EEE 756: LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEMS

Course Outline
1.0 Introduction and Background
1.1 Open-loop Vs Closed-loop Control Systems
1.2 Control Objectives
1.3 Mathematical Representation of Systems
1.4 System Classification
1.5 Control Strategies

1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

The open loop system means the output of the system is free from their input. In the closed-
loop system, the desired output depends on their input. The open loop system is called the non-
feedback system while the closed loop is the feedback system.
Comparison Chart
Basis For
Open Loop System Closed Loop System
Comparison
The system whose control action is
In closed loop, the output depends on the
Definition free from the output is known as the
control action of the system.
open loop control system.
Other Name Non-feedback System Feedback System
Amplifier, Controller, Controlled
Components Controller and Controlled Process.
Process, Feedback.
Construction Simple Complex
Reliability Non-reliable Reliable
Accuracy Depends on calibration Accurate because of feedback.
Stability Stable Less Stable
Optimization Not-Possible Possible
Response Fast Slow
Calibration Difficult Easy
System
Affected Not-affected
Disturbance
Linearity Non-linear Linear
 Basis For
Open Loop System Closed Loop System
Comparison
Traffic light, automatic washing Air conditioner, temperature control
Examples machine, immersion rod, TV remote system, speed and pressure control
etc. system, refrigerator, and toaster.
Open Loop Control System
In open loop control system, the output does not affect the control action of the system. In other
words, the system whose working depends on time is known as the open loop control system.
The open loop system is free from the feedback. Let’s understand this with the help of the few
examples.

Example 1: Consider the clothes dryer whose control action is done manually by the operator.
Depending on the wetness of the clothes suppose the operator set the timer for 30 minutes. After
30 minutes the timer will stop even after the clothes are wet.
The dryer stops working even if the desired output is not obtained. This shows that the system
has no feedback. Here clothes dryer is the example of the open loop system and the timer is the
controller of the system
Example 2: The automatic washing machine is the example of the open loop system. The
operator manually sets the operating time of the machine. The machine stops operating after the
set time, even the desire cleanliness of clothes are not obtained. This happens because the
machine has no feedback system which signals the control action of the system for desired
output.
The open loop system is simple, require less maintenance. Also, it is fast in operation and very
economical. But the accuracy of the system is less, and it is less reliable.
Closed Loop Control System
The closed-loop control system means the output of the system depends on their input. The
system has one or more feedback loops between its output and input. The closed-loop system
design in such a way that they automatically provide the desired output by comparing it with the
actual input. The closed-loop system generates the error signal which is the difference between
the input and output.

Example 1: Suppose in the above example of closed dryer we are using the transducer which
senses the dryness of the clothes and provides the feedback signal to the controller relating to
dryness. Here the dryness is the output of the system. The sensor act as a feedback of the system.
The sensor gives the signal to the controller of the machine, and hence the dryer provides the
desired output.
Example 2: The air conditioner is the example of the closed-loop system. The air conditioner
regulates the temperature by comparing it with the surrounding temperature. The comparison of
temperature is done with the help of the thermostat. When the AC provides the error signal
which is the difference between the surrounding temperature and room temperature the
thermostats turn on or off the compressor.

The closed loop system is more reliable and accurate. But this system is very expensive and
requires high maintenance.
Key Differences between Open Loop and Closed Loop System
1. The open loop system means the output of the system is free from their input. In the
closed-loop system, the desired output depends on their input.
2. The open loop system is called the non-feedback system while the closed loop is the
feedback system.
3. The control and controlled process are the two components of the open loop system. The
closed loop requires some components likes an amplifier, controller, controlled process,
feedback system etc.
4. The construction of systems is easy because few elements are used in the system. The
construction of the closed-loop system is quite difficult.
5. The open loop system is not reliable whereas the closed-loop system is reliable.
6. The accuracy of the system is less as compared to the closed-loop system.
7. The open loop system is more stable as compared to a closed loop system. Here the word
stable means the output of the system remains constant even after the disturbances.
8. The open loop system is not optimized, whereas the closed-loop system is optimized.
9. The open loop system gives the fast response, whereas the closed loop system gives the
slow response.
10. The calibration of open loop system is difficult as compared to the closed-loop system.
11. In an open loop system, the disturbance affected the output, whereas in a closed loop
system the output is not much affected by the disturbances.
12. The output control system has a non-linear response, whereas the input control system
has linear responses.
 13. The traffic light, automatic washing machine, etc. are the examples of the output system,
whereas the temperature controller, toaster etc. are the examples of the closed-loop
system.
1.2: Objectives of Control Systems
The main objective of process control is to control the physical parameters of temperature,
pressure, flow rate and force. The physical parameters in a process control system are affected
by internal and external disturbances.

1.3: Mathematical Representation of Systems

A mathematical model is the mathematical representation of the physical system which is made
using the appropriate governing laws of that system. These governing laws are Ohm's law and
Kirchhoff's laws for electrical systems and when it comes to mechanical systems, we use
Newton's laws of motion.

We shall understand how we can develop mathematical models of physical systems. A physical
system is a collection of objects connected together to achieve an objective. Although physical
systems include a wide variety of systems, we shall restrict ourselves to electrical and
mechanical systems in this lecture. A mathematical model is the mathematical representation of
the physical system which is made using the appropriate governing laws of that system. These
governing laws are Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff's laws for electrical systems and when it comes to
mechanical systems, we use Newton’s laws of motion. These laws help us in obtaining the
relation between the input and output of the system.
For most physical systems, a mathematical model is a set of differential equations. A system is
said to be linear if its mathematical model obeys the principle of superposition and homogeneity.
This means that if a system outputs y1 and y2 to x1 and x2 respectively, then the system output to
the linear combination of these inputs a1x1 + a2x2 should be the linear combination of their
individual outputs a1y1 + a2y2 for the system to be linear. Here a1 and a2 are constants.
We shall now discuss electrical and mechanical systems individually and show how to develop
their mathematical models.
Modeling Electrical Systems
Electrical circuits have three basic elements, the resistor, the capacitor and the inductor. These
are analyzed based on Kirchhoff’s laws as stated before.
The voltage-current relationships of these elements are as shown below in both time domain and
in laplace domain.

With this, now we can proceed to develop mathematical models for a series RLC network and
then for a parallel RLC network.
Series RLC Network
A mathematical model usually defines the relation between an input and an output. Hence, first
we must decide the input and the output. In this network let’s choose vc(t) as the output and v(t)
as input as it’s the only one in this network.
Then, to find the relationship between the input and output, we start by applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law around the loop, assuming the initial conditions to be zero, obtaining,

But the goal is to find the relationship between the input and output *voltages* - which the left
hand side of the equation is in terms of current. But the current is the rate of flow of charges and
by replacing i(t) by dq(t)/dt in the above equation, we get:

ake a moment and make sure this replacement makes sense. Then notice that this is still not in
terms of voltages but is one step closer. However, we know that, for a capacitor,

So we can substitute q(t) in equation (2) using equation (3), we obtain,

This equation is the mathematical model for the series RLC network. Notice that on the left hand
of the equation, everything is in terms of the voltage across the capacitor, vc(t), with the input of
v(t). We successfully created a mathematical equation that relates the input and the output. With
this equation, we should be able to calculate what will happen in a real circuit given an input and
component parameters. And, later, we’ll learn about how to convert this to the Laplace domain
and how it’ll help us. But for now, let’s be content with what we’ve accomplished thus far.
Parallel RLC Network
In this network, i(t) is the input and output is taken as v(t).
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law for the above network, assuming initial conditions to be zero,

The above equation represents the mathematical model of the parallel RLC network.

For now, let’s move aside and recall Faraday’s law. It tells that the induced voltage is equal to
the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the coil, which in case is referring to the magnetic
flux in the inductor (L) . Read more about Faraday’s law here:

If the magnetic flux linking the inductor is φ(t), then the voltage across the inductor can be
written as v(t) = dφ/dt. Hence the modified mathematical model in terms of this flux linkage
becomes,

Any electrical network can be mathematically modelled in a similar manner using Kirchhoff's
laws and other basic relations. Truly, the only difference between your typical circuit analysis
and mathematical modeling of electric circuits is explicitly creating equations and relationships
between an input and output, rather than solving for particular values.

Mechanical Systems
Mechanical systems are usually classified into translational systems and rotational systems.
These are modelled by three translatory and three rotatory elements as shown below.
Translational Systems
In translational motion, the motion is along a straight line. There are three types of elements that
oppose this motion.
1) The mass element or the inertia element.

o
The mass element represents the system’s inertia. As per Newton’s second law of motion, the
inertia force shall be equal to the rate of change of linear momentum and hence,

where,
M = Mass
F(t) = Force
v(t) = velocity
x(t) = displacement
In other words, force is equal to mass times the change in velocity, or mass times acceleration.
2) The spring element.

The spring element represents the potential energy storage elements in the mechanical systems.
The restoring force of a spring is directly proportional to the net displacement [ x1(t) - x2(t) ] of
the spring.
where,
K = spring constant or the stiffness
In other words, the force the spring exerts is equal to the stiffness of the spring multiplied by the
amount the spring is stretched.
3) The damper element.

The damper element represents the viscous friction present in the system. The damping force is
directly proportional to the net velocity of the damper element.

where,
B = Damping coefficient
In other words, the amount of force that the damper exerts is the damping coefficient multiplied
by the difference in velocity of the two sides of the damper. Why do we need to specify that it’s
the difference in velocity between the two sides? Because in many situations, the entire damper
is moving and it only dampens the velocity difference between its two sides. If the entire damper
is moving and the two sides are maintaining the same distance from each other, the damper
effectively does nothing.
Rotational Systems
In rotational motion, the motion is about a fixed axis. There are three types of elements that
oppose this motion. Conceptually, they can be related to their linear counterpart in how they
work but mathematically, they must be treated very differently.
1) The inertia element.
This element represents the moment of inertia of the system. This represents the stored kinetic
energy of the rotational motion. The inertia torque is the rate of change of angular momentum.

here,
J = Moment of inertia in Kg.m2
T(t) = Torque in N.m
ω(t) = angular velocity in rad/s
θ(t) = angular displacement radians
2) The torsional spring element

This element represents the stored potential energy of the system. The spring torque is directly
proportional to net torsional displacement [ θ1(t) - θ2(t) ] of the element.

where,
K = spring constant or the torsional stiffness

4) The damper element.

The damper element is responsible for the viscous friction in the system. The damping torque is
directly proportional to the net angular velocity of the element.

where,
B = Damping coefficient
Now, let’s model a simple translational and a rotational system.
Translational System
Consider the below translational system with the usual notations as discussed earlier.

Here, F(t) is the force that is serving as the input to the system and we consider the displacement
x(t) as the output.
When we equate this applied force to the sum of all the opposing forces on the system, we obtain

The above equation represents the mathematical model of the given translational system. It’s
easier than the circuit models we went over earlier simply because we didn’t need to change the
units we were working in.
Rotational System
Consider the below rotational system with the usual notations as discussed earlier. We consider a
shaft which is connected to a wheel of moment of inertia J at one end and rigidly mounted on the
other side. External torque T(t) is applied on the wheel which causes an angular displacement
θ(t) and B represents the coefficient of friction betweens the wheel and the ground.

Here, T(t) is the external torque that serves as the input to the system and we consider the angular
displacement θ(t) as the output.
When we equate this applied torque to the sum of all the opposing torques on the system, we
obtain

The above equation represents the mathematical model of the given rotational system.
In a similar manner, all mechanical systems can be modelled.
Classification of Control System
The control system may be classified in a number of ways. Some popular classifications are:
1. Depending on the methods analysis and design, the system can be linear or non-linear.
2. Depending upon the type of signals, the system can be time-varying, time-invariant
continuous data, discrete data, modulated or unmodulated control system etc.
3. Depending on the type of system component, the system can be electromechanical,
biological, hydraulic, thermal or pneumatic control system etc.
4. Depending upon the primary purpose, the system can be position control, velocity control
etc.
Control Strategies
Control strategies are specific plans for what to do when your process shows the presence of
special causes. This plan describes the out-of-control situation, possible causes, how to check
each cause and the result of your check. All control charts in use should have a control strategy.