Main definitions

But electronic control systems can be regarded as a process that transforms one signal into
another so as to give the desired system response. Then we can say that a simple electronic
system consists of an input, a process, and an output with the input variable to the system and
the output variable from the system both being signals.
There are many ways to represent a system, for example: mathematically, descriptively,
pictorially or schematically. The most complex of electronic control systems can be
represented by a combination of simple blocks, with each block containing or representing an
individual component or complete sub-system.

Block Diagram Representation of a Simple Electronic System

Electronic Systems have both Inputs and Outputs with the output or outputs being produced

by processing the inputs. The input(s) to a system is the “cause” of the change, while the
resulting action that occurs on the systems output due to this cause being present is called the
“effect”. An electronic system can be classed as “causal” in nature as there is a direct
relationship between its input and its output. An electronic system need not be a simple or
single operation. It can also be an interconnection of several sub-systems all working together
within the same overall system.
An electronic system can not just be a collection of inputs and outputs, it must “do
something”.
Types of Electronic System
Electronic systems operate on either continuous-time (CT) signals or discrete-time (DT)
signals. A continuous-time system is one in which the input signals are defined along a
continuum of time. But a continuous-time signal can also vary in magnitude or be periodic in
nature with a time period T.

We can represent a continuous-time signal by using the independent variable for time t, and
where x(t) represents the input signal and y(t) represents the output signal over a period of
time t.
Discrete-time system is one in which the input signals are not continuous but a sequence or a
series of signal values defined in “discrete” points of time. Generally a discrete signal is
specified only at discrete intervals, values or equally spaced points in time.

A continuous-time signal, x(t) can be represented as a discrete set of signals only at discrete

intervals. Discrete-time signals are usually denoted as x(n) representing the input
and y(n)representing the output.
We can represent the input and output signals of a system as x and y respectively with the
signal, t, which usually represents time for a continuous system and the variable n, which
represents an integer value for a discrete system as shown.

One of the practical aspects of electronic systems and block-diagram representation is that
they can be combined together in either a series or parallel combinations to form much bigger
systems. When subsystems are combined to form a series circuit, the overall output
at y(t) will be equivalent to the multiplication of the input signal x(t) as shown as the
subsystems are cascaded together.
Series Connected System

The equivalent single output will be equal to the multiplication of the systems,
i.e., y(t) = G1(s) x G2(s). Where G represents the transfer function of the subsystem.
Note that the term “Transfer Function” of a system refers to and is defined as being the
mathematical relationship between the systems input and its output.
Parallel Connected Electronic System

Then for two parallel connected subsystems, the equivalent single output will be the sum of
the two individual inputs, i.e., y(t) = G1(s) + G2(s).
Electronic Feedback Systems
In feedback systems, a fraction of the output signal is “fed back” and either added to or
subtracted from the original input signal.
Closed-Loop Feedback System

Feedback systems are used a lot in most practical electronic system designs to help stabilise
the system and to increase its control. If the feedback loop reduces the value of the original
signal, the feedback loop is known as “negative feedback”. If the feedback loop adds to the
value of the original signal, the feedback loop is known as “positive feedback”.
Transfer Function of Systems

The input is designated as: θi and the output as: θo. The ratio of output over input represents
the gain, ( G ) of the subsystem and is therefore defined as: G = θo/θi. In this
case, G represents the Transfer Function of the system or subsystem.

Open-loop System
If something happens to disturb the systems output without any change to the input value, the
output must respond by returning back to its previous set value. In the past, electrical control
systems were basically manual or what is called an Open-loop System with very few
automatic control or feedback features built in to regulate the process variable so as to
maintain the desired output level or value.
For example, an electric clothes dryer. Depending upon the amount of clothes or how wet
they are, a user or operator would set a timer (controller) to say 30 minutes and at the end of
the 30 minutes the drier will automatically stop and turn-off even if the clothes where still
wet or damp.
Open-loop Drying System

Then an Open-loop system, also referred to as non-feedback system, is a type of continuous control
system in which the output has no influence or effect on the control action of the input signal.
Also, an open-loop system has no knowledge of the output condition so cannot self-correct
any. Another disadvantage of open-loop systems is that they are poorly equipped to handle
disturbances or changes in the conditions which may reduce its ability to complete the desired
task.

Then we can see that open-loop system errors can disturb the drying process and therefore
requires extra supervisory attention of a user. User would need to look at the process
temperature frequently and take any corrective control action whenever the drying process
deviated from its desired value of drying the clothes. This type of manual open-loop control
which reacts before an error actually occurs is called Feed forward Control(Predictive
Control).

Then we can define the main characteristics of an “Open-loop system” as being:

 There is no comparison between actual and desired values.
 An open-loop system has no self-regulation or control action over the output value.
 Each input setting determines a fixed operating position for the controller.
Changes or disturbances in external conditions does not result in a direct output change.

Closed-loop Systems

The quantity of the output being measured is called the “feedback signal”, and the type of
control system which uses feedback signals to both control and adjust itself is called a Close-
loop System (Feedback Control). A Closed-loop Control System, which uses the concept
of an open loop system as its forward path but has one or more feedback loops or paths
between its output and its input. Closed-loop systems are designed to automatically achieve
and maintain the desired output condition by comparing it with the actual condition. It does
this by generating an error signal which is the difference between the output and the reference
input.
So for example, consider our electric clothes dryer. Suppose we used a sensor or transducer
(input device) to continually monitor the temperature or dryness of the clothes and feed a
signal relating to the dryness back to the controller.

This sensor would monitor the actual dryness of the clothes and compare it with (or subtract
it from) the input reference. The error signal (error = required dryness – actual dryness) is
amplified by the controller, and the controller output makes the necessary correction to the
heating system to reduce any error.
Also a closed-loop system has some knowledge of the output condition, (via the sensor) it is
better equipped to handle any system disturbances or changes in the conditions. As we can
see, in a closed-loop control system the error signal, which is the difference between the input
signal and the feedback, is fed to the controller so as to reduce the systems error and bring the
output of the system back to a desired value. In our case the dryness of the clothes. Clearly,
when the error is zero the clothes are dry.
Closed-loop systems have many advantages over open-loop systems. The primary advantage
of a closed-loop feedback control system is its ability to reduce a system’s sensitivity to
external disturbances.
Then we can define the main characteristics of Closed-loop Control as being:
 To reduce errors by automatically adjusting the systems input.
 To improve stability of an unstable system.
 To increase or reduce the systems sensitivity.
 To enhance robustness against external disturbances to the process.
 To produce a reliable and repeatable performance.
Its main disadvantage is that in order to provide the required amount of control, a closed-loop
system must be more complex by having one or more feedback paths. Also, if the gain of the
controller is too sensitive to changes in its input commands or signals it can become unstable
and start to oscillate as the controller tries to over-correct itself, and eventually something
would break.
Closed-loop Summing Points
For a closed-loop feedback system to regulate any control signal, it must first determine the
error between the actual output and the desired output. This is achieved using a summing
point, also referred to as a comparison element, between the feedback loop and the systems
input.

The summing point can either add signals together in which a Plus ( + ) symbol is used
showing the device to be a “summer”, or it can subtract signals from each other in which case
a Minus ( − ) symbol is used showing that the device is a “comparator”.

Closed-loop System Transfer Function

The Transfer Function of any electrical or electronic control system is the mathematical
relationship between the systems input and its output, and hence describes the behaviour of
the system.

Where: block G represents the open-loop gains of the controller or system and is the forward
path, and block H represents the gain of the sensor, transducer or measurement system in the
feedback path.
To find the transfer function of the closed-loop system above, we must first calculate the
output signal θo in terms of the input signal θi. To do so, we can easily write the equations of
the given block-diagram as follows.
The output from the system is equal to:    Output = G x Error
Note that the error signal, θe is also the input to the feed-forward block:  G
The output from the summing point is equal to:    Error = Input - H x Output
If  H = 1 (unity feedback) then:
The output from the summing point will be:    Error (θe) = Input - Output
Eliminating the error term, then:
The output is equal to:    Output = G x (Input - H x Output)
Therefore:    G x Input = Output + G x H x Output
Rearranging the above gives us the closed-loop transfer function of:

The above equation for the transfer function of a closed-loop system shows a Plus ( + ) sign
in the denominator representing negative feedback. With a positive feedback system, the
denominator will have a Minus ( − ) sign and the equation becomes:  1 - GH.
We can see that when  H = 1 (unity feedback) and G is very large, the transfer function
approaches unity as:

Also, as the systems steady state gain G decreases, the expression of:  G/(1 + G) decreases
much more slowly.

Multi-loop Closed-loop System

Most practical feedback circuits have some form of multiple loop control, and for a multi-
loop configuration the transfer function between a controlled and a manipulated variable
depends on whether the other feedback control loops are open or closed.
Consider the multi-loop system below.

Any cascaded blocks such as G1 and G2 can be reduced, as well as the transfer function of the
inner loop as shown.
And the transfer function of this multi-loop system becomes: