02 - LRFD Vs ASD

What is Structural
Engineering?
"Structural Engineering is the art of
modeling materials we do not wholly
understand, into shapes we cannot
precisely analyze so as to withstand
forces we cannot properly assess, in such
a way that the public has no reason to
suspect the extent of our ignorance."
12-Oct-20 1
What is design of structures?
Unknown cross-sectional details are to

be determined
Span lengths and basic dimensions are
taken from architectural drawings
Expected loads are determined using
handbooks and codes according to
occupancy of the structure
12-Oct-20 2
Continued from previous slide
Types of construction materials to be used

and their properties are decided
Sound knowledge of the principles of
statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials
and structural analysis is required for good
design
Construction practices, availability of
materials, labor and machinery, etc. are
also to be considered
Experience and intuitive feeling for the
structural behavior are also important
12-Oct-20 3
Capacity Analysis of
Structures
Carried out to check already made design or
construction
Material properties, spans and cross-
sectional details are known
Load carrying capacity of members or
structure is evaluated
Capacity is compared with the applied loads
If applied load is lesser than capacity of
member, design is safe
12-Oct-20 4
Basic Design Equation
Used for design and capacity analysis in
all types of design and analysis methods
maximum internal
factor of resistance offered by
Load effects x =
safety material of structure
Load effects may be axial force, shear

force, bending moment and torque
12-Oct-20 5
Corresponding to each applied load action,

there is a resistive force such as resisting
axial force, resisting shear and resisting
moment
In design, applied actions and material
resistances are equated to each other with
some FOS
A bending moment of Pl/4 may never be
obtained in a simply supported beam
subjected to a central point load if the
member is not sufficiently strong
12-Oct-20 6
Factor of Safety
Value is always greater than one
Brings the structure from state of collapse
to a usable service state to avoid
excessive deformations, cracking, and
buckling, etc.
Covers uncertainties in loads within limits
Covers uncertainties in material strengths
up to certain extent
12-Oct-20 7
Covers, in part, poor workmanship

Covers unexpected behavior in theory due to
simplifying assumptions or limited
knowledge
Reduces the effect of natural disasters
Fabrication and erection stresses are taken
care of
Presence of residual stresses and local
stress concentrations are safely considered
12-Oct-20 8
Comparison of FOS
FOS in ASD is about 1.67
FOS for LL in original LRFD is 1.7/0.9 or 1.889
FOS for DL in original LRFD is 1.4/0.9 or 1.556
FOS for LL in latest LRFD is 1.6/0.9 or 1.778
FOS for DL in latest LRFD is 1.2/0.9 or 1.333
Average FOS in latest LRFD is 1.63

(2 live:1dead ratio)
12-Oct-20 9
Limit State
Stage in loading after which the structure
cannot fulfill its intended function
Limit state may be related with strength or
serviceability considerations
Actual collapse is not necessary
Strength Limit states corresponds to
maximum strengths, such as ultimate
ductile flexural strength, ultimate shear
strength, buckling failure, fatigue, plastic
mechanism, overturning and sliding, etc.
12-Oct-20 10
Serviceability Limit states are concerned

with occupancy such as excessive
deflections, undesirable vibrations,
permanent deformations, excessive
cracking and behavior in fire, etc.
Structure should not cross any strength or

serviceability limit for a perfect design
12-Oct-20 11
Strength and Ductility
In general, structures are designed for
strength against loads.
Strength of a material means what
maximum stresses may be developed
Ductility means how much deformations
are produced before final collapse
12-Oct-20 12
Sometimes, the design is more based on

ductility than strength such as for
earthquake loading
For heaviest earthquakes, only ductility is
provided for safety of life and perhaps not
for complete safety of structure
Time available before final collapse due to
ductility is called warning before failure,
persons may escape
12-Oct-20 13
Types of Design
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
Strength Design, Load and Resistance

Factor Design (LRFD), or Limit State
Design
Plastic Design
12-Oct-20 14
Allowable Stress Design
Factor of safety is taken on RS of basic
design equation, called safety factor, and
denoted by .
material
External load resistances
=
effects safety
factor
Ra  Rn / 
12-Oct-20 15
Advantages of ASD
Elastic analysis for loads and elastic
material behavior become compatible for
design
Senior engineers are used to this method
Old famous books are according to this
method
Was the only method of design in past
Is included as alternate method of design in
AISC-05 Specifications.
12-Oct-20 16
Disadvantages of ASD
Latest research and literature is very much
limited
Same factor of safety is used for different
loads
The failure mode is not directly predicted
With some overloading, the material
stresses increase but do not go to collapse
(How to observe failure mode?)
12-Oct-20 17
The ductility and warning before failure

cannot be studied precisely
Results cannot be compared with

experimental tests up to collapse
12-Oct-20 18
Strength Design or LRFD
or Limit State Design
Major part of FOS is applied on load
actions called overload factor
Minor part of FOS is taken on RS of
design equation, becomes reciprocal of
FOS, called resistance factor or capacity
reduction factor ()
12-Oct-20 19
Resistance factor () is lesser than or equal to

1.0 and is applied on material strength
The design equation is checked for each

strength and serviceability limit states one-by-
one
The design equation becomes:
Ru  Rn
12-Oct-20 20
Advantages of Using LRFD
Behavior at collapse including ductility,

warning before failure and strain-hardening,
etc. may be considered directly
Every type of load may be given a different
FOS depending upon its probability of
overload, number of severe occurrences
and changes in point of application
12-Oct-20 21
More safe structures result due to better

awareness of structural behaviour near
collapse
Results can be compared with experiments
up to collapse and with structural failures in
the past
Latest research and literature is available in
this method
Even if using ASD, this method provides a
second alternative to check the designs
12-Oct-20 22
Economical in case dead loads are

larger, such as in concrete structures
More safety than ASD if live loads are

greater in magnitude
Plastic design may be incorporated with

very few changes
12-Oct-20 23
The convenient elastic analysis for loads

is generally used in this method
The design procedure is similar to ASD
with only slight modifications
Using LRFD, steel and concrete design
become consistent with each other
12-Oct-20 24
Disadvantages of LRFD
Elastic behavior considered for load
analysis and ultimate plastic behavior
for material strengths are not
compatible, however, percentage
difference is less
Engineers experienced in ASD have to
become familiar with this technique
12-Oct-20 25
Old books and design aids become

ineffective
Validity of previous designs is still to be
checked according to ASD
12-Oct-20 26
Plastic Design
Same as LRFD with the difference that
plastic analysis is used for load analysis
Best available method
Incompatibility in load analysis and
material behavior is removed
Very lengthy even for computer
application due to plastic analysis
12-Oct-20 27
Current Situation
Regarding Design Codes
For concrete design, engineers have almost
shifted to strength design or LRFD
ACI has discontinued ASD as an alternate

method of design
For steel design, engineers are gradually

shifting to Strength Design or LRFD, may take
some time due to late start
12-Oct-20 28
AISC has only issued the combined

LRFD/ASD specifications in 2005 after
AISC-ASD 1988
Most recent AISC-LRFD specifications
were issued in 1994 and 1999
AISC has included ASD only as an
alternate method in specifications of 2005
AASHTO has shifted its bridge and other
designs to LRFD
12-Oct-20 29
The last AASHTO-ASD specifications will

only be used for evaluating previous
designs
Most American states have opted not to
use ASD for bridge design beyond 2005 or
at the most 2007
British specifications for concrete design
are also according to this method,
however, they refer to it as limit state
design
12-Oct-20 30
American universities are only teaching

Strength Design/LRFD to new engineers
Universities of Pakistan are also

teaching this method for concrete design
For steel design, some Universities of

Pakistan have switched to this method
12-Oct-20 31
It is expected that, in future, only one

method will be used for practical design,
that is, Strength Design or LRFD
For research work and high-importance
structures, plastic design is the best
method
12-Oct-20 32

02 - LRFD Vs ASD

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What is Structural

Unknown cross-sectional details are to

Types of construction materials to be used

Load effects may be axial force, shear

Corresponding to each applied load action,

Covers, in part, poor workmanship

FOS for LL in original LRFD is 1.7/0.9 or 1.889

FOS for DL in original LRFD is 1.4/0.9 or 1.556

FOS for LL in latest LRFD is 1.6/0.9 or 1.778

FOS for DL in latest LRFD is 1.2/0.9 or 1.333

Average FOS in latest LRFD is 1.63

Serviceability Limit states are concerned

Structure should not cross any strength or

Sometimes, the design is more based on

Strength Design, Load and Resistance

The ductility and warning before failure

Results cannot be compared with

Resistance factor () is lesser than or equal to

The design equation is checked for each

The design equation becomes:

Behavior at collapse including ductility,

More safe structures result due to better

Economical in case dead loads are

More safety than ASD if live loads are

Plastic design may be incorporated with

The convenient elastic analysis for loads

Old books and design aids become

ACI has discontinued ASD as an alternate

For steel design, engineers are gradually

AISC has only issued the combined

The last AASHTO-ASD specifications will

American universities are only teaching

Universities of Pakistan are also

For steel design, some Universities of

It is expected that, in future, only one

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