving a
dull finish. If sections are left too long without rinsing after the caustic tanks, the caustic
solution sticks locally and does not come off after rinsing, giving rise to caustic patches.

Sometimes, when the anodizing quality is not good after completion of the process, the
whole cycle has to be repeated. This repeated etching can result in more material removal
than permitted. The result has to be scrapped due to reduced wall thickness. If the
etching/anodizing cycle is to be repeated, may be several times, the previous anodizing
layer has to be removed. If this is not done correctly, then there is nonuniform etching
that leads to rejection.

Process scrap is the name given to miscellaneous rejects due to bad clamping resulting in
sections falling into tanks, or falling down and bending/twisting, or dents and damages
during handling and transportation.

9. PAINTING DEFECTS

If any of the painting parameters (such as current, pressure, and nozzle size) are
inappropriately set, or due to a combination of these, there can be an insufficient layer of
paint called less microns.

Dust Particles can obviously give an unacceptable painting quality and appearance.
Reasons might be contaminated paint powder, or dust particles in the painting oven.

An improper current or pressure setting can have the consequence of more powder in
certain locations. This leads to a porous appearance very much like the skin of an orange
having minute projections and depressions. This orange peel defect is shown in
Fig-11(b).

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Product Defects in Aluminum Extrusion and Their Impact on Operational Cost Vol. 5. 145

If blisters caused during extrusion are not removed before painting, or if they become
visible only after anodizing/painting, the only usual recourse is scrapping the product.

Due to currents of hot air in the oven, two sections might sometimes collide and stick
together, creating overlapping defect. After drying off, they cannot be pried apart
without excessive damage and are thus scrapped.

10. RECOMMENDED PREVENTIVE AND CORRECTIVE MEASURES

Some of the defects described above cannot be avoided due to the nature of the process
and existing circumstances. However, as most of the flaws originate in controllable
process and tooling features, they can either be prevented or mitigated. As the mechanics
of most of the flaws is not very clear, majority of the following recommendations are
heuristic in nature, based on tried and tested industrial practice.

A funnel defect can extend into the rear of the extrusion; hence, the billet should not be
extruded completely. The optimum length of the discard must be determined
experimentally and must be greater for lower extrusion ratios (as in the production of
thick rods), because the defect develops at an earlier stage.

One or more of the following methods can be used to reduce the pipe/extrusion defect:
(a) Extrusion with a shell: This method is based on keeping the diameter of the
dummy block 3 to 5 mm less than that of the container. The shell sheared off by
the dummy block during extrusion remains, together with all impurities, as a
cylinder and is pushed out after each extrusion.
(b) Machined billets: Surface impurities and oxide skins can be removed to a certain
extent by machining off the dirty, uneven, as-cast surface of the billet.
(c) Extrusion with a long discard: A successful but expensive method, it involves
interrupting the process before the defect appears, leaving a correspondingly large
discard.
(d) Similar billet and container temperatures: When type C flow is caused by a
temperature gradient resulting in heterogeneous deformation, altering the
container temperature to that of the billet can reduce or prevent the danger of pipe
formation.

To avoid internal defects in hollow extrusion, a lubricant can be used to improve the
flow, helping to obtain a better inner surface. In many cases, however, a lubricant is
dangerous, because it can easily be trapped under the tube surface during extrusion,
resulting in blistering at high temperatures.

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Vol. 5. 146 A.F.M. Arif, A. K. Sheikh, S.Z. Qamar, M.K. Raza, K.M. Al-Fuhaid

There are three possible ways to prevent scales and blisters:

(a) Extrusion without a lubricant and with a flat die not only removes the possibility
of lubricant inclusions but also increases friction between the billet and the
container. This restricts the billet surface along the container wall to such an
extent that it cannot flow into the extrusion. The material therefore flows beneath
the surface of the billet by shearing and the residual surface layer containing the
impurities collect in front of the dummy block.
(b) Extrusion with a shell: If scales and blisters still appear even when no lubricant is
used, extrusion with a shell (method described above to prevent pipe formation)
can be used.
(c) Extrusion with a lubricant and with a conical die: An alternative approach is to
reduce the dead metal zone to such an extent that there is virtually no possibility
of billet surface flowing into the extrusion. This can be done by using a good
lubricant in the container and on the die, resulting in flow type S or A. Use of
conical dies further increases the desired homogeneity of flow.
(d) To avoid air entrapment during upsetting, a burp cycle is often employed,
removing the ram pressure momentarily after upsetting to allow the air to escape.

Apart from improved casting procedures and homogenization practices, attempts at

eliminating pick-up defect have focused on modifications to tooling and improved
extrusion practices including die modifications by nitriding, use of die materials less
prone to aluminum build up, employment of an inert atmosphere [Kobayashi and
Okinawa, 1977], and the use of die cooling [Bischel et al., 1981].

There is a minimum die land length for successful surface operation (least visible die
lines). At this optimum condition the entire land length is choked, preventing the
introduction of oxygen to the virgin surface. The result is prevention of an oxide film that
generally scores the surface. Polishing the die land is also an improving factor.

If dies are designed in such a way that the welds occur on non-visible surfaces in the
finished product, weld defect can be minimized.

Die-design streaks and weld streaks cannot be generally removed by mechanical

treatment of the section. However, a discard of appropriate dimensions normally
eliminates extrusion-defect streaks. Similarly, hot spots cannot be generally eliminated
after they have formed. The only possible solution is to avoid contact between the hot
extrusions and the run-out table for more than the shortest time. Also, the defect called
silicon marks is related to billet composition, which is very difficult to control; since the
problem is rare, defective parts of this type are scrapped.

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Product Defects in Aluminum Extrusion and Their Impact on Operational Cost Vol. 5. 147

Temperature and speed related defects can obviously be avoided by using lower
temperatures and speeds (thus reducing the strain rate). However, this would slow down
the output and reduce productivity.
Runout marks may disappear (if not too dark) during anodizing and painting. Otherwise,
graphite rollers must be properly maintained or replaced after optimum service life. As
die stop marks cannot be removed once formed, the portion including the mark is
discarded. To avoid stains and oil patches, the saw should optimally be placed far
enough from the press to give extruded sections time to cool down so the oil will not
burn.
For prevention of twists and bends, die cavities should be properly centered to obtain
equal metal flow for all sections. Sometimes, if desired symmetry is unattainable, an
additional cavity can be introduced. Also, minor bending/twisting can be corrected on the
stretching machine. For avoiding dents care must be taken during conveyor and
overhead-crane transport as well as during packing. Defective parts of this type are few
and have to be scrapped.
Preventive measure against scratches is periodic cleaning, polishing and nitriding of the
die surfaces. Beyond a certain amount of surface erosion, the die should be replaced. Hot
rub marks can be prevented by the use of separators (generally graphite blocks) placed
upstream of the multi-cavity die to make sure that no contact or rubbing takes place
between the exiting sections.
If not beyond repair, out of angle defect can be removed on the roll correction machine.
To avoid uneven wall thickness, the extrusion process must be stopped and the mandrel
must be re-aligned properly.

11. IMPACT ON OPERATIONAL COST

All of the defects described above lead to production losses, either reflecting the cost of
rework or of scrap. Here, we are concerned with defects resulting in complete rejection of
the extruded sections, which are then taken back to the remelting shop. This locally
recycled aluminum is obviously not premium grade and can be used only for noncritical
applications. For any evaluation of plant productivity and efficiency, it is therefore
necessary to be able to quantify these losses.

11.1 Defect Cost Breakdown

It will be practically almost impossible to treat each defect separately in building up a

workable cost model. As already described above, classification of these defects into
categories with similar attributes facilitates a much better understanding of their causes
and remedies. However, for a cost analysis, the taxonomy (based on mechanics and
metallurgy) depicted above is not very suitable.

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Vol. 5. 148 A.F.M. Arif, A. K. Sheikh, S.Z. Qamar, M.K. Raza, K.M. Al-Fuhaid

Actual rejection data from a local extrusion setup, spanning a period of ten years, was
collected and tabulated. Table-1 shows a one-year sample of the reject amounts (tons of
product) due to various unacceptable defects. The categorization into three major cost
centers (press, anodizing, and painting) is typically employed by the industry and lends
itself nicely to cost breakdown and modeling. Figure- 12 is a graphical comparison of the
total extruded product that was rejected each year in each cost category (each major
production stage) during the period from 1992 to 2000. The trend of rejection costs over
the years in each cost center is depicted in Fig-13.

11.2 Defect Cost Model

The cost model proposed below works in a generalized framework, incorporating the
probabilities of producing a defective part at each stage, as shown in Fig-14. It should be
pointed out here that the first three stages are grouped into a single cost center (Press
Defects).

If we have
Pi = Fraction (probability) of defectives at different stages, (i= 1, 2, 3, 4a or 4b) and
Ci = Individual cost of different stages,
then the Ideal Total Cost Per Ton of the final product (no defectives at any stage) would
be
TCI = ∑ C i .
i

The Actual Total Cost per Ton of the final product (considering fraction of defectives at
each stage) would be
TCA = C1+ P1C1 + C2(1-P1) + P2(1-P1) (C1+C2)
+ C3(1-P1) (1-P2) + P3(1-P1) (1-P2) (C1+C2+C3)
+ C4(1-P1) (1-P2) (1-P3) + XP4(1-P1) (1-P2) (1-P3) (C1+C2+C3+C4)
+ (1-X)P5 (1-P1) (1-P2) (1-P3) (C1+C2+C3+C4+C5)

In a compact form, we have

n   i −1   i −1 
( ) (
TCA = C1 + P1 + β ∑ Ci ∏ 1 − Pj  + Pi ∏ 1 − Pj
i =2 
)∑ C  ,
i
  j =1   j =1 i 
where β equals x for stage 4a and (1-x) for stage 4b; for all other stages β is 1.
Based on these two costs, we can easily find
TCA
Plant Efficiency = .
TCI

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Product Defects in Aluminum Extrusion and Their Impact on Operational Cost Vol. 5. 149

12. CONCLUSIONS

All the defects typically encountered in the industry have been defined and explained
with visual illustrations. Flaws are categorized into metal-flow related, surface, weld,
metallurgical, temperature and speed related, equipment and tooling related, anodizing,
and painting defects. Causes and mechanisms of defect formation are discussed on the
basis of mechanics and metallurgy in most of the cases. Various defects, categories, and
mechanisms have been described that are not hitherto reported in literature. Real world
rejection data from local extrusion industry, covering a period of ten years, has been
collected, classified, and tabulated. A generalized model has been developed for cost
analysis of any commercial extrusion setup, easily adaptable to other hot metal forming
process.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge the support of King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran and Aluminum Products Co., Dammam for this work.

REFERENCES

1. Arif A.F.M., Sheikh A.K., Qamar S.Z., and Al-Fuhaid K.M., 2001, “Variation of Pressure
with Ram speed and Die Profile in Hot Extrusion of Aluminum-6063,” Materials and
Manufacturing Processes, 16(5), pp 701-716
2. Bischel M., Reid A., and Langerweger J., 1981, Aluminium, 57, pp 878
3. Cote J., Howlett E.E., Wheeler M.J., and Lamb H.J., 1969, Plating, 356, pp 11
4. Kalpakjian S., 1997, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 3rd edition,
Addison-Wesley, Menlo Park, California
5. Kobayashi Y. and Okinawa S., 1977, Proceedings, 2nd International Extrusion Technology
Seminar, Atlanta, Aluminum Assoc, Washington DC, 1, pp 129
6. Langerweger J., 1982, Aluminum, 58 (2), pp107
7. Laue K., and Stenger H., 1981, Extrusion: Processes, Machinery, Tooling, American Society
for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio
8. Pearson E.C., and Parkins R.N., 1961, The Extrusion of Metals, 2nd edition, London
9. Sheppard T., 1999, Extrusion of Aluminum Alloys, Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht
10. The Aluminum Association, 1993, Visual Quality Characteristics of Aluminum Extrusions,
The Aluminum Association, Washington, DC
11. Thomsen E.G., Young C.T., and Bierbower J.B., 1954, Engineering, 5 (4), pp 89

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Vol. 5. 150 A.F.M. Arif, A. K. Sheikh, S.Z. Qamar, M.K. Raza, K.M. Al-Fuhaid

Table-1 Typical annual defects data (in kg) from an extrusion industry, classified into
three cost centers
PRESS DEFECTS Anodizing Defects Painting Defects
Black/White Lines 137571 Black pits 41540 Less Micron 33741
Scratches/Damages 86075 Dull Finish 2495 Dust Particles/Orange Peel 20354
Other Defects 19441 Corrosion 9685 Blisters/Overlapping 1080
Stain/Oil Patches 14807 Process Scrap 37102 Damages/Scratches 387
Silicon Marks 14799 Caustic Patches 5936 Others 39448
Blisters/Die Stop 11261 Fallen in Tank 3438 Total Rejection 95010
Low Hardness 11196 Wall Thickness Reduced 8286 Total Painting output 1532419
Concave/Convex 11180 Damaged/Scratches 41288 % of Internal Rejection 6.20
Twist/Bends 9202 Total Rejection 149770
Graphite / Runout Mark 4809 Total Anodizing Output 10051677
Out of Angle 1311 % of Internal Rejection 1.49
Off Dimension 959
Rough Surface./B. Hole 0
Total Internal Rejection 322611
Total Production 17069365
% of Rejection 1.89

Billet Billet Oven Billet Billet Billet

Yard Stack Loading
Preheat Sizing

Scrap for Discard Extrusion

Remelting Shearing Chamber

Saw Cutting: Stretching / Puller / Saw Cutting: Conveyor /

Final Length Conveyor Blowers
Straightening Billet End

Roll Age Anodizing / Order

Correction Hardening Painting Stacking

Figure-1 Process flow in commercial hot extrusion of Al-6063 [Arif et al., 2001]

Figure-2 The four different metal-flow types in extrusion shown schematically

[Laue and Stenger, 1981]

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Product Defects in Aluminum Extrusion and Their Impact on Operational Cost Vol. 5. 151

(a) (b)

Figure-3 Pipe or extrusion defect, also known as back-end condition [Sheppard, 1999].

(a) (b)

Figure-4 Blisters (a) and pick-up (b) are surface defects [Aluminum Association, 1993].

(a) (b)

Figure-5 A die line (a) is a longitudinal depression or protrusion formed on the extruded
surface, while a weld line (b) may be due to an imperfect billet-to-billet joint.

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Vol. 5. 152 A.F.M. Arif, A. K. Sheikh, S.Z. Qamar, M.K. Raza, K.M. Al-Fuhaid

(a) (b) (c)

Figure-6 Surface appearance due to die design or bearing streaking (a), ingot (billet)
structure streaking (b), and surface cracking / tearing (c) [Aluminum
Association 1993, Sheppard 1999].

Figure-7 Black lines show as burnt surfaces on the extrudate due to

local high pressures/temperatures.

(a) (b)

Figure-8 Runout marks (a) are usually longitudinal and can be either carbon marks or roll
marks, while a stop mark (b) is a band-like pattern perpendicular to the extruded
length [Aluminum Association, 1993].

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Product Defects in Aluminum Extrusion and Their Impact on Operational Cost Vol. 5. 153

(a) (b)

Figure-9 Stains/oil patches (a) show as a yellow to brown area of surface discoloration,
while twists and bends (b) occur due to a winding departure from straightness.

(a) (b)

Figure-10 Damages (a) and dents (b) are categories of handling and traffic defects.

(a) (b)

Figure-11 Pitting corrosion (a) is caused by chemical/electrochemical reaction, while

orange peel (b) is a rough surface texture associated with large grains in the metal
[Aluminum Association, 1993].

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 Vol. 5. 154 A.F.M. Arif, A. K. Sheikh, S.Z. Qamar, M.K. Raza, K.M. Al-Fuhaid

350
300

Total Rejects (ton)

250 Press
200 Anodizing
150 Painting
100
50
0 1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Year

Figure 12 Comparison of rejects at the three cost centers over a 10-year period.

350
300
Total Rejects (ton)

250
Press
200
Anodizing
150
Painting
100

50
0
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Year

Figure-13 Total rejections in metric tons at each cost center (press, anodizing,
painting) over a 10-year period.

P4
P3 Anodizing
P2 (Stage 4a)
P1
Billet x
Extrusion Process Heat Treatment
Preparation (Stage 2) (Stage 3) 1-x
(Stage 1)
Painting
(Stage 4b)

P5

Figure-14 Plant layout showing cost centers and fraction of defectives at each stage

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