Introduction to Radar

EERF 6395
RF/Microwave Systems Engineering
Dr. R. E. Lehmann
 What is RADAR?
• RADAR is an acronym for “radio detection
and ranging”
• We now use the acronym RADAR in many
ways as part of other acronyms:
– GBR = Ground-Based Radar
– SBR = Space-Based Radar
– SAR = Synthetic Aperture Radar
– FLIR = Forward-Looking Infrared Radar
 Types of Radar
Two Basic Systems:
1. Monostatic Target
(1 antenna)
RCVR

2. Bistatic Target
(2 antennas) RCVR
 Pulsed and CW Radars
• Pulsed Radar uses a series of pulses (pulse waveform)
to determine range, R, to target.
– Pulse-Doppler Radar combines the ability to detect range and
Doppler shift, thus also providing velocity information.
• Continuous Wave (CW) Radar must receive while
transmitting.
– CW radar depends on the Doppler frequency shift of the return
signal caused by the moving target.
– In the frequency domain, this shifted-frequency signal will be
different from the large transmitted signal and echoes from
clutter.
– A simple CW radar does not measure range. However, this
capability can be added by modulating the carrier frequency with
frequency or phase modulation (FM-CW Doppler Radar)
 Pulse Train (Waveform)
Transmit pulse

Power
Target Echo

Tp
Time

Tp = Pulse Repetition Period (in seconds)

PRF = Pulse Repetition Frequency = pulses per second

= 1/ Tp (Hz)
Microwave RADAR Bands
• L-Band 1-2 GHz
• S-Band 2-4 GHz
• C-Band 4-8 GHz
• X-Band 8-12 GHz
• Ku-Band 12-18 GHz
• K-Band 18-26 GHz
• Ka-Band 26-40 GHz
• Q-Band 33-50 GHz
• V-Band 50-75 GHz
• W-Band 75-110 GHz
Automotive Radar
 Radar and Sensors
Forward Looking Radar Obstacle Detector
•Front Obstacle Warning
Parking Aid
•Collision Avoidance Back-up Warning
•ICC, ACC, AICC

Blind Spot Detector

Lane change aid

Side Crash Prediction

Ground Speed Pre-crash Sensor

Stop & Go
Road condition
Impact prediction
Stability control
 Simple Radar Block Diagram
Oscillator

Horn
Circulator
Antenna

Display Mixer
 Range to Target
Radar signals (or waveforms) most commonly consist of a series of pulses.

These rectangular pulses modulate the RF carrier signal.

The range to target is calculated by the time TR is takes for the radar signal
to travel to the target and back. Assuming free space, the speed of the
electromagnetic wave is c = 3x108 m/s.

cTR
R=
2
In free space for R in km and T in μs, R (km) = 0.15 TR (μs)
 Radar Range Equation
An isotropic antenna radiates a transmitted power, Pt.

The power density at a distance R is the radiated power

divided by the surface area of an imaginary sphere
of radius R:

Pt
Power density at range R =
4πR 2

Power density is measured in Watts/m2.

 Antenna Gain
The gain of the antenna is the measure of increased power density in
a particular direction compared to an isotropic antenna.

We can define the maximum gain as:

Maximum power density radiated by a directive antenna

G=
Power density radiated by a lossless isotropic antenna

Isotropic Directed
 Radar Equation (cont’d)
With a transmitting antenna gain, G, the power density at the target is:

PtG
Power density at range R from a directive antenna =
4πR 2
The target receives the incident power and scatters a portion of
the energy in various directions. The radar cross section (rcs) of the
target is a measure of how much energy is returned back to the radar.

radar cross section is denoted by σ (sigma)

PtG σ
Re−radiated power density back at the radar = •
4πR 4πR 2
2
 RCS
• Radar cross section, σ, is defined as: the ratio of
the scattered power in a given direction to the
incident power density.
• RCS has dimensions of area (m2)
• RCS is a property of the target itself and is more
dependent on the target’s shape than on its
physical size
• RCS depends on the incident and reflection
angles, as well as the polarization of the incident
wave.
Target

σ
Typical Radar Cross Sections
Target σ (m2)
Bird 0.01
Missile 0.5
Person 1.0
Small plane 1-2
Bicycle 2
Small boat 2
Fighter plane 3-8
Bomber 30-40
Large airliner 100
Semi truck (broadside) 200
F-117 Stealth Fighter
 New Stealth Bomber

Popular Science, Jan. 2009

 Received Power
Power received by the radar is the product of the incident power density
times the effective area, Ae, (or “capture area”) of the receiving antenna.

The Ae is related to the antenna directivity and wavelength as:

Dλ 2
where D = Directivity of the antenna
Ae = λ = Wavelength
4π
Received power, Pr, is then:

Pt G σ Pt GAeσ
Pr = • • Ae =
4πR 4πR
2 2
(4π ) 2 R 4
 Maximum Range
The Maximum Range, Rmax, of a radar is the distance at which the
target can no longer be detected.

This occurs when the received signal power, Pr, is equal to the
minimum detectable signal level, Pmin, at the receiver.

1/ 4
 Pt GAeσ 
Rmax = 
 (4π ) Pmin 
2

This is the Radar Range Equation with the assumption that the TX
antenna gain is independent of frequency and the RX antenna has
an effective aperture, Ae, independent of wavelength.
(This implies that two antennas are required.)
 Radar Range Equation
If the same (lossless) antenna is used for both transmit and receive,
we can write the gain, G, in terms of Ae as:
4πAe
G=
λ2
Substituting for G in the previous Radar Range Equation:
1/ 4
 Pt A σ 2
= e (Assumes antenna gain is
Rmax  constant with change in λ.)
 4πλ Pmin 
2

Substituting for Ae in the previous Radar Range Equation:

1/ 4
 Pt G λ σ 
2 2
(Assumes antenna gain is
Rmax =  constant with change in Ae.)

 (4π ) Pmin 
3
Doppler Shift
The Doppler effect is a change in frequency--dependent on whether the
target is traveling toward or away from the radar.

We experience this in the audio range when we hear a train blow its horn.
As the train comes toward us the pitch of the horn goes up; when the train
travels away from us the pitch goes down.

For a range R, the total number of wavelengths, λ, in the 2-way path from
the radar to the target is 2R/λ. Each wavelength represents a phase
change of 2π radians or 360o.

Thus the total phase change in the 2-way path is:

2R 4πR
φ = 2π × =
λ λ
 Signal Processing and Noise
• “Signal processing can effectively reduce the
minimum detectable signal and so increase the
usable range.
• One very common processing technique used
with pulsed radars is pulse integration, where a
sequence of N pulses are integrated over time.
• The effect is to reduce the noise level, which has
zero mean, relative to the returned pulse level,
resulting in an improvement of approximately N.”

Ref: Pozar, Microwave Engineering, 3rd Ed, 2005.

Skolnik, Introduction to Radar Systems, 3rd Ed, 2001.
 Doppler Shift (cont’d)
With the target in motion relative to the radar, both the range and the
phase will be changing. We can differentiate the phase with respect to
time to yield the angular frequency:

dφ 4π dR 4πvr
ωd = = = = 2πf d
dt λ dt λ
where vr = dR/dt is the radial velocity (m/s) or the rate of change of R
with time.
The Doppler Frequency Shift, fd, can then be computed as:

2 f t vr
2v r
fd = =
λ c
where ft = c/λ, the radar transmitting frequency.
Radar example – Doppler Shift
 Doppler Shift Examples
2 f t vr
2v r
fd = =
λ c

Description f (GHz) λ (cm) vr (m/s) fd

Thrown ball (100mph) 1 30 44.7 298 Hz
10 3.0 44.7 2.98 KHz
30 1.0 44.7 8.94 KHz
Person walking (4 mph) 1 30 1.8 12 Hz
10 3.0 1.8 120 Hz
30 1.0 1.8 360 Hz
 Doppler Shift (cont’d)
• If the target is not traveling directly toward or
away from the source, then

𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃

– where vr = radial velocity of target relative to source

v = speed of target (magnitude)
𝜃𝜃 = angle between the radar line of sight and the target’s
velocity vector
 Non-radial Velocity Vector
• Target has a velocity vector that is not directly
towards or away from source.

𝑣𝑣
𝜃𝜃
𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 = 𝑣𝑣 cos 𝜃𝜃

R
Atmospheric Attenuation vs.
Frequency
 Radar Clutter
• Radar clutter is unwanted echoes from the
natural environment.
• Clutter makes the detection of “wanted”
targets more difficult
• Examples: echoes from land, sea, weather
(esp. rain), birds and insects.
• Q: When are echoes from the environment
desired?
 Desired Environmental
Echoes
• Meteorology
– Storms, rain, hail
– Doppler weather radar
• Ground mapping
– Remote sensing of topography

C-band Radar; Univ. of Oklahoma

Weather “Wind Velocity” Radar

Simulated Doppler Radar output:

Tornado (cyclone) near Manitoba,
• Approaching velocities are in blue
Canada
• Receding velocities are in red
 Types of Clutter

• Volume Clutter
– Rain
– Chaff
• Surface Clutter
– Land
– Sea
 Phased Array Antenna

3
d = λ/2

ESA = Electronically Scanned Array

 Active ESA (AESA)
Active ESA

T/R
Receiver
T/R

F T/R

E T/R
E T/R

Exciter D T/R

T/R

T/R

ESA= Electronically Scanned Array

T/R = Transmit/Receive Module
BSC = Beam Steering Computer BSC
 Transmit/Receive Module
(T/R Module)
Driver Amp Power Amp

Tx
Antenna

Circulator
Rx
Phase
Shifter Switch
LNA Limiter
 F-22’s AESA

Active Electronically Scanned Array is integrated in the nose of the F-22 Fighter
 Applications of Radar
• Military
– Air defense
– Target detection and tracking
– Missile guidance
– Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) for high-resolution
imaging
• Remote Sensing
– Weather sensing
– Planetary observation
– Below-ground mapping
– Mapping of ice flows for ship routing
 Phased Array Radars

Ground-based Radar
 Applications of Radar (cont’d)
• Air Traffic Control
– Airport air traffic
– Airport ground traffic
– Weather conditions (esp. downbursts during storms)
• Law Enforcement and Highway Safety
– Radar gun
– Collision avoidance radar and airbag deployment
• Ships
– Collision avoidance and detection of navigation buoys
• Space
– Rendezvous and docking of space vehicles
– Tracking of satellites and other space debris
 References
1. Skolnik, Introduction to Radar Systems,
McGraw-Hill, 2001.
2. Pozar, Microwave and RF Design of Wireless
Systems, John Wiley & Sons, 2001.
3. Photographs from public domain: wikipedia.org