BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY (BUET), DHAKA

CE 6514
GIS and Remote Sensing in Transportation

Assignment on
Global Information System

Course Teacher
Professor Dr. Hasib Mohammed Ahsan
 1. Define GIS. What are the components of GIS?

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing geographic
phenomenon that exist, and events that occur, on Earth. GIS technology integrates common database
operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis
benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it
valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and
planning strategies. Map making and geographic analysis are not new, but a GIS performs these tasks
faster and with more sophistication than do traditional manual methods.

Today, GIS is a multi-billion-dollar industry employing hundreds of thousands of people worldwide. GIS
is taught in schools, colleges, and universities throughout the world. Professionals and domain specialists
in every discipline are become increasingly aware of the advantages of using GIS technology for
addressing their unique spatial problems.

We commonly think of a GIS as a single, well-defined, integrated computer system. However, this is not
always the case. A GIS can be made up of a variety of software and hardware tools. The important factor
is the level of integration of these tools to provide a smoothly operating, fully functional geographic data
processing environment.

Components of GIS:
A Geographic Information System combines computer cartography with a database management system.
Figure 2f-1 describes some of the major components common to a GIS. This diagram suggests that a GIS
consists of three subsystems:

(1) An input system that allows for the collection of data to be used and analyzed for some purpose;
(2) Computer hardware and software systems that store the data, allow for data management and
analysis, and can be used to display data manipulations on a computer monitor;
(3) An output system that generates hard copy maps, images, and other types of output.

Figure 2f-1: Three major components of a Geographic Information System. These components consist of input,
computer hardware and software, and output subsystems.
Two basic types of data are normally entered into a GIS. The first type of data consists of real world
phenomena and features that have some kind of spatial dimension. Usually, these data elements are
depicted mathematically in the GIS as points, lines, or polygons that are referenced geographically (or
geocoded) to some type of coordinate system. This type data is entered into the GIS by devices like
scanners, digitizers, GPS, air photos, and satellite imagery. The other type of data is sometimes referred to
as an attribute. Attributes are pieces of data that are connected or related to the points, lines, or polygons
mapped in the GIS. This attribute data can be analyzed to determine patterns of importance. Attribute data
is entered directly into a database where it is associated with element data.

An operational GIS also has a series of components that combine to make the system work. These
components are critical to a successful GIS.

A working GIS integrates five key

components:

 HARDWARE,
 SOFTWARE,
 DATA,
 PEOPLE,
 METHODS

Hardware
Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide range of
hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or
networked configurations.
Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. A review of the key GIS software subsystems is provided above.
Data
Perhaps the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related tabular data can
be collected in-house, compiled to custom specifications and requirements, or occasionally purchased
from a commercial data provider. A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing data resources,
often stored in a corporate DBMS. The integration of spatial data (often proprietary to the GIS software),
and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key functionality afforded by GIS.
People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and develop plans for
applying it to real world problems. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain
the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The identification of GIS
specialists versus end users is often critical to the proper implementation of GIS technology.
Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed implementation plan and business rules, which
are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

As in all organizations dealing with sophisticated technology, new tools can only be used effectively if
they are properly integrated into the entire business strategy and operation. To do this properly requires
not only the necessary investments in hardware and software, but also in the retraining and/or hiring of
personnel to utilize the new technology in the proper organizational context. Failure to implement your
GIS without regard for a proper organizational commitment will result in an unsuccessful system ! Many
of the issues concerned with organizational commitment are described in Implementation Issues and
Strategies.

2. Explain how point, arc and polygon features are stored in a GIS.

Vector features (geographic objects with vector geometry) are versatile and frequently used geographic
data types, well suited for representing features with discrete boundaries, such as wells, streets, rivers,
states, and parcels. A feature is simply an object that stores its geographic representation, which is
typically a point, line, or polygon, as one of its properties (or fields) in the row. In ArcGIS, feature classes
are homogeneous collections of features with a common spatial representation and set of attributes stored
in a database table. For example, a line feature class for representing road centerlines.

NOTE: When creating a feature class in the geodatabase, you'll be asked to set the type of features to
define the type of feature class (point, line, polygon, etc.).

Generally, feature classes are thematic collections of points, lines, or polygons, but there are seven feature
class types:

1. Points—Features that are too small to represent as lines or polygons as well as point locations
(such as a GPS observations).
2. Lines—Represent the shape and location of geographic objects, such as street centerlines and
streams, too narrow to depict as areas. Lines are also used to represent features that have length
but no area such as contour lines and boundaries.
3. Polygons—A set of many-sided area features that represent the shape and location of
homogeneous feature types such as states, counties, parcels, soil types, and land-use zones.

All point, line, and polygon features can:

– Be multipart
– Have x,y; x,y,z; or x,y,z,m coordinates
• (m-coordinates store distance measurement values, a line with m-coordinates becomes a route)
– Be stored as continuous layers instead of tiled
– Lines are built from line segments, circular arcs

Line (or arc) data is used to represent linear features. Common examples would be road centerlines and
hydrology. Symbology most commonly used to distinguish arc features from one another are line types
(solid lines versus dashed lines) and combinations using colors and line thicknesses. In the example
below roads are distinguished from the stream network but designated the roads as a solid black line and
the hydrology a dashed blue line.
Point data is most commonly used to represent nonadjacent features. Examples would be schools, points
of interest, and in the example below, bridge and culvert locations.

Point features are also used to represent abstract points. For instance, point locations could represent city
locations or place names.

Both line and point feature data represent polygon data at a much smaller scale. They help reduce clutter
by simplifying data locations. As the features are zoomed in, the point location of a school is more
realistically represented by a series of building footprints showing the physical location of the campus.
Line features of a street centerline file only represent the physical location of the street. If a higher degree
of spatial resolution is needed, a street curbwidth file would be used to show the width of the road as well
as any features such as medians and right-of-ways (or sidewalks).

In the illustration below, these are used to represent four datasets for the same area: (1) manhole cover
locations as points, (2) sewer lines, (3) parcel polygons, and (4) street name annotation.
 4. Complete the following Arc Attribute Table (AAT).

B 2

3
6
1 1 5 C
D
4 2

A 3

ARC# FNODE# TNODE# LPOLY# RPOLY#

1. B A 0 1
2. C B 3 0
3. C A 0 2
4. D A 1 2
5. C D 2 3
6. D B 1 3

4. Explain with diagram the differences between Vector and Raster data.

Raster and Vector are two methods of representing geographic data in GIS

• Both represent different ways to encode and generalize geographic phenomena

• Both can be used to code both fields and discrete objects
• In practice a strong association between raster and fields and vector and discrete objects

Vector data

Vector data is split into three types: polygon, line (or arc) and point data. Polygons are used to represent
areas such as the boundary of a city (on a large scale map), lake, or forest.  Polygon features are two
dimensional and therefore can be used to measure the area and perimeter of a geographic feature. Polygon
features are most commonly distinguished using either a thematic mapping symbology (color schemes),
patterns, or in the case of numeric gradation, a color gradation scheme could be used.

Line (or arc) data is used to represent linear features. Common examples would be rivers, trails, and
streets.  Line features only have one dimension and therefore can only be used to measure length.  Line
features have a starting and ending point. Common examples would be road centerlines and hydrology.
Symbology most commonly used to distinguish arc features from one another are line types (solid lines
versus dashed lines) and combinations using colors and line thicknesses. In the example below roads are
distinguished from the stream network by designating the roads as a solid black line and the hydrology a
dashed blue line.
 Streams are shown as dashed blue lines and roads as solid black lines in this example.

Point data is most commonly used to represent nonadjacent features and to represent discrete
data points. Points have zero dimensions, therefore you can measure neither length or area with
this dataset. Examples would be schools, points of interest, and in the example below, bridge and
culvert locations.  Point features are also used to represent abstract points. For instance, point
locations could represent city locations or place names.

GIS point data showing the location of bridges and culverts.

Both line and point feature data represent polygon data at a much smaller scale. They help reduce clutter
by simplifying data locations. As the features are zoomed in, the point location of a school is more
realistically represented by a series of building footprints showing the physical location of the campus.
Line features of a street centerline file only represent the physical location of the street. If a higher degree
of spatial resolution is needed, a street curbwidth file would be used to show the width of the road as well
as any featur

Raster Data
Raster data (also known as grid data) represents the fourth type of feature: surfaces.  Raster data is cell-
based and this data category also includes aerial and satellite imagery. There are two types of raster data:
continuous and discrete.  An example of discrete raster data is population density.  Continuous data
examples are temperature and elevation measurements. There are also three types of raster datasets:
thematic data, spectral data, and pictures (imagery).
Each cell contains one value representing the dominate value of that cell. Raster datasets are intrinsic to
most spatial analysis. Data analysis such as extracting slope and aspect from Digital Elevation Models
occurs with raster datasets. Spatial hydrology modeling such as extracting watersheds and flow lines also
uses a raster-based system. Spectral data presents aerial or satellite imagery which is then often used to
derive vegetation geologic information by classifying the spectral signatures of each type of feature.

Raster data showing vegetation classification. The vegetation data was derived from NDVI classification of a
satellite image.

What results from the effect of converting spatial data location information into a cell based raster format
is called stairstepping. The name derives from the image of exactly that, the square cells along the borders
of different value types look like a staircase viewed from the side.
Unlike vector data, raster data is formed by each cell receiving the value of the feature that dominates the
cell. The stairstepping look comes from the transition of the cells from one value to another. In the image
above the dark green cell represents chamise vegetation. This means that the dominate feature in that cell
area was chamise vegetation. Other features such as developed land, water or other vegetation types may
be present on the ground in that area. As the feature in the cell becomes more dominantly urban, the cell
is attributed the value for developed land, hence the pink shading.

Representation of the real world and showing differences in how a vector and a raster GIS will represent this real
world.
Vector data sets and raster data sets are both important in a GIS. Every one has its strenths, therefore, it's
counterproductive to use just one form of these datasets. An important difference between these two data
sets is noticeable in the visualisation of the data set. The graphical representation of raster or vector data

results in raster graphics or vector graphics. In a raster data set, the attributes are associated
with a raster cell, therefore, the appearance is only changeable by modificating the color value of the
raster cell. In comparison, vector data stores the information associated with the object, the appearance
may be modified easily by adding graphical components to every object. In a GIS the difference between
a raster or a vector data set could look like this:

Visualised as rasterdata

Vector Data Advantages :

Data can be represented at its original resolution and form without generalization.
Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic
representation);
Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data conversion is required.
Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
Allows for efficient encoding of topology, and as a result more efficient operations that
require topological information, e.g. proximity, network analysis.

Disadvantages:

The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly.

For effective analysis, vector data must be converted into a topological structure. This
is often processing intensive and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well,
topology is static, and any updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of
the topology.
Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be
processing intensive. Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets,
e.g. a large number of features.
Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form.
Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data layers.
Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible
Raster Data Advantages :

The geographic location of each cell is implied by its position in the

cell matrix. Accordingly, other than an origin point, e.g. bottom left
corner, no geographic coordinates are stored.
Due to the nature of the data storage technique data analysis is
usually easy to program and quick to perform.
The inherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute maps, is ideally
suited for mathematical modeling and quantitative analysis.
Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is accommodated equally well as
continuous data, e.g. elevation data, and facilitates the integrating of
the two data types.
Grid-cell systems are very compatible with raster-based output
devices, e.g. electrostatic plotters, graphic terminals.

Disadvantages:

The cell size determines the resolution at which the data is

represented.;
It is especially difficult to adequately represent linear features
depending on the cell resolution. Accordingly, network linkages are
difficult to establish.
Processing of associated attribute data may be cumbersome if large
amounts of data exist. Raster maps inherently reflect only one
attribute or characteristic for an area.
Since most input data is in vector form, data must undergo vector-to-
raster conversion. Besides increased processing requirements this
may introduce data integrity concerns due to generalization and
choice of inappropriate cell size.
Most output maps from grid-cell systems do not conform to high-
quality cartographic needs.

5. Explain the technique of establishing relationships of spatial data in GIS.

The nature of spatial data relationships are important to understand within the context of GIS. In
particular, the relationship between geographic features is a complex problem in which we are far from
understanding in its entirety. This is of concern since the primary role of GIS is the manipulation and
analysis of large quantities of spatial data. To date, the accepted theoretical solution is to topologically
structure spatial data.

It is believed that a topologic data model best reflects the geography of the real world and provides an
effective mathematical foundation for encoding spatial relationships, providing a data model for
manipulating and analyzing vector based data.
Most GIS software segregate spatial and attribute data into separate data management systems. Most
frequently, the topological or raster structure is used to store the spatial data, while the relational database
structure is used to store the attribute data. Data from both structures are linked together for use through
unique identification numbers, e.g. feature labels and DBMS primary keys. This coupling of spatial
features with an attribute record is usually maintained by an internal number assigned by the GIS
software. A label is required so the user can load the appropriate attribute record for a given geographic
feature. Most often a single attribute record is automatically created by the GIS software once a clean
topological structure is properly generated. This attribute record normally contains the internal number
for the feature, the user's label identifier, the area of the feature, and the perimeter of the feature. Linear
features have the length of the feature defined instead of the area.
Technique involved:
1. Topology
2. Layer
Topology:
The topologic model is often confusing to initial users of GIS. Topology is a mathematical approach
that allows us to structure data based on the principles of feature adjacency and feature
connectivity. It is in fact the mathematical method used to define spatial relationships. Without a
topologic data structure in a vector based GIS most data manipulation and analysis functions would not
be practical or feasible.

The most common topological data structure is the arc/node data model. This model contains two
basic entities, the arc and the node. The arc is a series of points, joined by straight line segments, that start
and end at a node. The node is an intersection point where two or more arcs meet. Nodes also occur at the
end of a dangling arc, e.g. an arc that does not connect to another arc such as a dead end street. Isolated
nodes, not connected to arcs represent point features. A polygon feature is comprised of a closed chain of
arcs.

In GIS software the topological definition is commonly stored in a proprietary format. However,
most software offerings record the topological definition in three tables. These tables are analogous to
relational tables. The three tables represent the different types of features, e.g. point, line, area. A fourth
table containing the coordinates is also utilized. The node table stores information about the node and the
arcs that are connected to it. The arc table contains topological information about the arcs. This includes
the start and end node, and the polygon to the left and right that the arc is an element of. The polygon
table defines the arcs that make up each polygon. While arc, node, and polygon terminology is used by
most GIS vendors, some also introduce terms such as edges and faces to define arcs and polygons. This is
merely the use of different words to define topological definitions. Do not be confused by this.

Since most input data does not exist in a topological data structure, topology must be built with the
GIS software. Depending on the data set this can be an CPU intensive and time consuming procedure.
This building process involves the creation of the topological tables and the definition of the arc, node,
and polygon entities. To properly define the topology there are specific requirements with respect to
graphic elements, e.g. no duplicate lines, no gaps in arcs that define polygon features, etc. These
requirements are reviewed in the Data Editing section of the book.

The topological model is utilized because it effectively models the relationship of spatial entities.
Accordingly, it is well suited for operations such as contiguity and connectivity analyses. Contiguity
involves the evaluation of feature adjacency, e.g. features that touch one another, and proximity, e.g.
features that are near one another. The primary advantage of the topological model is that spatial analysis
can be done without using the coordinate data. Many operations can be done largely, if not entirely, by
using the topological definition alone. This is a significant advantage over the CAD or spaghetti vector
data structure that requires the derivation of spatial relationships from the coordinate data before analysis
can be undertaken.
The major disadvantage of the topological data model is its static nature. It can be a time consuming
process to properly define the topology depending on the size and complexity of the data set. For
example, 2,000 forest stand polygons will require considerably longer to build the topology that 2,000
municipal lot boundaries. This is due to the inherent complexity of the features, e.g. lots tend to be
rectangular while forest stands are often long and sinuous. This can be a consideration when evaluating
the topological building capabilities of GIS software. The static nature of the topological model also
implies that every time some editing has occurred, e.g. forest stand boundaries are changed to reflect
harvesting or burns, the topology must be rebuilt. The integrity of the topological structure and the DBMS
tables containing the attribute data can be a concern here. This is often referred to as referential integrity.
While topology is the mechanism to ensure integrity with spatial data, referential integrity is the concept
of ensuring integrity for both linked topological data and attribute data.

Topology is a mathematical procedure for explicitly defining spatial relationships.

 Arcs connect to each other at nodes (connectivity),

 Arcs that connect to surround an area define a polygon (area definition), and
 Arcs have direction and right and left sides (contiguity).

Connectivity: Arc-Node Topology

Points along the arc that define its shape are called vertices.

 Endpoints of arcs are called nodes.

 Arcs join only at nodes.
Area Definition: Polygon-Arc Topology

Polygons are represented as a series of x,y co-ordinates that connect to define an area. The GIS also stores
the list of arcs that make up the polygon.
Contiguity
Every arc has a direction. The GIS maintains a list of polygons on the left and right side of each arc. The
computer uses this information to determine which features are next to one another.

Data layers:
6. What is meant by 'coverage' in a GIS'? Explain with sketches the general steps how a
GIS model/project can be organized.

Coverage

A digital version of a map forming the basic unit of vector data storage in ARC/INFO. A coverage stores
map features as primary features (such as arcs, nodes, polygons, and label points) and secondary features
(such as tics, map extent, links, and annotation). Associated feature attribute tables describe and store
attributes of the map features. A coverage usually represents a single theme, or layer, such as soils, roads,
or land use.

Coverage units

The units (e.g., feet, meter, inches) of the coordinate system in which a coverage is stored.

General steps how a GIS model/project can be organized:

Staffing

The main goal in designing the GIS staff is to provide support of GIS development and operations. Using
this goal as an underlying principle provides guidance through the details of developing the GIS staffing
plans.

GIS Staff Support and Functions

While many GIS position titles have emerged over the past ten years, any organization approaching the
development of a GIS staff plan should look first at their own functional needs and derive their own
position titles and descriptions from those GIS support requirements. These requirements generally fall
into five functional areas:

 Management. The GIS staff provides the project and organizational management for the
development and operation of the GIS. Key aspects of the GIS to be managed include the
technical design, the database design, data acquisition, hardware and software acquisition,
application development, acquisition and performance of contractors and consultants, database
management, staffing and organization, budgeting and funding, and communication with the user
community and management.
 Coordination. The design and the operation of the means and the activities for coordination
among the GIS participants and users is handled by the GIS staff.

 System support. The GIS staff provides the necessary skills and services to ensure that the GIS
software, hardware and databases are properly developed and implemented, that it operates as
expected by the users, and that is available and problem-free for their use.
 Database support. The GIS staff provides data administration and database management for the
system and the user community. These activities include development, documentation and
enforcement of data standards and related operations (such as update and maintenance), quality
control and oversight of data conversion and maintenance activities. This area of responsibility
may also involve coordinating and cooperating with the database management functions provides
for other databases within the organization.
  User support. The GIS staff must support the user community's activities in the use and
development of their applications. This responsibility includes technical assistance, special
project production, training, and assistance in the development of new applications and databases.
The latter responsibility requires the specific ability to recognize when a new application and/or
database may be beneficial and to act as a user advocate in its development.
 Production. In some organizations, it is appropriate, and in fact advisable, that the production of
critical databases or the provision of standard services fall under the responsibility and control of
the GIS Staff. Such databases may include the landbase or the cadastral base, and comparable
services may include standard map production. When this is the case, two types of production
support are generally needed. The first is the operation of the GIS -- the input, maintenance,
output, or accessing of the database. The second is the preparation of the data -- research,
verification, problem resolution, etc.

7. State some tangible and intangible benefits of GIS.

Some tangible and intangible benefits of GIS are given below:

Tangible benefits of GIS:

The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation and monitoring of
municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS has been in vogue primarily due to the advantage mentioned
below:

 Planning of project
 Make better decisions
 Visual Analysis
 Improve Organizational Integration

Planning Of Project
Advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of project having a large spatial component, where
analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project. Thematic maps generation is possible
on one or more than one base maps, example: the generation of a land use map on the basis of a soil
composition, vegetation and topography. The unique combination of certain features facilitates the
creation of such thematic maps. With the various modules within GIS it is possible to calculate surface,
length, width and distance.

Making Decisions
The adage "better information leads to better decisions" is as true for GIS as it is for other information
systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system but a tool to query, analyze, and
map data in support of the decision making process. GIS technology has been used to assist in tasks such
as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping resolve territorial disputes, and siting pylons in
such a way as to minimize visual intrusion.

Visual Analysis
Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using DTM/3D modeling, landscape can
be better visualized, leading to a better understanding of certain relations in the landscape. Many relevant
calculations, such as (potential) lakes and water volumes, soil erosion volume (Example: landslides),
quantities of earth to be moved (channels, dams, roads, embankments, land leveling) and hydrological
modeling becomes easier.

Not only in the previously mentioned fields but also in the social sciences GIS can prove extremely
useful. Besides the process of formulating scenarios for an Environmental Impact Assessment, GIS can
be a valuable tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data such as population distribution, market
localization and other related features.

Improving Organizational Integration

Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its main benefits is improved
management of their own organization and resources. Because GIS has the ability to link data sets
together by geography, it facilitates interdepartmental information sharing and communication. By
creating a shared database one department can benefit from the work of another--data can be collected
once and used many times.
As communication increases among individuals and departments, redundancy is reduced, productivity is
enhanced, and overall organizational efficiency is improved. Thus, in a utility company the customer and
infrastructure databases can be integrated so that when there is planned maintenance, affected people can
be informed by computer-generated letters.

Intangible benefits of GIS:

Examples of benefits that is difficult or impossible to quantify in monetary terms.

 Ability to do analysis not possible before

 Better decisions making and planning
 Improved ability to cope with unexpected events
 Better insights into complex situations
 More satisfied customers
 'Strategic' advantage over the competitors

9. "If RS, GPS and GIS can be integrated with the Transportation Planning process in
Bangladesh, it will create an effective and efficient decision making platform"---- State
your arguments in favor or against this statement.

If RS, GPS and GIS can be integrated with the Transportation Planning process in Bangladesh, it will
create an effective and efficient decision making platform.

Using GPS we can collect all the spatial data of the existing roadway network as well as for proposed
roadway in Bangladesh. Using those data of existing roadway we can produce GIS map and can analyze
the network. From this analysis we can finally conclude where improvement should be made or we can
identify the block spots where accident occurs frequently. Also combining this GPS data with volume
study data we can design an integrated and efficient traffic management system for the whole country.

Remote sensing offers a unique opportunity to close the knowledge gap by providing a broader coverage
of information than transport planners have traditionally surveyed and with more information than wider
GIS initiatives usually provide. More specifically, remote sensing offers transport planners and
developers a cost effective method of analyzing their planning area so that the impact of their
development and operations can be better understood by the regional transportation planners and land
developers with whom they interact. Conversely, remote sensing offers a backdrop onto which
transportation and municipal planners can post information on projects such as roadway development or
zoning bylaws. Remote sensing, however, is not just a means to obtain broader coverage. It offers the
ability to identify patterns of development and environmental change as well as specific features that are
relevant to transport planners.