DIVER'S HANDBOOK

'- Central Science

°oI, ' Library
°
• o4b+bA APR 2 3 1932
SUniversity
of Florida

'bgo

TP-63

FLORIDA SEA GRANT COLLEGE PROGRAM

research,extension, and educationfor a better coastal environment
 This handbook is dedicated to Edward A. Kalakauskis,
a tireless reef research diver and sports fisherman
"volunteer", who has been the common thread that
helped make all this possible.

It is further dedicated to the memory of three "Artificial Reef

Pioneers" whose work will long benefit fisherman and divers off
the Northeast Florida coast:

Linden Heston - Jacksonville Offshore Sport Fishing Club

Richard "Dick"Longo - Daytona Beach Sport SCUBA Diver

Col. "C.M." McCormick - Ancient City Gamefish Association

St. Augustine, FL

Florida Sea Grant College is supported by award of the Office of Sea Grant, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.
Department of Commerce, grant number NA89AA-D-SG053, under provisions of the NationalSea Grant College and ProgramsAct of 1966.
This informationis publishedby the Sea Grant ExtensionProgramwhichfunctions as a component of theFloridaCooperativeExtension Service
John T. Woeste, dean, in conductingCooperativeExtension work in Agriculture, Home Economics, andMarineSciences, Stateof Florida,U.S.
Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Commerce, and Boards of County Commissioners, cooperating. Printedand distributedin
furtheranceof theActs ofCongress of May 8 andJune 14,1914. The FloridaSea Grant Collegeis an EqualEmployment Opportunity-Affirmative
Action employer authorized to provide research,educational information, and other services only to individualsand institutionsthatfunction
without regard to race, color, sex, age, handcap, or national origin.
 Artificial Reef Research

DIVER'S HANDBOOK

PrincipalEditor
Joseph G. Halusky
Florida Sea Grant Extension Agent
Marine Education Center at Marineland
St. Augustine, Florida

rLORIIi.

65RANT -
COLLEG PROGRAM

Florida Sea Grant College Program

PO Box 110409
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL 32611-0409
Technical Paper TP-63
$5.00
I
Contents
List of Authors.......... XI
Preface.......... XIII

SECTION ONE

1. Introduction to Artificial Reef Research Diving Theory and Practice, Joseph G. Halusky
Scientific Diving and Diving Technology ......... 1
Scientific Diving Safety
Scientific Diving Limitations
Leadership and Scientific Diving
Scientific Diving Tasks & Data Collection .......... 3
Generalized Tasks of Diving Scientists
Collecting Data
Raw and Reduced Data
Data Collecting & Preservation Guidelines
Summary.......... 4
Artificial Reef Research Diver's Basic Concepts Summary ......... 4

2. The Science and Technology ofArtificial Reefs, Robert L. Jenkins

Science: A Definition ......... 5
Scientific Research and Technology ......... 6
Artificial Reef Research ......... 7
The Scientific Method or Process......... 7
Deductive Method
Inductive Method
Data and Its Successful Accumulation ......... 8
Data Gathering Methods
Quality of Data
Measurements
Accuracy and Precision
Observations
Time and Data
Interpretation and Organization..........12
Role of Research Diver.......... 13
Summary.......... 13
References.......... 13

3. Some Basic Considerations of Underwater Scientific Photography, Joseph G. Halusky

Basic Components of a Documentary Photo ......... 15
Key Elements of a Scientific Photograph

III
Basic Methods for Underwater Scientific Photography.......... 15
Single Event Photo Method
Systematic Photo Series
Storage and Retrieval of Scientific Photos
Summary..........17
Suggested References .......... 17

4. Oceanographic Data Collection and Reef Mapping, Christopher Jones

Reef Stability ........ 19
Settlement and Siltation
Collapse and Scattering
Disintegration
Oceanographic Data.......... 20
Currents
Surface Waves
Water Temperature
Salinity
Transparency/Turbidity
Dissolved Oxygen
Bottom Sediments
Sediment Correlation
Mapping.......... 26
Establishing Control Points
Locating Objects on the Bottom
References. ......... 28

5. Site Selection and Evaluation by Divers, Heyward Mathews

Some general Considerations for Reef Sites ......... 29
Role of Divers in Site Planning
Preliminary Surface Survey
Underwater Site Survey
Biological Survey Report
Post-Deployment Survey
References.......... 31

6. Collecting BiologicalData: Benthic and PlanktonicPlantsandAnimals, Quinton White

Why Sample Benthic and Planktonic Organisms? .......... 33
The Difficulties of Sampling Benthic and Planktonic Organisms......... 33
Identification of Plants and Encrusting Organisms......... 34

IV
Identification of Plants and Encrusting Organisms.......... 34
Planning and Preparation for Sampling ......... 34
Standardize Everything
How Big is a Sample?
Photographing
Preserving
How to Collect Samples
Materials and Methods
Identifying
References......... 36

7. Sampling and Studying Fish on Artificial Reefs, Stephen Bortone & JamesBohnsack
Introduction to Fish..........39
Reasons and Objectives for Studying Artificial Reef Fish ........... 39
Problems Associated with Fish on Artificial Reefs.......... 40
Collecting Data on Artificial Reefs........... 41
Physical Environment
Fish and Fauna Data
Fish Collection .......... 42
Specimen Preservation ........... 43
Species Identification ........... 44
Importance of Field Notes .......... 45
Sampling Methods
Moving Transect Sample
Fixed Point Sampling
Fish Survey Data Types.......... 47
Species List
Qualitative Species Abundance
Relative Species Abundance
Absolute Abundance Data
Data Analysis .......... 49
Graphic Analysis
Prediction and Trends
Species Relationships
Summary...........51
References..........51

8. Techniques: Identifying Economic Benefits of Artificial Reef Habitat,

Walter Milon & Ronald Schmeid
The Basis for Economic Benefits.......... 53

V
User Day Value Methods.......... 54
Comparative Valuation Method
Travel Cost Method
Contingent Valuation Method
Survey Methods
Summary.......... 56
References.......... 57

9. Disseminating Information on Reef Research Activities, Thomas M. Leahy

How to Use Channels of Communication........... 59
Personal Channels.......... 59
Person-to-person on a one-to-one basis
Person to person contact at group meetings
Presenting the Information
Use of Slides
Newsletters.......... 60
Writing the Newsletter
Packaging the Newsletter
Distribution the Newsletter
Mass Media Channels.......... 61
Newspapers
Using the Newspaper
Preparing the Press Release
Magazines.......... 62
Writing the Magazine Article
Radio.......... 63
Using Radio
Being Interviewed
Your Own Program
Writing for Radio
Television............64
Preparing a Public Service Announcement (PSA)
Using Commercial Television Stations
Using the Local Cable TV Channel
Appearing On Television
Summing Up.......... 66
Suggested Reading ......... 66

10. Training Volunteer Divers to Research andDocument Artificial Reefs for Their
Community, Joseph G. Halusky
VI
Role of the Sea Grant Extension Program........... 67
Planning Committee
Student Selection
The Artificial Reef Research Diver Training Program.......... 69
Model Description ......... 69
The Aim of the ARRDTP
ARRDTP Course Outline and Topics.......... 69
Model ARRDTP Agenda .......... 69
Workshop I. Orientation to Scientific Diving and Diving Skills Review.
Workshop II. Underwater Science Photography and Public Relations.
Workshop Il. Artificial Reef Site Selection, Documentation, Mapping, Engineering, Construction and
Collecting Physical Data.
Workshop IV. Artificial Reef Biological Sampling and Building a Reference Collection - Emphasis on
Invertebrates.
Workshop V. Sampling and Documenting Artificial Reef Fish Populations.
Workshop VI. Artificial Reef Research Expedition Leadership Training.
Workshop VII. Planning an Artificial Reef Documentation Program for the Community.
Notes.......... 71
Discussion ........... 71
Summary ......... 71
References and Suggested Reading .......... 72
Florida Sea Grant Artificial Reef Publications .......... 72

11. Underwater Research Project Management, Gregg R. Stanton

Perception of a problem...........73
Identify a problem.......... 74
Logistical Areas described in detail........... 75
Food
Lodging
Transportation
Boats
Equipment & Air
Safety Officer
Principal Investigator
Dive Supervisor
Dive Stations Described ........ 76
Captain
Chief Scientist
Dive Master
Time Keeper
Standby Diver
VII
 Boat Operator
Team Leader
Divers
References.......... 77

12. Establishingan Artificial Reef Data Archives for the Community,

Joseph G. Halusky & Shawn Brayton
Artificial Reef Data Archives .......... 79
The Archivist
The Archives Components........... 80
Library
Historic Records
Reef Site Data and Project Files
Reference Collection Documentation
Reef Research Personnel & Training Records
Research Equipment Records and Manuals
Using the Archives and Specimen Collection ......... 83
Who owns the Data and who should have assess to it?
Controlling and Retrieving the Reef Research Information
Summary...........83
References..........83
Useful Organizations .......... 84

13. Guidelines for Organizing a Volunteer Reef Research Organization,

Scott R. Braunsroth & Dennis Short
Initial Considerations ......... 85
Need
Organizational Structure
The Executive Board
The Committees
Going Public
Development of the Constitution.......... 87
Naming the Organization
The Charter
Duties of Officers and Committees
Funding and Incorporation
Academic Liaison .......... 90
Volunteers and Scientists as Partners

VIII
 SECTION TWO

Underwater Research Methods Summaries & Equipment Descriptions

Underwater Research Method Summary Example Sheet.......... 90A
Excavation by Portable Couple Jet Blower.......... 91
Fish Assessment - Cinetransect.......... 92
Fish Assessment - Point Count.......... 93
Fish Assessment - Rapid Visual Technique.......... 94
Fish Assessment - Species/Time Random Count.......... 95
Fish Assessment - Transect.......... 97
Mapping - Circular Strip Map.......... 99
Pop Warner Reef Map........... 100A /
Mapping - Small Area Survey Grids.......... 101
Position Finding......... 102
Sediment - Bioturbation Rate.......... 104
Sediment - Sand Transport.......... 105
Sediment - Settlement Rate........... 106
Stone Crab Reef Module - Current.......... 107

Appendices........ . 109
Appendix A.......... 109
Appendix B.......... 111
Appendix C.......... 119
Appendix D.......... 123
Appendix E.......... 125
Appendix F.......... 131
Appendix G.......... 137
Appendix H.......... 147
Appendix I.......... 157
Appendix J.......... 161
Appendix K.......... 163
Appendix L.......... 165
Appendix M.......... 167
Appendix N.......... 169
Appendix 0.......... 171
Appendix P.......... 173
Appendix Q.......... 175
Appendix R.......... 187
Appendix S.......... 189
Appendix T .......... 191
Appendix U.......... 195

IX
LIST OF AUTHORS
James Bohnsack Thomas M. Leahy
Southeast Fisheries Center Former Director
National Marine Fisheries Service Florida Sea Grant Communications
75 Virginia Beach Drive and Publications
Miami, FL 33149. Editorial Dept.
University of Florida
Steven A. Bortone Gainesville, FL 32611.
Biology Department
University of West Florida Heyward Mathews
Pensacola, FL 32514. Professor of Oceanography
St. Petersburg Jr. College
Scott R. Braunsroth Clearwater Campus
1424 Fruit Cove Rd. N. 2465 Drew St.
Jacksonville, FL 32223. Clearwater, FL 33575.

Shawn Brayton J. Walter Milon,

Archivist Deptartment of Food and Resource Economics
Jacksonville Scubanauts Reef Research Team IFAS
10881 Great Southern Drive University of Florida
Jacksonville, FL 32223. Gainesville, FL 32611.

Joseph G. Halusky Ronald L Schmied

North East Florida Sea Grant Extension Agent National Marine Fisheries Service
233 Marine Center Drive 9450 Koger Blvd.
St. Augustine, FL 32086. St. Petersburg, FL 33702.

Robert L. Jenkins Dennis Short

Director of Operations and Husbandry Jacksonville Scubanauts Reef Reserch Team
National Aquarium in Baltimore
501 E.Pratt St. Gregg R. Stanton
Baltimore MD 21202. Research Diving Coordinator
Academic Diving Program
Christopher P. Jones Florida State University
Coastal Science and Engineering, Rm. 10 Montgomery Bldg.
P.O. Box 8056 Tallahassee, FL 32306.
Columbia, SC 29202.
A. Quinton White
Gary Kirkland Department of Biology and Marine Science
1811 Indian Wood Jacksonville University
Neptune Beach, FL 32233. Jacksonville, FL 32211.

XI
Preface
A rtificial reef construction in Florida is largely
result of volunteer efforts. Historically, vol-
MUNICATIONS is at the heart of a successful un-
derwater research program, whether if its done by
unteer reef builders have had difficulty evaluating professional scientific divers or volunteers.
the success of their efforts since divers were usu- This handbook will not make the reader a re-
ally not called upon to observe the reef material af- search scientist! Professional academic degrees
ter placement. If divers were available, they and training are needed to conduct credible ma-
generally had little or no training in objective un- rine science. Becoming a marine scientist re-
derwater data gathering and documentation meth- quires the completion of degree work at a college
ods. Properly trained sport divers can assist reef and university. This cannot be achieved in a sin-
builders by providing feedback information and gle extension course, handbook or dive shop train-
documentation. Volunteer reef research divers ing program.
can provide a valuable public service, not other- This is NOT a handbook on diving technol-
wise available from state or academic institutions, ogy. No attempt is made to discuss methods of
by establishing their own reef research, monitor- diving, diving theory, new life support equipment
ing and documentation projects and storing this in- or technique. There is no discussion about rescue
formation in a publicly accessible reef data or emergency procedures, except to say that such
archive, procedures should be established on any dive.
There are many "Dive Manuals" available to ful-
The purpose of this Artificial Reef Research fill these needs.
Divers Handbook is to provide background infor- There is considerable discussion about
mation and guidelines for sport divers: safety procedures which might be different from
1) to gather information about their com- those practiced in sport diving, and APPENDIX
munity's artificial reefs; A is a reference to the Scientific Dive Standards
2) to document and store this information adopted by the American Academy of Underwa-
in a way that can be retrieved and under- ter Sciences. Any research diving activity should
stood by the reef builders, government seriously consider the adoption of these standards
agencies, the research community, other to their underwater research activities.
interested volunteer organizations and the There is discussion about the need for the
public; scientific dive teams to establish organizational
3) to communicate their observations in a procedures to safely conduct a research dive op-
credible fashion. eration and insure the data is preserved. Chapter
The handbook is organized into two primary 11 on "Project Management" provides a thorough
sections. Section I consists of thirteen chapters discussion about how to organize a research dive
which discuss the theoretical and practical aspects expedition, to include logistics and descriptions of
of physical and biological data collection underwa- specific job assignments. Chapter 12 discusses
ter, project planning, training, public relations, set- how to establish an "Archives and Reference Col-
ting up an archive and organizational structure of lection" to preserve the data and Chapter 13 dis-
a reef research team. Section II is what might be cusses how to organize a "Reef Research Team."
called the "recipe" section or "Underwater Re- The underwater research methods included
search Methods Summaries". It, like any recipe should not be construed as the "only" or even the
book, provides step by step guidelines for various "best" method for gathering the type of data dis-
underwater data gathering methods. cussed. Good science methodology depends on
Scientific Diving to gather information the nature of the question that is being asked, the
(Data) underwater is NOT merely jumping in the technology available to get the data and the situ-
ocean, looking around and reporting back to the ation it is to be collected in. Often, the questions
surface what the diver "thinks" is going on "down will change as new information is made available;
there". It is the establishment and use of SYS- as the technology changes and the situation in the
TEMATIC and STANDARDIZED procedures for field changes. The intent of this "Section H - Un-
gathering OBJECTIVE information which is derwater Research Methods Section" is merely to
added to the DIVE LOG and the data ARCHIVE. provide ideas as a basis for deciding what data
It may include the collection and preservation of gathering strategies might be used in a reef re-
specimens for a REFERENCE COLLECTION, as search project. Each "Method" should be ad-
well as the making of detailed REEF SCATTER justed to meet the users situation.
MAPS and systematic MARINE ORGANISM Section I should continue to grow. I en-
POPULATION SURVEYS. It may include courage the reader(s) to develop, field test and
MONITORING, through documented photo- write their own Underwater Research Methods
graphs, video surveys and systematic photo tran- Summaries and share them with others through
sect surveys over long periods of time to capture the Florida Sea Grant Extension Program. This
changes which otherwise might remain unob- can be accomplished by copying the blank Under-
served. LEADERSHIP, PLANNING and COM- water Research Methods Summary form, found at

XIII
the beginning of Section II, filling it in and mailing brate Biology for the Jacksonville Scubanauts Re-
it to: search Team.
Florida Sea Grant Extension Program Others who deserve special thanks for sup-
Building 803 porting the training and keeping the program grow-
ing include: Don Serbousek, Thiele Wetzel, Dan
University of Florida,of Flord, O'Brien, Pete Heebner, H.C. "Hap" Jones, Dick
Gainesville, FL 32611. Starke, Halifax Sport Fishing Club and Ormond
Anchor Chasers Dive Club from the Daytona
The Appendix of this handbook is a collec- Beach area; Jim Netherton, Larry Mahn, George
tion of supporting materials that should help the Miller, Rick Holmlund, Gene Bums, Kevin McEl-
readers to start their own reef research program. It, roy, Bill Kerr, Ancient City Gamefish Associa-
like the "Methods Summaries", should be used as a tion, N.E. Florida Marlin Association, Camachee
guide only, and modified to suit the users needs. Cove Marina, Sea Hunt Enterprises Dive Shop
from St. Augustine; and Aquifer Dive center of
The "Artificial Reef Research Divers Hand- Jacksonville. Some individuals willingly provided
book" should help volunteers to take the first step leadership during the early stages of this program
in the scientific method - MAKE AN OBSERVA- and include: Bob & Joy Engel Dennis & Wendy
TION about their communities' artificial reefs and Short, Larry Tipping, Don andis, John Ham-
DOCUMENT IT. It is specific in that it focuses mond, Marilyn Halusky, Jim Powell, Beth Straw-
on underwater data collection methods with basic bd, Mark & Kim Ulman, Gideon Carpenter,
SCUBA equipment normally used by sport divers. Gary Kirkland, Jacksonville Offshore Sports Fish-
It uses simplified methodology found in a number ing Club, Jacksonville Scubanauts Dive Club,
of science disciplines. It is unique in that it concen- Aquifer Dive Center from the Jacksonville area;
trates on teaching volunteers how to design, lead Leon Dufresne from Brevard County and Mike
and store information for THEIR OWN artificial Mcallister from Nassau County. I apologize for
reef documentation projects. Its practical end is any omissions from this list and regret that can-
aimed at improved reef monitoring and construc- not list all the volunteers who have helped make
tion programs through volunteerism. this program the success that it is. To all I offer
The Florida Sea Grant Extension Programs, my warmest "THANKS"!
Artificial Reef Research Divers Training Program A special thanks goes to Ms. Ginger Layton
and this Handbook, would not be possible were it Pophel and Ms. Janice Hoskins, for their tireless
not for the many volunteer scientists, sport divers, and patient labors in assembling this manuscript.
fishermen, citizens and agency people who will-
ingly gave their time and energy to this effort. The There are a few "Artificial Reef Pioneers"
workshops held since 1980 was dependent on who are no longer with us. They each deserve spe-
those individuals who freely gave their weekends, cial recognition for much of their thinking is
boat time and equipment in support of this activity. found in this handbook. Perhaps, their pioneering
To all of you volunteers who helped, too numerous work will live on through this publication. We
to list here, we offer this "Thank You!" We owe a will never forget them. They include:
special thanks to the original students who gradu- Dick Longo
ated from this training, for in many respects, you Assistant Divemaster
were the "Guinea Pigs" in this grand experiment. 1980 Daytona Beach Artificial Reef
The program would have failed without your pa- 1 ay a eah Ar
tience and dedicated spirit. Research Diver Training.
In any program, a few individuals always Col. C. M. McCormick
stand out for their extra dedication to the project. President
Foremost, is Ed Kalakauskis, to whom this Hand- Ancient City Gamefish Association
book is dedicated. Ed, a graduate of the first work-
shop in Daytona, has continued to be deeplyha an of the Reef C
involved with all the training programs since, and Linden Heston
is the connecting strand between the reef builders Jacksonville Offshore Sportsfishing Club
and reef research divers. He continues to freely Reef Committee and one of the early reef
give volunteer time to all reef activities throughout
the North East Florida region, serving as an inspira- buders Jacksonv
tion to all.
I would also like to recognize and thank Dr. We, the authors, wish continued progress
Quinton White, Jacksonville University, who, with- and success for all who are involved and con-
out compensation, freely gave his time and talents cemed with the wise management of our marine
to this program, from the very beginning. He has habitat resources.
kept a sincere interest in the projects of its gradu- Joe G. Halusky
ates and serves as their academic advisor. He has September 1991
provided additional extension training in Inverte-

XIV
SECTION ONE
Chapter 1
Introduction To Artificial Reef
Research Diving: Theory And Practice
By Joseph G. Halusky
Scientific Diving Safety
A rtificial Reef Research Diving has its roots in Safety is of paramount importance in Scien-
t"Scientific Diving and Diving Technology tific Diving research and never should be compro-
which have evolved since the invention of self con- mised for data. In Diving Technology research,
tained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) however, their may by times when researchers go
in the early 1940's. Early explorers of the under- beyond the commonly accepted limits of safety to
sea made use of SCUBA technology to observe test a new diving concept or to extend human capa-
and document new discoveries that were reported bilities underwater.
in scientific publications, movies, the media and Recognizing the difference between scien-
popular literature. In the 1950's, SCUBA equip- tific diving and diving technology has implica-
ment was first introduced to the scientific commu- tions for planning, safety and the establishment of
nity in the United States, through the efforts of standards which apply to their respective underwa-
researchers at the Scripps Institute of Oceanogra- ter research procedures. Diving Technology re-
phy. Since then, the use of SCUBA and surface search, for example, could require testing new life
supplied diving technology has evolved to become support equipment, or new gas mixtures at excep-
as indispensible as the microscope, as a tool for tional exposures. These procedures may require
scientific data gathering. the diver to be a test subject to work outside the
limitations of "traditional" safety standards. In
Scientific Diving, however, exceeding traditional
Scientific Diving & safety standards is rarely acceptable. Scientific
Diving procedures are limited by the current level
Diving Technology of Diving Technology that is available to the div-
Scientific Diving and Diving Technology ing scientist.
are not the same research effort. Scientific Diving There are also implications for proper dive
is the conduct of underwater operations by divers planning, organizational procedures and the estab-
with the expressed purpose of gathering informa- lishment of special safety standards for Scientific
tion in any basic or applied scientific discipline. Diving, when compared to sport diving. In sport
These include such disciplines as archeology, biol- diving, for example, the objective is recreation. In
ogy, engineering, physical oceanography, geology, a sport dive plan, bottom time is maximized, and
etc. It is diving FOR science, where diving is all precautions are made to minimize stress and
merely a research tool. Diving Technology, on the work, maximize enjoyment, comfort and safety.
other hand, is the science OF diving, where the Abrupt changes in the environment, as limited visi-
subject of the research is diving. It is applied re- bility, thermoclines or heavy seas may be suffi-
search which is focused on increasing man's abil- cient reason to abort a recreational dive, without
ity to function safely underwater. It includes such hesitation.
research disciplines as human physiology, hyper- The word safety in Scientific Diving takes
baric medicine, human engineering and life sup- on new implications beyond that of sport diver
port equipment design etc. It is important to safety. Since the mission of the scientific diver is
recognize the difference between the two. to gather data, safety implies the safe return of the
Artificial reef research diving follows Scien- diver with the data. The job of gathering data
tific Diving methodology that is focused on safely places a burden beyond what the sport diver may
gathering meaningful and objective data about arti- normally be accustomed to when underwater. Not
ficial reefs. It is not Diving Technology research only is the scientific diver concerned with the
unless it is focused on improving the divers ability safety of the dive team, but is also concerned
to gather artificial reef data. about diver performance. They must concentrate

1
on the task(s) of gathering quality information, ob- the leader-follower relationship. For example,
jectively. Stress and distractions imposed by the someone must decide: What data will be col-
environment, a limited air supply and increased lected? How it is to be collected? Who is going to
hazards (compared to a safe laboratory), severely write it down and transcribe it to paper after the
limits the amount and quality of information dive? Who is going to carry any instrumentation
which can be gathered underwater. Procedures for that may be required? Who will operate it? Who
simplifying data gathering tasks and securing it is going to monitor dive time and issue warnings as
must be considered in the scientific dive plan. A bottom time runs out or some hazardous marine
scientific dive plan may require diving under less life intrudes in the study area? This increase in
than desireable (uncomfortable but safe) condi- complexity demands that divers communicate and
tions if the project's objective is aimed at the coordinate long before the actual dive and agree to
study of the effects of these conditions on marine lead and/or follow where appropriate.
life, or the opportunity for getting the data is rare. A research team of more than two persons is
Simply stated, ALL dive plans for scientific likely to be the rule on most research projects.
diving missions must first maximize diver com- Some scientific dive programs use a three person
fort, and minimize stress, work loads, time pres- dive team. Two divers engage in the collection of
sure and the number of tasks each diver must the data, and the third one serves as the team leader
perform. A comfortable diver will produce high and safety monitor. This enables the data collec-
quality data. If he is distracted by an unnecessary tors to concentrate on the research task(s) at hand.
concern for survival he simply will not give ade- Frequently, a project will require more than one
quate attention to his assigned task, and the qual- team. Underwater mapping, usually requires two
ity of the data will suffer. or more teams to complete the data gathering task.
Special safety standards for scientific divers As the number of persons involved increases, so
have been developed by the American Academy does the need for leadership, communication and
of Underwater Sciences (AAUS). They have been coordination.
accepted by the federal office of Occupational The chief scientist and the divemaster for
Health and Safety Administration (OHSA). See any research project must apply their best leader-
Appendix A for AAUS Scientific Diving Safety ship qualities to prepare their dive teams. Proce-
Standards. Divers engaged in underwater research dures for gathering data underwater are typically
activities should adopt the AAUS standards for established by the chief scientist. This is the per-
their organization to insure compliance with son who has determined what data needs to be col-
OSHA's minimum requirements for scientific di- lected that will fulfill the research projects
vers. requirements. Most often, the divers do not have
the same level of expertise that the chief scientist
has in the research being conducted. For example,
Scientific Diving Limitations a fish biologist may want the divers to observe a
A diving scientists mission is to collect pre- certain species of cryptic fish. Divers unfamiliar
cise, accurate (see Chapter 2) and objective infor- with that species, may at first, have difficulty find-
mation underwater. Any impairment to his ing the fish, even though it may be quite prevalent
cognitive abilities, whether from environmental on the reef. The chief scientist must, in this case,
stressors, limitations of life support equipment or extend his leadership role to include training the di-
safety requirements will limit the precision, accu- vers to an acceptable level of competency needed
racy and objectivity of the data collected. In some to produce the desired quality of data.
cases, if the diver is severely stressed, or task In any at-sea operation, all diving activities
loaded, the data actually may need to be discarded which are conducted from a boat, must also have a
because of its questionable reliability, surface crew and additional rescue equipment,
such as a chase boat. The need for coordination
and communication with this crew increases the
Leadership & Scientific Diving level of complexity of the operation. The need for
The conduct of undersea research using firm leadership and communication becomes even
SCUBA as a primary tool has many limitations more apparent.
which require careful planning and adherence to The obvious conclusion is that the quality
the "Buddy System". Adoption of a "buddy sys- and amount of data collected during an underwater
tem" automatically implies that two or more indi- expedition will directly depend on the amount and
viduals are involved with the project, therefore a quality of leadership and organization put into it.
structure for leadership emerges. Expedition planning, leadership and risk manage-
In sport diving, leadership may consist of an ment strategies are at the heart of successful reef re-
agreement "You follow me !" and the team swims search projects. Chapter 11 "Underwater Research
away. In a scientific dive, the task of collecting in- Project Management" provides a more comprehen-
formation adds a significant level of complexity to sive discussion of this subject.

2
 lSude the documenting of the information in some
Scientific Diving Tasks & fashion.
Data Collection COLLECT - capturing or taking of living or
Properly trained and well equipped scientific non-living specimens for later analysis. Includes
divers are capable of performing a wide variety of photography and sound recording as well as use of
tasks underwater. Great discretion must be used environmental instrumentation.
however, regarding how much the individual diver MEASURE - collecting numeric information
is expected to do in the limited bottom time avail- regarding spatial relationships, horizontal/vertical
able to him. Task loading (assigning the diver too distances, sizes and relative positions between
much to do) will result in poor quality data if the study subjects. Mapping.
diver becomes stressed by even the simplest COUNT - numerically quantifying the occur-
changes in the environment. Good scientific dive rence of events, organisms or behavioral activities.
planning will limit the tasks a diver must perform SURVEY - careful examination and re-ex-
and will establish a standard of acceptable perform- amination of selected areas for the occurrence of
ance. Complicated tasks may require two or even certain events, or for comparisons.
three dive teams to accomplish, especially if data
gathering instruments must be deployed. MONITOR - regular collection of certain
data parameters of the same environment over long
Great care must be given to break each task time periods to document physical and/or biotic
down into its simplest steps and individual action changes.
patterns. Then a step by step analysis of each ac-
tion should be considered in the dive plan. For ex- EXPERIMENT - replicated manipulation of
ample, the task of taking temperature using a glass variables to document their effects and determine
thermometer seems simple enough at first. When causal relationships. In a field setting, all variables
broken into its action patterns, it takes on a new cannot be controlled.Underwater research projects
meaning: commonly employ the use of combinationsof these
"1) Remove thermometer from protective generalized tasks. For example, a fish population
"1) Remove thermometer from protective study may require searching, collecting, and count-
case when at the desired depth; 2) Read tempera- study may require searching, collecting, and count-
ture after mercury has stabilized; 3) Return ther- ing to document fish occurrence at a single site.
mometer to protective case; 4) Write temperature, Comparing
Comparunting sites may
andevenmayrequire additional
additional surveying
require suveying
depth, time and date on underwater slate; 5) Pro- or counting and even monitoring.
ceed to next data recording station or task. Note: The procedures for gathering data underwa-
record any "unusual" temperature changes and the ter will largely be determined by the original pur-
depths where observed." pose for the research project and the task level
These five steps each carry additional impli needed to fulfill that purpose. If the purpose of the
cations fohee ive plan. The thermometer needsal imp project is to describe what invertebrates are cover-
cations for the dive plan The thermometer needs ing a reef structure, then there is no need to survey,
a case that won't get lost when the thermometer is monitor or use experimental procedures. A simple
removed from it, so it should be on a lanyard. The coection may be enough. If, however, the project
watch, and
diver will need aa watch, with aa sharp
slate with
and aa slate shap collection
is may be enough. If, however, the project
is to
to determine
determine what
what and
and how
how many
many invertebrates
invertebrates
pencil on a lanyard, to record the data. The diver are on a reef, then the more elaborate surveying or
will need to know where and when to actually take counting methods may be needed.
the temperature, and be aware of any unanticipated
changes. He will also need to know if the tempera-
ture is to be read to the nearest degree, one-half de- Collecting Data
gree or two degrees of accuracy, or is it to be taken Data is simply information. It may be a writ-
three times at each station and averaged. What ap- ten or
ten or voice
voice description
description of
of something
something or
or some
some ac-
ac-
peared to be a simple taking temperature has now tivity or phenomena observed. It may be a number
become a formidable task, unless the procedure or count of something that is recognized according
by thought
carefully
has been carefullD through
thouagreement
before diveSTAND-
theand to acount
or of something that is recognized according
category,
ARDIZED by agreement before the dive. to a category, such as number
such as number of
of Barracuda
Barracuda or
Sharks observed. Data may consist of measure-
ments of something such as temperatures, depths
Generalized Tasks of Diving Scientists or distances between things as for maps. It may be
e fl i o
The following a t actual specimens, videos or photographs, properly
list is organized according to labeled and catalogued.
the level of complexity from the most simple to
the most complex of generalized tasks that scien-
tific divers can perform. Raw & Reduced Data
SEARCH - simple preliminary examination Data can exist in two forms, raw data or re-
of the study area to assess what is there. duced data. Raw data is the actual information as
OBSERVE - looking, listening, or otherwise it was gathered when the observation was being
perceiving organisms or physical conditions to in- taken. It might appear on standardized "Data

3
Sheets", as written or photocopied notes from a phisticated methods or equipment that may only
slate, dive log page or as an original photo, slide be available to the scientific community.
or unedited video or movie film. Reduced data is There are a few considerations applicable to
raw data which has been summarized or edited in all underwater research projects which are funda-
some fashion. Information may be taken from the mental to credible scientific research. This "Intro-
raw data sheets and listed in a table or portrayed duction" and following chapters deal with those
on a graph. It may be reduced further through things considered by the authors to be fundamen-
some mathematical procedure or placed on a map tal to artificial reef research. Perhaps the best re-
using symbols. Each time the data is reduced, view of these fundamental principles can be
some information may be lost or ignored, or worse summarized through a list of basic concepts pre-
yet, erroneously transcribed. Obviously, it is im- sented in this handbook.
perative that the original raw data sheets are pre-
served, along with the reduced data sheets.
Artificial Reef Research
Data Collecting & Preservation Divers Basic Concepts
Guidelines Summary
The collection and preservation of the raw
and reduced data from underwater projects re- 1) Artificial reef research diving follows
quires adherence to a few basic guidelines listed Scientific Diving methodology. Scientific Diving
below: is the conduct of underwater operations by divers
o with the expressed purpose of gathering informa-
* Create a standardized basic raw data tion in any basic or applied scientific discipline. It
sheet. This should be simple and easy to is diving FOR science and is limited by diving
understand (fail safe). Be consistent and technology. The chief scientist is responsible for
avoid frequent changes to the sheet. the science methods used on a project.
* If there is a change (from the standard) in 2) Safety is of paramount importance in Sci-
data collection procedures, it must be entific Diving research and never should be corn-
noted on the raw data sheet, promised for data. Since the mission of the
* Data must be intelligible to any reader, scientific diver is to gather data, safety implies the
Avoid complex coding symbols. If they- safe return of the diver WITH the data. The pro-
must be used, make sure a code key is on ject divemaster is responsible for safety.
the data sheet. 3) Never should the chief scientist and dive-
* Dive log is part of the data. master be the same person.
* Put the Complete Date, Location, and 4) ALL dive plans for scientific diving mis-
Name Of Observer on Every raw data sions must maximize diver comfort, and minimize
sheet, to include year, month and day. stress, time pressure and the number of tasks each
* Use pencil or indelible ink -- no felt tip diver must perform. A comfortable diver will pro-
pens, unless they are waterproof, duce high quality data.
* Remember, "0" is a real number. It 5) The quality and amount of data collected
means you looked for something and did during an underwater project will directly depend
not find or observe it. If you made no ob- on the quality of leadership and organization put
servation at all, you should enter a dash into it. Expedition planning, leadership and risk
(-) or a "Not Applicable" (N/A) symbol management strategies are fundamental to success-
on the data sheet, ful underwater research. The leadership must es-
SMake backup copies of all rawdata tablish a standard of safe and acceptable
sheets and store them in a separate loca- performance.
tion, as soon as possible. 6) The procedures for gathering data under-
* Make sure original or authenticated cop- water will largely be determined by the original
ies of raw and reduced data gets into the purpose for the research project and the task level
archives (see Chapter 12). needed to fulfill that purpose. Procedures must be
carefully thought through and standardized by
agreement before the dive.
Summary 7) It is imperative that the original or
authenticated copies of raw data sheets, along with
Underwater research as it applies to volun- athe nced datac sheets are preserved in the ar
teers involved with artificial reef research is the the e data ee eeev the ar-
special adaptation of sport diving technology to athen
rr erts are a aste the hive
scientific diving. It does not require the use of so-

4
Chapter 2
The Science And Technology
Of Artificial Reefs
by Robert L. Jenkins edge about the real or natural world, with the
knowledge being described by its natural laws.
Now the term natural "laws" can be mislead-
Sport divers' lives and activities have been ing, for it does not imply anything that is unalter-
.greatly affected by both science and technol- able, concrete or non-changing. A NATURAL
ogy. Science has identified the natural laws which LAW is our best overall description of a natural
affect what happens to our body underwater and (phenomena) which can be understood from the
technology has applied science to design the life best accumulated facts we have at that moment in
support equipment we use in diving. How do we time. As facts accumulate, our description of the
define just what science and technology are? natural law may change. Put simply, science de-
Knowing the distinction is important for the begin- scribes our world by developing a specialized lan-
ning scientific diver. Science, in essence, system- guage for doing so. Because we are now openly
atically explores the universe, using strict research refuting one of the more frequently misunderstood
procedures, to determine how natural laws func- aspects of science (being that it is unalterable or
tion, and to learn how to use them. Technology is unchanging), it is important to recognize and high-
the application of the findings of science to man's light several of the more crucial aspects of just
advantage. It is beyond the scope of our work to what science is. Among these are:
go much beyond these rather simple working defi- L Science is a human invention and en-
nitions, however, they will be sufficient for our deavor. As such, it must deal with all the human
discussion. weaknesses that any other human endeavor must
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize cope with. It attempts to restrict the impact of
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize these influences through highly
and disciplined prac-
that are repeat-
you with what science, research, and technology thes standardized procedures
are, and provide some examples of their implica- ices and standardized procedures that are repeat-
tions to artificial reef research. In its essence,.this able by others.
chapter will not be telling you how to do research 2. Science is objective and not conjectural.
on an artificial reef; rather, its purpose is to tell Facts are only those things which can be detected,
you what science and research are about in a philo- observed, proven, and generally accepted. Sci-
sophical, and yet practical sense. We will be con- ence is always open to continual scrutiny, evalu-
cerned about the "whys" of science and not so ation and re-evaluation if deemed necessary.
much with the methods and the means of science 3. Science is not just the documentation of
and technology as they are applied to artificial events and instances in the natural world. Rather,
reefs. Those will be the subjects of the following science is the language that we use to describe
chapters. It is the reasoning behind the "whys" those instances through the descriptions known as
that will be discussed here. natural laws.
4. Science approximates the truth. rather
than attempting to define the truth absolutely. Old
Science: A Definition interpretations of "truth" can change and be al-
Science is a human endeavor that believes tered as new facts are discovered (this is one of
that the real or natural world is described by what the more exciting aspects of science as it continu-
it terms NATURAL LAWS. ally documents new knowledge).
The goal and practice of science is to dis- It is this fourth aspect of science with which
cover and describe these NATURAL LAWS. In the beginning scientist/technician often has the
other words, science is an objective, systematic most difficulty. We approximate the truth in sci-
and logical discipline to examine, describe, ana- ence simply because in forming our descriptions
lyze, and test the real world of natural phenomena. (natural laws), we can never know or be able to de-
The resulting descriptions that are discovered scribe all of the facts and variables which support
through science become the natural laws we are any truth. Science is an endeavor that consistently
seeking. SCIENCE IS SIMPLY A LANGUAGE and constantly seeks truth by the gathering, de-
used to describe a highly integrated form of knowl- scribing, and examination of all facts under all

5
conditions. Consequently, as we become aware of ficial reefs? We will do so through both scientific
new facts, our "truths" must be re-examined and research and the development of technology.
often re-defined, even to the point of being dis-
carded. This process will have particularly impor-
tant meaning in our work on artificial reefs, simply Scientific Research &
because there is so much that has yet to be learned. Technology
It is at this point that the terms "hard sci-
ence" and "soft science" come into play. There are Scientific documentation methods and tech-
"hard sciences" and there are "soft sciences". nology applications are two basic disciplines you
These terms describe the relative strength of the will use in your work on artificial reefs.
facts that support the natural laws of each scientific Scientific research is essentially an endeavor
discipline, and not the degree of difficulty of under- whose motive is the search for truth. Technology
standing them. is the application and re-application of research re-
Going from the harder to the softer sciences, suits to defined goals which usually benefit some-
they run from: mathematics - physics -chemistry - one or something. The typical development of an
biology - anthropology-sociology - psychology, artificial reef is to benefit fishermen through in-
etc. creased populations of certain select species of
Mathematics is the hardest of the sciences be- aquatic organisms (more edible fis!). This usual
cause its facts are precisely defined and built on goal should be based on sound, scientifically
strict numerical logic. Psychology is one of the artificial reef scientific developed through.
softest sciences since its facts about human behav- artificial ree scientific
ior are subject to the scientist himself who cannot An example research project may discover
objectively remove himself from the behaviors he that benthic reef organisms will grow on weath-
describes. The science of artificial reefs, while ered concrete, but not (perhaps due to some toxic
mostly based in the relatively stronger sciences of problem), grow on raw, or uncured concrete. Tech-
physics, chemistry, biology, engineering and geol- nology then would use this natural law discovery
ogy, is presently on the softer side of these disci- (a truth, discovered and described through re-
plines. It should be our goal to make the science search) so that weathered concrete, and not raw
of artificial reefs "harder" than it presently is. That concrete, is used to construct artificial reefs.
is: based more on strict (mathematical) objective Then, in order to improve the overall efficiency of
logic, than on the more subjective personal inter- our technology, further research would be done to
pretations of observed events. find out just how weathered the concrete had to be
before it could be used for artificial reefs. Find-
Thlis also brings us to yet another very impor- ings of that type of research would further
tant aspect of science: that science is a self-correct- of that t of arch would further refine
refine
ing discipline. Science has, as one of its most
fundamental rules, the maxim that it can, and must, A research finding may show that complete
be alterable. We merely approximate the truth in ships, having decks and holes in the hull, make
our natural laws, and therefore, we must always be better (by attracting more game fish) artificial
ready to discard a natural law or truth when the reefs than do plain, bare ship hulls. Again, tech-
facts show it to be no longer valid. This aspect is nology would use this knowledge so that only ship
the one people and even scientists most often for- hulls with holes and decks are used to build artifi-
get. Any truth or natural law is only our best de- cial reefs. In this example, further scientific re-
scription at any one moment in time. It should search on reef technology would attempt to
always be open for re-examination and evaluation determine the ratio of holes and hole size to the
as our knowledge increases. Our science of artifi- size of the ship's hull that optimize the desired ef-
cial reefs will be no exception to this tenant. The fect.
option to re-examine and re-evaluate what we During our work with artificial reefs, both
know about artificial reefs based upon an ever in- scientific research and technology may be ongoing
creasing knowledge base must always be open. at the same time. It is most important to remem-
How then, do we obtain the facts on artificial ber that we must first have sound scientific re-
reefs so that we may define and describe the truths search from which to build a sound artificial reef
or natural laws that govern them? And, how may technology. We then further strengthen that tech-
we employ this knowledge to build successful arti- nology through continuous applied research.

6
Well, just what exactly is sound scientific re- rameters would be needed, and if it is within the re-
search, and just how do we do it? searcher's capability. It should also identify what
the project can not do as well. Once a goal has
been defined, we need a method to attain that goal.
Artificial Reef Research It is at this point that "the scientific method" comes
Scientific research falls into two essential into play.
types: BASIC and APPLIED. Basic research is
commonly known as "pure" research, which
merely seeks knowledge. It has no directed goal The Scientific Method Or
or motive other than pure discovery as its driving Process
force. It has no focus on a real application. It pur- The scientific method is a chain a m of activities
sues knowledge for knowledge's sake.
for knowledge's sake. Th e s c ie n t ifi c m et ho d is a ch . of activities
similar to the Deductive Process Outline found in
Applied research has a specific goal or aim Figure 2.1. The researcher takes existing knowl-
which is focused on solving a problem or meeting edge, makes and documents an observation(s), and
some specified goal by searching for new informa- forms an idea or explanation called the hypothesis.
tion. Technological research is used to REFINE He then designs and conducts experiments (tests)
an already existing knowledge. In its essence, arti- to see if the hypothesis is true or false. The experi-
ficial reef research is applied research, for we are menter attempts to directly control all but one fac-
engaging in it to increase knowledge for specific tor (variable) in the situation to observe how it
goals. However, it will also require some techno- influences the data. Closely examining this vari-
logical research to refine how we may build a able and its effects determines the truthfulness of
more efficient reef that produces a desired prod- the hypothesis. One should not regard the experi-
uct(s). ment as being solely found in the laboratory,
To illustrate, a study to determine the num- where all variables can be carefully controlled. Ex-
bers and seasonal changes of fish around a ship- periments can also include observations, behavior,
wreck is a basic or pure research effort. Doing this and other similar subjects in a field setting.
same study to measure the success of a wreck with Once the experimental phase has been com-
respect to attracting a desired species of fish would pleted, the facts are accumulated, correlated, and
be an applied research project. Undertaking this the new scientific law or discovery is described.
same study to determine how one should alter the The new or "discovered" law may then be used as
wreck to increase the numbers of fish on the wreck a base to develop a new hypothesis and the process
would be engaging in technological research. In can then repeat itself. The knowledge accumulates
fact, all three types of research could be going on and more laws are either formulated or discarded.
at one and the same time in any given project. The At some point, when the discovered laws reveal a
distinction between basic, applied, and technologi- broader pattern, a more general explanation or de-
cal research is primarily based upon the goals and scription may be offered. This broader description
objectives for the research in the first place. This is called the THEORY.
research then serves as the basis for building an ar-
tificial reef technology which will then require fur-
ther technological research to fine tune it to the Deductive Method
specific geographic location where it is found. The foregoing process in science is known as
It is important for artificial reef researchers DEDUCTION. It takes existing knowledge and
to develop clear and well-defined goals for the re- builds on it to increase the number of facts and
search before actually starting it. While it may laws to become a generalized theory see Figure
seem that a motive for reef research automatically 2.1). Deduction was virtually the only identifiable
exists, it is often surprising that so many do not re- scientific method used until the turn of the century,
ally know the direction or reason for doing the which partly accounts for its popularity as the sci-
work. It is simply just not enough to want to do ar- entific method. However, there is another scien-
tificial reef research. One must know wy he or tific process.
she is doing it and what specific question(s) is/are
to be answered. Such a direction or goal may
range from the general (what is there?) to the spe- Inductive Method
cific (how does concrete compare with rubber as A researcher may gather knowledge avail-
reef substrate?), and from the simple to the com- able to him on what he is studying, and by develop-
plex. But, it still remains imperative that clear ing a thorough understanding of that knowledge,
goals be identified for the research effort. make a rather large leap directly to a new law or
After the research goal or direction has been theory. This method is called INDUCTION. Induc-
defined, a project outline should identify how that tion takes existing knowledge and, without experi-
goal may, or may not, be reached, what data pa- ments or other fact finding, infers the existence of

7
a new natural law through a purely mental process. mulation of data reflecting less fish being found in
In essence, it predicts the formulation of a natural the bare hull reef and more fish being found in the
law or theory. The new law or theory is then of- reef made of hulls with decks and holes. Deduc-
fered as being tentative until such time that experi- tion would allow us to develop the natural law de-
mental facts can be found to support or prove it scribing this and we would apply this knowledge
(see Figure 2.1). Often the researcher who makes to develop a technology that builds reefs from
such a leap forward in knowledge will outline the ships with decks and holes in the hull. The induc-
experiments that would be needed to confirm the tive process would start from the knowledge that
inferred law or theory. If such experimental proof fish on natural reefs prefer areas where numerous
can be found and confirmed, the new law or theory nooks and crannies are present. We would then in-
is accepted; if not, then it is cast aside or a search fer that fish would prefer ship hulls with decks
undertaken to explain why it was not found to be and holes over those that were bare. Experimental
true. (See Figure 2.1) proof of our induction would then come from ob-
Both induction and deduction are useful sci- servations once both types of hulls were made into
entific methods. It is important to remember, how- artificial reefs.
ever, that deduction needs only a small amount of Artificial reef research diver technicians
knowledge from which to begin. Induction, to the will use the deductive process almost exclusively.
contrary, requires a much larger and more diverse The current small body of knowledge about artifi-
base of knowledge and a typically longer time for cial reefs prevents highly reliable inductive reason-
the researcher to assimilate that knowledge before ing methods. Particular concern should be on
it can be fully used. The deductive and inductive accumulating field observations that are well docu-
methods are generally combined in the real world mented. The discovery of the natural laws
of scientific research. For example, Darwin's The- through this accumulation of facts (data), requires
ory of Evolution was built from the accumulation standardization in how that data will be accumu-
of an immense base of knowledge and facts or de- lated. It is the "what", "where", and "when" of
duction, and was also developed from a purely data accumulation that must be carefully consid-
mental process using available theories and obser- ered, outlined, and maintained from the start of
vation, or induction. This was a case where both any research project, as well as what kind of data
the deductive and inductive processes have created is to be accumulated. What then is data?
a theory at nearly the same time. The Special and
General Theories of Relativity were built from iso-
lated facts of existing knowledge and Einstein's Data & Its Successful
own inductive mental processes. The two theories
on relativity were later confirmed by other re- Accumulation
searchers' experiments suggested by Einstein, and Data is information in just about any form.
are good examples of the inductive scientific proc- A datum (singular; data is plural) is really nothing
ess being confirmed by deduction later on. more than an event in time that is observed and
How does this apply to artificial reef re- recorded. Data can be the total number of fish ob-
search? If we use the example of the bare ship served on a certain dive, the weather conditions,
hulls versus those with decks and holes in them, the water or bottom conditions, a photo or video
the deductive process would prove the natural law: of the event, or any other parameter set by the per-
"that decks and holes attract fish" through the accu- sons conducting the research. All data recorded

Figure 2.1
DEDUCTIVE PROCESS

Existing Hypothesis >Data Accumulation- 1

Base of (Goal or---Research rnterpretation -)Natural Laws-4Theory
Knowledge Desired r) ExperimentationI LawsT
Knowledge Other Natural Laws

INDUCTIVE PROCESS

Existing Inferred Data Accumulation

Base of ---- Natural--Research )Interpretation
Knowledge Law, LExperimentation

Discarded4-
_.
.
, (Proven or
Disproven)
/ Data Accumulation
, Experimentation
Proven Natural Law
-Theory
Other Natural Law |
The Deduction Process as Compared to the Inductive Process

8
 must include the date it was taken and the name of Quality of Data
the observer to properly account for the informa- The quality of the data is just as important as
tion and its credibility, the definition of the data that is being recorded.
In any research project, the kind of data to Data is typically ordered in a series of facts or ob-
be collected must be defined before it is gathered, servations that may relate to each other in some
Data accumulation has basically two important as- meaningful way. They must be consistently gath-
pects that must always be considered and planned ered and retain high quality from the beginning to
for. The fit is that the data is recorded in some the end of the observational period or experiment
permanent, sharable, understandable and retriev- if the relationship is to have any meaningful sub-
able form. Data can be written on paper, stored in stance. This may appear to be self evident; but it
a computer or any other method defined by the is surprising how often a research project becomes
person conducting the research. The actual worthless simply because good quality data was
method is unimportant as long as it is RE- not taken consistently. Inexperienced or uncom-
CORDED, SHARABLE, RETRIEVABLE AND fortable divers are most likely to be inconsistent
UNDERSTANDABLE. Data which is tucked data gathers.
away inside someone's head or recorded in a code Since data is focused by the project's goals,
known only to the observer, does no one any good it is the responsibility of the research project lead-
and may actually be lost should the person leave, ers (chief scientists) to define the limits to its preci-
forget or die. sion and accuracy. For example, data that records
The second aspect of good data accumula- the numbers of non-edible fish present on an artifi-
tion is that the data is relevant to the research goal. cial reef may be useless if the study is solely con-
This is determined during the outlining of the re- cerned with the numbers of food fish present. If,
search project where the "how, "what," "why," and on the other hand, a study is undertaken that com-
"when" of data collection is decided. The accumu- pares the relative numbers of non-edible fish to the
lation of data is a lengthy and costly affair. This is food fish on the reef, then that data taken before be-
especially true for artificial reef research due to comes both relevant and worthwhile. Just what is,
the costs and time necessary to get to the study and is not, good or relevant data must be defined
site, the limited time spent there, the time return- by the project leaders before the project begins and
ing, preparing, and all the logistics that are needed must be continually reviewed during the course of
to dive on an artificial reef. Therefore, it is very its accumulation.
important to decide beforehand what data is It must be stressed that high technology is
needed and what data is to be ignored. The re- not necessarily needed to accumulate high quality
searcher must realize from the beginning that it is data. In fact, underwater, the most reliable data is
physically impossible to record all possible data often collected by the simplest means. For exam-
encountered during any study. ple, exceptionally good data can be collected with
only a pencil, paper, or plastic slate, and a good set
Data Gathering Methods of eyes!
Since everything that can be observed
around an artificial reef can be recorded as data, Measurements
great care must be given to decide what and how Many types of data can be collected by the
data needs to be recorded and by what method. artificial reef research diver. Measurements and
This depends on the question being asked and the simple observations are probably the two most
limitations imposed on the observer by the envi- used types of data which are often combined.
ronment or experimental design. Occasionally, Some distinction between the two should be made.
the data, or its gathering method, may need to be Observational data is the accurate descrip-
altered during the course of the project as new Observational data is the accurate desc -
knowledge is gained, important information gaps tion orMrepresentation of some detectable phenom-
are found or changes in the situation are encoun- enennt i the comparison of some
tered. Normally, this is not recommended for it phenomenon or happening in the real world
makes comparisons difficult. Any changes to the against a pre-defined standard or scale. Common
type or method of data gathering must be carefull standards of comparison from everyday life are the
described in the records to account for differences inch, the yard, and the Fahrenheit degree. Metric
which may be found in its interpretation later on. standards commonly used in science would be the
Unrecorded changes in data collecting methods centimeter, the meter, and the Celsius degree.
half way through an experiment or an observation Whatever the standard is, it is really nothing more
series could lead to wrong conclusions. This can than the meaement taken and adhered e
even apply to changes in the observers themselves throughout the experiment. Doing so provides
or the instruments they were using. continuity throughout the research project. Often

9
 such measurement standards are already estab- be. One may decide his measurements need only
lished through long use in a particular field of be accurate to the nearest one degree Celsius. Us-
study, such as measuring the temperature of water ing an instrument that measures to the nearest 1/5
in degrees Celsius. Other times, when no formal of a degree, or one that measures to the nearest
standard exists, some form of comparison, geared five degrees, will result in data that is either too
to the project's needs, may have to be developed costly to get or too inaccurate for the project
by the research leader. Therefore it is important to needs. Accuracy is determined by the needs of
standardize the limits needed by the study. Occa- the project; the intended use of the measurement
sionally, it may prove necessary to change the and not the relative sophistication of the available
standard for a certain measurement after entering instrumentation. Thus, a careful consideration of
into a research project. This may be done only if the accuracy needed in any measurement will help
there exists the means by which the now older determine how the measurement is to be taken
form of measurement may be converted with rea- and the device by which it is to be done.
sonable accuracy into the newer standard, such as Precision is an evaluation of how often any
changing inches to centimeters, etc. Establishing particular measurement or series of measurements
the defined standard by which any measurement is is accurate. Simply put, accuracy tells how close
to be undertaken BEFORE the project is started it is possible for us to get to the reality we want to
will also help provide consistent and high quality measure, and precision tells how often we can get
data throughout the project there using methodology and instrumentation. If
one has a measurement that is accurate to the
Accuracy & Precision needs of the project, precision will allow the deter-
Acurcy mination of how often such a measurement meets
It is important to define and outline the those needs. In any measurement it is very impor-
standard by which any measurement is to be tant to ask, "How often is this accurate measure-
taken. It is also important to define the parameters ment accurate?" The answer to this question will
which will govern the type of measurement under- give the relative precision of that measurement.
taken. The two parameters that govern any meas- By now it should be readily apparent that a meas-
urement are accuracy and precision. In common urement may be a mixture of both accuracy and
usage, these are often mistaken as being one and precision, as well as being either. Figure 2.2 illus-
the same. In scientific research, they are quite dis- trates the interrelationship of accuracy and preci-
tinct, yet equally important, aspects of any meas- sion.
urement. In this figure, four darts have been thrown
Accuracy is the evaluation of how close one at three similar targets. In target A, the darts have
comes to the set standard by which something is
being measured. Stated another way, accuracy is a Figure 2.2
measurement of how well one's individual meas-
urements compare to the selected standard. For ex-
ample, if the length of an artificial reef site is
measured in meters, the measurement would be ac-
curate to a one-meter standard if the reef site is
measured to the nearest meter. If, on the other * *
hand, one is unable to measure to the nearest me-
ter, but may only measure to the nearest 10 meters,
then we would have less accuracy, based upon the
one-meter standard.
Accuracy is the means by which one gauges TARGET A TARGET B
how closely one comes to the measuring standard
for any single measurement. The relative degree
of accuracy (the standard), then must be deter-
mined before the measurement is taken. It will do
an artificial reef research project, or for that matter
any research project, absolutely no good to under-
take a measurement and then later find it is not ac-
curate enough for the needs of the project. The TARGET C
degree of accuracy needed must be gauged by the
goals of the project. If, for example, one wishes to Target A--accurate but not recise
measure the temperature of the water around an ar- Target A-accurate ut not ec
tificial reef site, one must determine, just how ac- Target B--precise but not accurate
curate one wishes the temperature measurement to Target C--accurate and precise

10
 landed in a way that is accurate but is not precise, set before the measurement is undertaken. Our
They have hit the target but are scattered over the choice of how and by what instrument a measure-
entire surface of the target. In target B, the thrown ment is taken will affect how accurate and precise
darts are now precise, but they are not accurate; that measurement is.
they are close to one another, but are not in the in- 2) The precision of any measurement can be
tended target itself. In target C, the thrown darts simplified simply by narrowing the accuracy
are both accurate and precise. They are grouped range of that measurement. By closing the gap be-
both in the target and in proximity to each other tween both ends of the measurement range, one
(See Table 2.1). can force oneself into highly precise measure-
ments. For example, you may decide your reef
maps need to be accurate to within 10 meters for
Table 2.1 every 100 meters actually measured. By changing
the acceptable accuracy range to five meters for
every 100 meters measured, you have increased
DIVER COL A OL. B CL C the precision of the resulting maps. Of course, the
A 15.5 13.2 18.5 price of this improvement is an increase in time
and instrumentation needed to achieve this level of
B 21.4 13.0 18.7 accuracy.
3) Accuracy of a measuring device, such as
depth gauge using an analog needle, requires an es-
C 25.3 12.8 19.0 timate be made between a series of similar meas-
urements. A single measurement can be accurate
D 18.2 13.1 18.8 but it can never be precise. A more precise
method would be to measure the depth from the
same gauge five times, and average the readings.
Date Taken: 1/24/84 2/16/84 5/30/84 Of course, to verify the accuracy of the instrument
it should be calibrated against a known measure-
ment.
The results shown in Table 2.1 are measure- 4) Measurements that are accurate and pre-
ments of the water temperature that were made by cise do not have to correspond exactly to one an-
four different divers on the same artificial reef at other. They merely have to be relatively
the same time of day on three successive days. By comparable, as expressed in Column C of Table 1.
reading the available literature on sea temperatures This is where the science of statistics comes into
for this area, an anticipated yearly range of 15 to play.
25 degrees Celsius for this area of the ocean was Statistics and its methods have been devel-
found. The first set of measurements, Column A, oped to measure measurements in relation to each
shows accurate results that are not precise. These oped to measure measurements in relation to each
other and thus determine their meaning relative to
measurements cover almost the entire expected each other. The relative importance of both accu-
range and show little comparative value to each ion
other (i.e., is the
ere 15.5 or 253 de-
temperatureeeof
eempe racy and precision is therefore set in the beginning
the project. Surprisingly enough, observational
grees?) In the second set of measurements, Col- data also fits these descriptions of accuracy and
umn B, all four measurements are precise, but they precision for measurements.
do not appear to be accurate, as they are out of the
anticipated range. The reasons for both of these
problems can be varied: inaccurate thermometer; Observation
poor choice of expected range, or the temperaturesobserv
may indeed be this, and the day on which they Like any other data method, observation is a
were taken was an anomaly. Whatever the reason, way in which to gather perceived and recorded
the results indicate that something is not right and phenomenon or events in time. It is normally con-
deserves to be checked out. Column C, the third ducted with any of the five senses: seeing, tasting,
set of measurements, gives both accurate and pre- hearing, feeling, and smelling. Any scientific in-
cise results. They are at once accurate, for they strument can be used as an extension of any one of
are in our expected range, and are precise since these senses. Essentially, an observer must be ob-
they are close to one another, jective and not subjective in his/her observations.
Objective in this sense means that the observer re-
It is interesting to note several features of cords accurately what is observed and does not im-
measurement and how they are affected by accu- part any of their own ideas, desires, or
racy and precision, interpretations into the observation. For example,
1) Both accuracy and precision are largely one could document from a single observation,
determined by the standard of measurement that is that a certain species of grouper is present on an ar-

11
tificial reef. However, one could not determine if Science is largely a repetitive endeavor, and
the grouper somehow affected other fish on the it takes a great deal of time and many observations
reef until a series of observations were made to to build up the data base to make the research
document the Grouper's effect. This interpreta- meaningful in the first place. It is important to real-
tion could not have been made based solely on the ize that good reef research will not result from a
first and only observation. single dive on any artificial reef. It will be the re-
Observations are, therefore, objective record- petitive, sometimes seemingly monotonous work
ings of sensed phenomena from the real world. built up over extended periods of time, even over
This is not to say, however, that observations can many years that will yield the most worthwhile re-
not be intuitively based. They can certainly be in- sults. Once again, caution must be used not to
tuitive, particularly when one is engaged in the in- change data collecting methods because of their
ductive process of scientific investigation. To monotony. Time must always be taken into consid-
pursue the example above, one may observe the eration when planning and outlining the final re-
grouper on the reef and intuitively sense, based search project. Furthermore, time also has impact
upon previous experience with the reef, that it is on the final step in conducting the research; the in-
having a negative impact on the reef. One could terpretation of all the data and experimentation that
then formulate and conduct an objective study to has been going on up until now. One must con-
determine if this is indeed true. stantly take the time (between data collections) to
Sn o n evaluate what one has done in order to direct one's
Observations not only need to be accurate, future work on artificial reefs.
they should use the most descriptive terms possi-
ble. They need to be precise in that they should be
repeatable under the same circumstances. The
point at which observations can trick one is that
Interpretation &
they are made by the person conducting the re- Organization
search. It is well known that we often observe
things as reflections of our own inherent experi- is the overall method by which one discovers the
ence, prejudices, and desires. We tend to change natural laws which are the language used to de-
(bias) our descriptions based on prior experiences. scribe the realworld. It is the means by which, the
This is why we must maintain every possible ef- artificial reef research diver will discover the
fort to be totally objective when making observa- world of the artificial reef Observation, experi-
tions. As artificial reef research divers, we must mentation, andaareresearc the methods of finding
always be aware of our biases and how they may and describing the facts upon which this language
affect the work being done. For example, if a will be based. Since we are conducting science, it
diver does not believe that non-edible fish have
now becomes necessary for us to explain this work
any impact on an artificial reef,he could choose to so that others may know and make use of it. The
ignore them, and thus, never be able to measure
on the total reef step in which one formulates his explanation of the
the impact that
real impact
the real may have
they may
that they have on the total reef m o h w is k INTERPREIA-
system. True objectivity in science is not arbitrar- Interpretation is the analysis of the re-
it is theInterpretation is the analyss of the re-
ily "turning-off of
ily "tuing-of ofone's self. Rather,
one's self. Rather,itisthe search findings from which the natural law and
knowing of one's own inherent biases and how ultimately the theories, is
theyultimately the theories, isdeveloped
developed into some
into some
they may affect the data. communicable form. The interpretation can also
be called the conclusion, or summary, of the work
Time & Data which conveys the discovered knowledge. Of all
. the steps involved in research and the scientific
The final aspect to be considered in data ac- process, this will be the most difficult, the trickiest,
cumulation is the element of time. It takes, as and the one that requires the most experience to do
mentioned earlier, a great deal of time (and thus properly. This is where the non-scientist must seek
money) to collect and record data. This is of great the advice of professionally trained scientists.
importance in artificial reef research, since so
much time is consumed in just getting to and from The principle reason that the interpretation
the research site. Time is, therefore, one of the or conclusion process is so difficult is that it is ex-
most precious commodities in artificial reef re- tremely easy to reach quick and often wrong con-
search. This is where all the careful planning and clusions before enough facts have been
goal outlining mentioned earlier will have its great- accumulated. As artificial reef research divers, our
est impact. Spending time planning the research hardest task will be to keep from jumping ahead to
while bouncing on the boat over the research site the end of the research process and prematurely
is just plain wasted. Planning is best done on formulating an interpretation about the research re-
shore before the dive. This includes planning for sults before the project is complete. In doing this
safety and maximizing research time at the study work it will always be tempting to take some sin-
site. gle observation or other small aspect of this work

12
and build it into a rather grand fact. This is under- because so much depends on your diving and data
standable, for the hardest thing any researcher or gathering skills. The entire artificial reef research
scientist must learn is that he or she must be pa- process depends on the accumulation of relevant,
tient and wait for the build-up and accumulation of accurate, and precise data for its success. That is
data that will either prove or disprove any given the reef research diver's function. A hypothesis
hypothesis. The scientific literature, and indeed will be supported or rejected on the basis of the
the popular literature through the media, is already data taken. The natural laws or theories that
scattered with the remains of research interpreta- emerge will only be as good as the data that they
tions which were based on either too little data or are derived from. In no small sense, the success of
on the premature interpretations of that data. For any artificial reef research project will depend al-
the artificial reef research diver, one of the most ef- most entirely upon the quality of its data; hence,
fective ways to avoid any premature interpretation the divers who are responsible for obtaining it.
is to have a full understanding of what his role and
limitations are and how that role as a research
diver (technician) is carried out. He should leave Summary
the interpretation in the hands of the professionally Science is a series of steps used to discover
trained researcher, natural laws. Scientific knowledge is built from
data collected over time and the findings from past
f research and studies. In building our science of ar-
Role of the Research Diver tificial reefs, we will be exploring new territory,
In the past, research was usually carried out discovering new facts, and expanding our knowl-
through the efforts of single, professionally trained edge of the real world. We can do so, however,
individuals who did the observations and measure- only because we are basing our work in the begin-
ments, performed the experiments, accumulated ning on the knowledge gained by those who went
the data and facts, and then did the interpretative before us.
work to formulate the laws and theories. During The advent of the volunteer, artificial reef re-
the past hundred years or so this has changed to search diver into the world of science is an excit-
more of a team approach. It is through this team ing one. It is perhaps one of the first real
approach that you will most likely be working as opportunities in which a non-scientist can not only
an artificial reef research diver. Because of the di- experience the fun and joy of doing science, but
verse nature of the disciplines involved in artificial can also have direct and meaningful input into the
reef work (i.e. population dynamics, invertebrate world of scientific research without having to have
zoology, fisheries science, marine engineering, the extensive training typical to most scientific dis-
etc.), no single diver or set of diving partners can ciplines.
do all the work necessary to conduct research on
artificial reefs. Therefore, the role of the artificial
reef research diver is principally analogous to that References
of the laboratory technician in a moder day re-
search laboratory. These technical people are re- Bolding, Kenneth E. 1980. Science, Our
sponsible, by virtue of their training, to do the Common Heritage. SCIENCE, 207:4433, p 831-
observations and data gathering pertinent to the re- 836.
search project and compile the data in a manner Bronowski, J. 1978. Magic, Science, and
relevant to that project. It is the professional scien- Civilization. Columbia University Press, New
tist who should interpret the data collected by the York.
artificial reef research divers. Bronowski, Jacob. 1978. The Common
The modem research team usually has a pri- Sense of Science. Harvard University Press, Cam-
mary researcher, called the Principle Investigator, bridge, Massachusetts.
who leads the research effort to meet the goals of Goldstein, M. and F. Goldstein. 1978. How
the research project.This primary researcher may We Know. Plenum Publishing, New York.
be a scientist or even a small team of scientists Herrick, C. Judson. 1956. The Evolution of
leading the research. It will usually be this princi- Human Nature. University of Texas Press, Austin,
ple investigator who will set the project's research Texas.
goals, standards, evaluate the data, do the final in-
terpretation and analysis of the data, and finally if Ziman, John. 1976. The Force of Knowl-
applicable, publish the results. You, as the techni- edge. Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,
cal person, who collects the data, will play an inte- England.
gral and pivotal role in the research simply

13
 ~

1 nr
~T~ZII~L~:~I=
Chapter 3

Some Basic Considerations

Of Underwater Scientific Photography
Joseph G.Halusky
time the picture is taken, and thus becomes part of
Photography is a powerful tool for a diver/re- the photograph itself.
searcher. It enables the diver to return to the
surface with a visual record of his subject as it was Key Elements of a Scientific
observed for moment in time. The camera-
equipped diver can gather a large amount of data Photograph*
with a few snaps of the shutter, reducing the num- 1. Dat and lime photo was made.*
ber of tasks he might need to get the same informa- * 2. Location where photo was taken (includes de-
tion manually. With proper accessory equipment pth and precise geographic location).*
and/or technique, the camera eye can capture phe- * 3. Name of photographer.*
nomena invisible to the human eye by using infra-e se of te
red film rapid
orby stopping
motion * 4. Scale of photo. (The size of the subject
redstopping
film or rapid
by motion. should relate to some known object, such as a
Many "scientific" photos share characteristics sul tosomenon
relae o
common with "artistically" composed photo- uler penc or
graphs, however, there are subtle differences. * 5. Orientation of photo. (The subject of the
They vary in the value of the story they tell, in photo should be related to some known bench-
their eye appeal and in their composition. The "ar- mark such as distance and direction from a
tistic" photos value is in its aesthetic eye appeal or known point or experimental variable.)
unusual quality while scientific or documentary * 6. Exposure information. (Film speed, shutter
photos derive their value from the amount, quality, speed, f-stop and any special lighting and fil-
credibility and accuracy of the data (information) ters.)
which they contain. Principally, the data photo isdentification
* 7. Project Identification -- Name
Name or
or code
code num
num-
used to reconstruct and document some event and
ber.
to capture qualitative and/or quantitative informa-
tion about the subject. Often a series of data pho- * Indicates information which must accompany
tos is taken to record the progress of a project or each photograph.
experiment or to show a progression of change
over time, such as "before" and "after" photos. Of
course, a good scientific photo can also have a Basic Methods for
high artistic value and vice-versa. Underwater Scientific
Basic Components of a Photography
Camera technique used by scientific photogra-
Documentary Photo phers is generally no different from techniques
Since the primary intent for a scientific photo used by amateur or professional photographers.
is to record data, each photo should have certain All "tricks of the trade," therefore, can be applied
key elements with it to make it acceptable as a sci- and will not be discussed herein. Many suitable
entific document. The key elements should ap- texts already exist on camera techniques and the
pear on or in each photo. Information is placed an reader can refer to them for further information.
the photo after the film is processed and the print The scientific photographer is faced with
made. Information is placed in the photo at the deciding between two photographic approaches to

15
approach. It is the nature of the question being b) Series in relation to time - Photos taken
studied which determines the method used. at regular intervals of time of the same sub-
ject to show change. Movie or time-lapse.
Single-Event Photo Method (Growth of the same coral colony.)
* Definition: In this method, the data needed is c) Series in some pattern - Photos taken
contained in a single photograph. It is a photo along a randomly placed transect using a
of a subject or phenomenon as it occurs. eg., predetermined pattern, not necessarily re-
photo of a fish, or a fish behavior; pictures of lated to a benchmark or regular time inter-
scenes, activities, etc. val. (Used in population surveys of a
* Method: Single photo using still camera. variety of reefs.)
* Application: Used to: Note: Generally it is best to include photo iden-
- document "it happened"; tification information (see Key Elements) in the
- illustrate the "who, what, where, when and photograph series rather than on the photo af-
how" of some event; ter processing.
* Application: Series of photos can be used to:
- record patterns (as fish markings, distribu-
tion on reefs); - survey an environment to obtain numerical
data, such as a strip census or to measure
- record angular relationships, colors, interac- distribution of organisms in relation to iden-
tions between individuals (as hermit crabs ratr orencm s
and their shells or cleaning behavior of fish tifed parameters or benchmarks;
at a cleaning station); - make maps;
- show relationships with their environment; - measure relationships between individuals
such as in fish schools (Slow motion mov-
- document experimental procedure, meth-
ods and progress. ies);
- measure animal behavior action patterns;
- can easily be made available for publica-
tion. - measure growth rates or otherwise unper-
SDceivable changes as with time lapse photog-
raphy of slow moving organisms on reefs.
- cannot document relationships over great n : e sri o poo
distances; Disadvantages: The series of photos:
distances;
Si i f c - takes more preparation and more space than
- is inaccurate for comparing individuals not
n tthe single event photo, and may require spe-
in the same photo or for survey information;
cial viewing equipment. (Loss of one
- cannot show elements of change over time photo could destroy value of the series);
(however, single-event photos can be ana- - not as useful for organism identification
lyzed when made part of a series); since the photo series is not oriented to just
- as a single photo, it cannot be used for as- one subject, but instead oriented in space
sembling quantitative data or making popu- and time. (A fish may not stay within the
lation estimates. limits of your survey area when the photo is
being taken);
Systematic Photo Series - may be costly, depending on the measure-
* Definition: In this method, the data is obtained ment and orientation equipment needed to
by comparing a series of photos which were get the series;
taken so that each photo is related to others in eres
space and/or time. Example: series of photos usua requires more than two divers and
me
taken to make a strip map or a movie film. A t
movie is a group of still photos taken in time se- '
nes. - may be difficult to analyze since the data
SMethd: exists in more than one photograph.
a) Series in relation to a benchmark -- Pho-
tos taken in order, at regular intervals from Storage and Retrieval of Scientific
a known benchmark. (Bottom survey of in- Photos
vertebrates along a transect line from a per- Taking the photo or photo series is only a
manent benchmark.) small portion of the work surrounding scientific

16
photography. A photograph is like any other length and cost of the study; the nature of the ques-
"specimen" or "data sheet" that should be safe- tion being asked; and the need for accurate photo
guarded and filed for later use. Project photogra- record documentation.
phers should consult with the archivist to insure
their work is entered into the archives properly.
Careful consideration should be given to purchas- Suggested References
ing cabinets and film holding devices since pho- Andrewartha, H.G. (1961). Introduction to
tos, video tapes, movie film and negatives may the Study of Animal Populations, The University
have special handling and storage requirements. of Chicago Press. 281 pp.
Like any specimen, each photo and negative
should be labeled with the minimum information Bass, George (1966). Archeology Underwa-
on it to include: date photo taken; location and ter, Penguin Books.183 pp.
photographers name. Church, Jim and Church, Cathy (1972). Be-
Organizing the photos for later retrieval can ginning Underwater Photography, 2nd Ed.,
be the greatest challenge. This requires a catalog- Pischel Inc., Pasco, WA. 56 pp.
ing system and some procedure for loaning out the Church, Jim & Church, Cathy. (1986). The
photos for those needing to use them. Library Nikonos Handbook, Herff Jones Yearbooks, PO
techniques for assigning topic headings for various Box 3288, Logan, UT 84321
photos would be useful for organizing the photo ar- Church, Ron (1971). Beginner's Guide to
chives. One excellent publication titled "Organiz- Photography Underwater, Ron Church Publica-
ing Your Photographs" by Robl (1986) offers tions, La Jolla, CA. 64 pp.
many good suggestions for filing the photos and Frey H.and P. Tzimoulis 1963. Camera
even computerizing information about them for Association Press New York. 224 pp.
quick retrieval. Photos should be cross indexed
with the original data and dive log sheets stored in Hedgecoe, John (1979). The Photogra-
the reef data archives. One good way of achieving pher's Handbook, A.A. Knopf, New York. 352 pp.
this is to store a photo log sheet in the specific reef Kinne, Russ (1962). The Complete Book of
site files, or project file. Nature Photography, A.S. Barnes & Co. Inc., New
York 191 pp.
Kodak, Eastman (1972). Bibliography on
Summary Underwater Photography and Photogrammetry. P-
The diver/scientist/photographer has at his 124, E. Kodak Co. 30 pp.
disposal a powerful, time-saving tool for docu- Meyers, LS. and N.E. Grossen (1974). Be-
menting underwater phenomena. He must, early havioral Research: Theory, Procedure, and De-
in his prtoject design, select the appropriate cam- sign, W.H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, CA.
era technique and method (single event or system- 353 pp.
atic photo series) by which to gather his data. Robl, Ernest H.(1986). Organizing Your
When considering photography as a tool for data Photographs. Amphoto or Watson- Guptill Publi-
gathering, careful consideration must be given to: cations, 1515 Broadway, New York, NY. 10036.
limitations of the equipment, lighting and film; en- 191 p.
vironmental parameters which affect photography;

17
)r:

~
Chapter 4
Oceanographic Data Collection
And Reef Mapping
perature, salinity, turbidity and dissolved oxygen;
Christopher P. Jones and water depth.
There are only a few references dealing specifi-
he collection of oceanographic data by divers cally with the stability of artificial reefs (Kim, et
rp coecon of oceanographic data by divers 1981; Aska, 1981). However, there are numer-
Sis an important part of any artificial reef pro- al., 1981; Aska, 1981). However, there are numer-
gram. The data are needed for: site selection, as- ous references dealing with submarine soil mechan-
sessment of physical to the reef over
changes productivity. time ics and hydrodynamic forces related to pipelines
andofassessment
biological While and offshore construction; much of the information
and assessment of biological productivity. While reefs (Grace 1978; Chang
some physical site selection data can usually be i o re (rac
and Ford, 1978; American
gathered during a single dive, assessments of bio- and Ford, 1978; American Society
Society of
of Civil
Civil Engi-
Engi-
logical productivity and reef stability requires neers, 197; American Society for Testing and Ma-
dives over
many an extended period of time. terials, 1972; Schenck, 1975; Herbich, 1981).The
many dives over an extended period of time. NOAA Diving Manual (Miller, 1979) is . also a
The data are not the only consideration. Just good general reference for reef divers.
as important are such things as measurement tech-
niques, documentation of time and location of
measurements, storage and retrieval of data (See Reef Stability
Chapter 12: "Archives"). Unless the measurement
techniques are standardized, and unless the time Stability of an artificial reef can be defined
and location of the measurements are known, the as the ability of the reef to resist settlement dis-
data will be of no value. Standardized techniques placement and deterioration. The long-term stabil-
for data gathering can help the diver make the ity depends upon many things: reef material(s),
most efficient use of bottom time and get.maxi- water depth, waves and currents, bottom sedi-
mum use out of the data. Reef maps can provide ments, etc. A reef monitoring program should be
one of the best ways to handle data and to docu- designed to document any changes in reef structure
ment changes to the reef structure over time. The and orientation, as well as material deterioration.
type of map to be used (and the oceanographic The program should gather sufficient oceano-
data to be measured) will depend upon the goal of graphic data to correlate changes in the reef with
the data collection program. these data. The reason for looking at reef stability
The important thing to remember is that the is to note changes in the reef elevation, structure or
The important thing to remember is that materials that affect the biological productivity of
reason for collecting data and noting artificial reef the artificial reef. These changes can occur gradu-
changes is to increase our understanding of reef be ally over a long period of time or they can occur
havior under certain oceanographic conditions and suddenly, particularly during severe storms. For
to improve siting and construction techniques. Un- these reasons, monitoring programs shouldsu include
include
hydrody-
of hydrody-
understanding of te ro m p
fortunately our present understanding periodic dives at a reef site, and should allow for
namic forces on reef elements and submarine soil dives after storms as soon as conditions safely per-
mechanics does not allow for accurate prediction mit.
of reef stability. Furthermore, expensive data col-
lection programs using sophisticated equipment Important changes can be divided into five
are required to make even approximate predic- categories: settlement. siltation, collapse. disinte-
tions. Since most artificial reef projects have mini- gration and scattering. The first four all result in a
mal funding, data collection programs must be loss of reef, while the fifth results in a dispersal of
simplified; siting and construction decisions must reef materials over a wide area.
be based on limited information and carefully re-
searched principles. Divers will play an important Settlement and Siltation
role in collecting data and monitoring reefs so that
these principles can be refined and improved. Settlement occurs when the bearing capacity
Oceanographic data as used in this chapter will in- of the bottom sediment is not sufficient to support
clude such parameters as: current direction and the reef elements or when the sediment liquifies
magnitude; direction, height and period of surface during storm conditions -- the reef sinks into the
waves; bottom sediment characteristics; water tem- bottom. Siltation occurs when waves and currents

19
carry sediments into the reef area, where for one Disintegration
reason or another they settle out, slowly burying Disintegration refers to the deterioration of
the reef elements. reef materials. This occurs most commonly with
Bottom characteristics should be investi- automobiles, appliances and other elements made
gated carefully as part of any artificial reef site se- of thin sheet metal that corrode rapidly.
lection process. This is to ensure that settlement Disintegration may result in localized or to-
will not occur, or if it does, that the expected settle- tal failure of a reef; it may occur slowly or rapidly,
ment will not be a problem. Settlement of a reef depending on the type of material used to con-
can be monitored by driving one or more steel rods struct the reef and the forces acting on it. Docu-
or pipes into the bottom at the reef site and measur- menting deterioration will require that
ing the elevation of the reef elements with respect photographs and/or notes describing condition at
to the tops of the rods. Siltation can be monitored the time of placement be compared with similar re-
by measuring the distance from the tops of the cords from a later date.
rods to the sediment. The rods can also be used as , w
horizontal and vertical control points for mapping In many cases, deterioration will be obvious
efforts. (e.g., a broken hull or collapsed deck on a barge or
boat). Divers should concentrate on documenting
significant changes rather than the minor or not so
Collapse and Scattering obvious ones. They should look for such things
Coll„ap is used to describe the movement as: changes in height, break up of large pieces into
enlargement of major cracks and
of reef elements from their original configuration smaller ones,
smaller ones, enlargement of major cracks and
to one of a lower profile. Individual elements re- holes, corrosion and disappearance of metal sheets
main intact during this ocessor wood planks, etc. It is helpful to mark a piece
or part of a reef so that divers can return to the
Scattering occurs when reef elements spread same place to follow movement of tagged materi-
out over the bottom (low density materials such as als to document change.
tires are susceptible).
Measurements of collapse and scattering will
be more involved, due largely to the nature of reef Oceanographic Data
materials subject to these changes - the elements Collecting oceanographic data is an impor-
are usually small and placed in large quantities tant part of any site selection or reef monitoring
(tires, appliances, culvert, rubble, etc.). In order to program. Divers must collect the data systemati-
measure collapse and scatter accurately, the diver cally and record it carefully. Following the proce-
must have a complete and accurate post-construc- dures outlined in this chapter will help divers to
tion map showing the locations and positions of gather the most important data. Using a stand-
the reef elements. He must then return to the site ardized data recording sheet (see Appendix B for
later to construct another map. Mapping can be ac- examples), will ensure that the necessary oceano-
complished with tape and compass, or with more graphic data area collected, and that other impor-
sophisticated (and expensive) equipment. Ray- tant information is also recorded. This additional
mond (1981) describes such a project, where side- information should include: surface position (lati-
scan sonar and underwater photographs were used tude and longitude, or LORAN), date and time (be
to map a tire reef. sure to note whether times are daylight savings or
Ideally, differences between the maps should standard), a brief description of meteorological
be due only to collapse or scatter, but this may not conditions (air temperature, wind speed and direc-
be the case. Poor conditions, limited visibility and tion, cloud conditions, etc.) and the name of the
errors in measurement will all be reflected in the person making these observations.
differences between the maps. Divers should rec- Even though divers will not be able to col-
ognize that bottom time limitations and other con- lect data during storms (when conditions will have
straints may not allow them to precisely locate the greatest impact on reef stability), they will be
individual reef elements, and that maps will there- able to collect data during "normal" conditions or
fore contain some errors. This is acceptable, pro- shortly after such events, which are probably more
vided that divers accurately map the boundaries of important biologically. The data can be analyzed
the reef, and the shape and height of its major fea- in conjunction with fish counts and other biologi-
tures. These data will allow gross changes in reef cal observations to improve our understanding of
structure to be documented. Remember, it will not artificial reefs. Some analysis has been done (Bor-
be worth the effort to map large numbers of indi-
vidual elements within a reef site, except during
highly unusual circumstances.

20
tone and Van Orman, 1985a; 1985b) but more direction. Bottom currents can be measured in a
data needs to be collected. similar fashion. Observe the time it takes fine sedi-
ment or other particles suspended in the water to
travel a measured distance along the bottom. Dye
Currents pellets can be carried to the bottom in waterproof
Currents are one of the most important fac- packages by divers and then opened; the dye will
tors affecting reef stability. It is the flow of water color the water and allow for speed and direction
past an artificial reef that creates hydrodynamic measurements to be made. These simple tech-
forces capable of shifting reef elements, scouring niques have some advantages over the use of hand-
or depositing sediments, reducing the bearing ca- held or other types of current meters. First, there is
pacity of the bottom and supporting the commu- much less cost involved, and second, low veloci-
nity of filter feeders. ties that are below the threshold for current meter
Unfortunately, the strongest currents (and operation can
operation be measured.
still be
can still measured.
the greatest movement of reef elements) usually The most practical way for reef divers to im-
occur during severe storms - when divers cannot prove our understanding of reef stability is by mak-
make observations. If a self-recording current me- ing systematic current measurements and
ter can be installed at the reef site, measurements observations of reef movement. Since it is difficult
of storm currents can be obtained and correlated to predict accurately the effects of currents on arti-
with observed displacements of reef elements, ficial reef elements, simple correlations between
Even if a self-recording current meter cannot be in- currents and movement must be developed from
stalled, a post-storm dive on a reef as soon as con- the data collected. Nevertheless, it is useful to re-
ditions safely permit will yield valhable view the forces that will act on a reef element so
information, that divers will have a basic understanding of
them. (See Figure 4.1, which illustrates the vari-
Currents at a particular location can be the ous forces acting on a single reef element in the
result of several things: waves, tides, winds or psce a crent with velity
large-scale current systems (eg. the Gulf Stream). presence of a current with velocity V.)
Currents can move in one direction or they can be Figure 4.1
oscillators (divers often refer to oscillator bottom
currents as "surge" or "wave surge"); they can FB FL
change speed or direction rapidly or they can be
slowly varying; they can be nearly uniform
throughout the water column or they can change
from surface to bottom. For these reasons, current WATER
measurement programs should be thought out care- VELOCITY, FD
fully. Over time it will be possible to establish a
current data base at a reef site, just as meteorolo- V -
gists have esiablished climatological norms and -FH
extremes for sites on land.
This data base should include the following W
information: surface position; date and time of Fv
measurement; surface current speed and direction
The forces indicated inthe figure are described
below:
(note that current direction is specified as the direc-
tion in which the water is moving toward - this isow
opposite to the convention used for winds and W = the weight of the reef element in air
waves, which are specified according to the direc- FB = the buoyant force acting upward on the ele-
tion from which they come); bottom current ment (note that the differences between the weight
speed, direction and distance from the bottom to and buoyant force Is the submerged wright)
the point of measurement (since the velocity de- FV &FH = the soil forces acting on the element
creases as you get close to the bottom). Be sure that tends to resists settlement and lateral move-
that bottom current measurements are made "up- ment, respectively
stream" of any reef elements or obstructions (in-
cluding other divers) that might distort the flow FD = the drag force acting in the direction of water
field. Note any rocking or movement of reef ele- movement
ments when the measurements are made. FL = the lift force acting on the element in the verti-
Current measurement techniques need not cal direction due to the flow around an asymmetri-
be complicated. In fact, the simplest are some- cal element of to the alteration of the flow pattern
times the best. At the surface, measure the time it around the element due to the presence of the bt-
takes floating debris or foam to pass an anchored tom
vessel. Dividing the vessel length by the measured FI = an inertia force present only in accelerating
time yields the current speed; a compass provides (wave-induced) currents

21
 Note that the hydrodynamic forces (FD, FL, particles under a deep water wave tend to move in
Fi) depend upon the speed of the current and the circular orbits, while those under intermediate and
area or volume of the reef element; if the speed in- shallow water waves tend to follow elliptical paths.
creases then these forces will increase also. Like- The magnitude of the water particle motion
wise, if the size of the element subjected to the is greatest at the surface and decreases with in-
current increases then the forces will increase, creasing depth.There is little decrease in the case
The magnitudes of the hydrodynamic forces of shallow water waves - currents at the bottom are
also depend upon certain empirically determined almost as strong as those at the surface. Deep
coefficients. For example, the drag force can be de- water waves, on the other hand, only affect the
scribed by the following equation: water column down to a depth approximately
FD = pCDA V2 equal to one-half the wave length.Thus, while a
Where p is the density of the water, A is the diver might
water find it impossible
with surface waves to work
greater in 50 feet
than several hun-of
projected area normal to the current and CD is the wter with rfe a v es gr a ter t ev er al h u n -
drag coefficient. In general, CD will vary with the dred feet i length, he would not even be aware of
shape of the element, the roughness of the element waves shorter than 100 feet in length. The effects
and the speed of the current (i.e., CD is not con- on reef stability would be analogous: deep water
stant, but a function of V). waves would affect reef elements while intermedi-
ate and shallow water waves might move the ele-
It is difficult without detailed field and labo- ments (and bottom sediments) easily.
ratory studies to calculate the drag force and other
hydrodynamic forces on a reef element, particu- Observing waves at the surface will involve
larly if it is of an odd shape or if it is surrounded three things: estimating wave height, wave
by other elements which distort the flow field, period and wave direction. This will be relatively
easy if only one wave train is present, but may be
more difficult if two or more are present. Never-
Surface Waves theless, the same procedures apply -just try to
waves barewind As the
Mostcaused observe individual wave trains separately. If the
wind
ews b ve
wind blows over the water surface ene. s-
energy is trans- sea is too confused, estimate the characteristics of
mitted to the water and waves are formed. Wave the dominant wave only.
characteristics depend on the wind speed, the dis- s be etee heFigure 4.2 is the vertical
d s ta n ce b e t w e en t h e top ( cr est ) an d t h e b o tto m
tance over which it blows (the fetch) and the length i
of time that it blows. The sea surface at a particu- (trough) of the wave. If waves are very regular,
lar location may be calm or very irregular, depend- the height of each successive wave will be nearly
ing upon local winds and the presence of waves identical. If wave heights vary, the "significant
generated at far away locations; the surface may be wave height" should be estimated - this is the
average height
average height of of the
the hightest
hightest one-third of the
composed of waves travelling in a single direction
or of waves travelli ingseveral directions, waves. Estimate wave heights to the nearest foot.
Wave period is the time it takes successive
Waves are classified according to the ratio of wave crests to pass a fixed point. When wave
their length to the water depth as deep water period is measured, record the total time it takes
waves, intermediate waves or shallow water n wave crests to pass, then divide by n-1, where n
waves. Deep water waves are those whose length is large enough to average out variatons in
is less than twice the water depth; shallow water period. Round the result to the nearest second. A
waves are those whose length is one-half the water convenient value of n is 11 since the total time is
depth. Intermediate waves lie in between. This dis- then divided by 10 - an easy calculation. Count
tinction is important since waves not only affect only the passage of crests from the larger waves
the sea surface, but also the water column below: and neglect the smaller ones, if the surface is
waves generate oscillating currents that extend irregular.
down into the water (see Figure 4.2). The water

Figure 4.2

H-2

Deep Inlermediate Shallow

Water Water Water

22
 Wave direction is the direction from which Unlike water temperature, salinity does not
the waves are coming, not the direction in which have to be measured in situ. It can be measured
they are moving. For example, waves approaching on board a ship or on land from water samples
from the northeast would be recorded as 450. collected by divers. It can be measured by any
Measure direction to the nearest 50. number of ways, but probably the simplest is with
a thermometer and a hydrometer. A more expen-
sive but simpler refractometer uses a visual
Water Temperature method to determine salinity by measuring the
The temperature of seawater tends to vary refractive index of the water. It is independent of
with season, location and depth. Seasonal tempera- temperature. Water samples should be collected
tures can vary by 10 degrees centigrade, or more, on the reef, since that is where encrusting organ-
depending on latitude. Regardless of season and lo- isms and fish will be. There is no need to take
cation, there is usually a difference between sur- water samples in the water column unless pelagic
face and bottom temperatures of a few degrees species are being investigated.
(this may not occur in some cases where water
depths are shallow and where the water column is
well-mixed). This temperature drop may be grad- Transparency/Turbidity
ual from surface to bottom or it may be sudden, oc- Transparency and turbidity are two terms
curring at an interface between two distinct layers used to describe the clarity of water. Transpar-
of water called a thermocline. In some cases whereiy of w r
water depths are great, there may be three (or i transmit
hie
ht turiity
more) layers and two (or more) thermoclines. transmit light, while turbidity is
is aa measure
measure of
of the
the
amount of particles suspended in the water: as
When water temperatures are measured as turvidity increases transparency decreases. These
part of a reef siting or monitoring dive, the water measurements will vary with the number, size and
temperature should be measured in situ, just under type of particles suspended in the water, and with
the surface, above and below a thermocline, and the nature and intensity of the illumination.
near the bottom. The depths at which the thermo- One of the simplest ways of measuring
clines lie should be noted, water clarity is with a secchi disk - a circular disk
whose surface is divided into quadrants painted
Salinity white or black. Oceanographers lower the disk
into the water from a ship and record the depth at
Salinity is a measure of the amount of dis- which the disk is no longer visible.
solved solids in water. It is usually expressed in Divers can also emply a secchi disk, but in
parts per thousand (ppt), with normal seawater hav- a slightly different way by measuring the horizon-
ing a salinity of 33 to 37 ppt. Salinity may be sig- tal distance along the bottom to a point when the
nificantly less near fresh water sources such as disk in no longer visible (See Figure 4.3). Note
river mouths, tidal inlets and offshore springs, that divers must be careful not to stir up bottom
There is a unique relationship between the density,
temperature and salinity of seawater: knowing any
two specifies the third. Appendix C illustrates

Figure 4.3

SECCHI
DISK

20 cm

23
 sediments when this technique is used; if clarity is Gravel is a term used to describe small
to be measured on a dive, this should be the first pieces of rock ranging from many centimeters to a
task performed so that diver activity during other few millimeters in diameter.
tasks will not affect the results. and particles are smaller than gravel, but
larger than silt. The division between sand and silt
Dissolved Oxygen is from .05 - .074 mm, depending upon the classifi-
cation system used. Most sand-sized particles oc-
Dissolved oxygen affects the health and dis- curring offshore are quartz particles or shell
tribution of finfish, shellfish and other creatures in- fragments.
habiting a reef. Unfortunately, it is difficult to particles are smaller than sand but larger
measure accurately. Since it varies with tempera- than .002 -. 006 mm in size. Silts can displa
th an
ture and pressure, water samples cannot be col- *. 0 2 - *°0 6 mm s lz e
. S l l ts
. p^
tured
lectedand broughtto the surface for annot be col-ysis some cohesive properties, but this is due usually to
and brought to the surface for analysis the presence of small amounts of clay particles.
unless special techniques are employed.These may the pr of smal amounts of cly prtis.
be beyond the scope of routine reef monitoring. Clay particles are very fine (< .002 to .006
For those that are interested, section 8.8.3 of the mm, depending upon the classification system
"NOAA Diving Manual" (Miller, 1979) describes used). The most common clay minerals are mont-
procedures that can be used to collect and trans- morillonite, kaolinite and illite. Clays can be very
port water samples for later dissolved oxygen sensitive (losing much of their strength when
analysis. disturbed).

Bottom Sediments Sediment Correlation

Bottom sediment characteristics are one of Since there is a fairly good correlation be-
the most important factors controlling the stability tween sediment type (i.e, size) and strength, it is
of an artificial reef. If the bottom has a low bear- important that the reef diver be able to differentiate
ing capacity or if it is susceptible to liquification between them. This can be accomplished in two
during storms, reef elements will settle, ways. First, sediments of various sizes can be ob-
general, it
In general,
In it is
is very difficult to
very difficult to accurately
accurately tainedsediment
with in containers
and keptsamples for visual comparison
obtained from reef sites.
estimate the bearing capacity of bottom sediments h sediment samples obtained from reef sites.
with either in situ or laboratory tests. This is due This method is usefulfor distinguishing between
to the fact that the results depend upon the type of gravels and coarse, medium and fine sands.
test performed and the degree to which the sedi- The second way of differentiating between
ment sample is disturbed during sampling and test- sediment sizes is more useful for distinguishing be-
ing. However, there are some basic correlations tween coarse-grained sediments, silts and clays. It
between the type of sediment, its resistance to involves placing a sediment sample in a jar of
penetration and its bearing capacity. These will be water, shaking it and letting the particles settle.
discussed later in this chapter. The sand and coarse-grained sediments will settle
First, it is necessary to adopt a sediment clas- out in less than 1 minute, the silt particles will set-
sification system (see Appendix D).Bottom sedi- tle in 10 minutes to 1 hour, while the clay particles
ments can be composed of a variety of types and may take several hours to settle (Bowles, 1977).
sizes of particles. Clay, silt, sand, gravel, shell By noting the thicknesses of the layers, one will
and rock are those most commonly encountered. have an idea of the proportions of different size
The finer particles (clay and some silts) are cohe- sediments i the sample.
sive - there are electrochemical forces between par- In general, fine-grained sediments such as
tides that account for most of the strength of the silts and clays should be avoided when siting artifi-
sediment. The coarser sediments (sand, shell and cial reefs, unless rock lies close to the sediment sur-
gravel) are cohesionless and rely solely upon fric- face. They are usually soft and reef materials
tion between particles for strength. placed on them will tend to settle. Sediments com-
Rock may occur in large formations or as posed of sand, shell and gravel provide greater
fragments suspended on or in other sediments. It strength and are preferred. Even these sediments
sometimes occurs as outcrops on the bottom, but are subject to occasional settlement problems.
is usually overlain by sediments a few inches to This usually occurs during periods of high wave ac-
several feet in thickness. Rocks occurring off- tivity. The waves set up cyclic variations in the
shore of Florida are sedimentary in origin, with pressure of water contained in the pores between
sand and/or shell cemented together. These sedi- the sediment particles. When the pore water pres-
mentary rocks posssess varying strengths, and in sure equals the pressure exerted by the submerged
some cases may fracture or wear readily, sediment, the soil liquifies and loses its strength.

24
 This may happen only briefly, but can allow reef Rock bottoms will provide a good founda-
elements to settle, tion for artificial reefs, particularly when overlain
Coarse-grained sediments that have nearly by a few centimeters of sediment. The rock will
equal proportions of various grain sizes are called limit the depth of settlement while the sediment
"well graded" and are not normally subject to liqui- will help stabilize the reef elements against move-
fication. Poorly graded sediments (i.e., sediments ment caused by waves and currents.
composed almost entirely of a certain grain size) Determining whether or not rock lies below
are called "well sorted" or "uniformly graded" and loose sediment can be accomplished by pushing,
are more susceptible to liquefaction. Of these, driving or jetting a probe into the bottom until it
fine sands tend to liquify more easily than coarse will go no further. If rock is encountered, its depth
sands and gravels (Chang and Ford, 1983). below the bottom should be measured. Note that
Those same sediments that tend to resist the reef diver is usually not interested in any more
liquefaction (well graded sediments composed of than the first meter of sediment. If rock lies deeper
sand, shell or gravel) also offer the greatest bear- than that, it will be of little use in halting the settle-
ing capacity. While it is a difficult parameter to ment of a reef, unless the reef is constructed of
estimate accurately, reef divers can develop a feel- very large elements.
ing for the suitability of various sediments for reef Remember other factors besides bottom sedi-
construction with a simple tool called a penetrome- ment characteristics must be considered when se-
ter (see Appendix F). A penetrometer is a rod that lecting a reef site. Water depth, the influence of
is forced into the bottom a known distance by a currents and waves, and the type of reef materials
load that is measured. A sediment with a high will all affect the success of a reef. For example,
bearing capacity will require a greater load to push steel fuel tanks with the ends removed (thus resem-
the penetrometer into the bottom a fixed distance bling pipe) were placed in 70 feet of water off Jack-
than will a sediment with a low bearing capacity, sonville on June 1, 1983. By June 30, 1983 some
By using the penetrometer at several sites of the tanks had worked their way into a limestone
where artificial reefs have already been con- bottom as much as 70 cm. The tanks were from
structed and where varying degrees of settlement 1 m - 2 m in diameter and 5 m - 8 m in length,
have been observed, reef divers can develop a cor- with a wall thickness of about 6 mm. Concrete
relation between measured penetration resistance pipes of comparable diameters were placed at the
and potential settlement. Of course, other factors same time, but settled only through a few centime-
such as water depth, type of reef material, etc. will ters of sand over the limestone. Calculations
have to be accounted for when the correlation is showed that the submerged weight of the concrete
developed, pipe (per m of length) was 2 to 3 times that of the
steel tanks - a significant difference. Divers ob-
Figure 4.4 served that the steel tanks rolled back and forth
with only 1 - 2 foot waves at the surface, while the
concrete pipes remained still. The movement of
Handle the steel tanks abraded the soft rock and the tanks
Hoammer worked their way into the bottom.
Guide
Shaft
Sediment Sampling
Hammer Reef divers may be concerned with both the
surface sediments and those below the surface,
which can include unconsolidated sediments as
Drnve Head well as consolidated sediments (rock).
The best way to sample unconsolidated sedi-
Shaft ments, both on the surface and beneath, is with a
thin-walled core tube (usually clear plastic or PVC
pipe, a few cm in diameter). The method (de-
3 scribed in Methods Summary) provides a consis-
tent way of sampling, while ensuring that all grain
SCone sizes present in the sediment are retained in the
sample, and that there is minimal disturbance to
This figure from the Naval Civil Engineering the sample. A clear plastic pipe allows the reef sci-
Laboratory, 1985, shows one of several types entist to examine any layers in the sediment and to
of penetrometers that might be used. It is a perform grain size analyses on the sample. If a
good choice since it was developed specifi- sediment sample is collected by hand and placed in
cally for use underwater, a container, the finer particles can slip through the

25
fingers or be suspended in the water and the sedi- allowable position error, the allowable angular er-
ment structure will be destroyed. ror decreases and the length of a measured distance
If a surface sample is all that is required, the increases. For example, if an object must be lo-
core tube needs only to be about 6 inches long. cated within five meters of its actual position, the
Partially filling a longer tube is not good practice maximum allowable angular error over a distance
since this allows the sample to shift in the tube and of 50 meters is 5; the maximum allowable angular
the sediment structure to be altered during han- error over a distance of 100 meters is 21/. In
dling. The tube should be pushed fully into the most cases, however short the measured distance,
bottom, capped at the top and then sealed at the will an angular error greater than 10 be consid-
bottom with a flat plate or the diver's hand. The ered acceptable for mapping purposes.
tube is then removed, inverted and capped at the
bottom. Be sure to mark the tube so that the loca- Establishing Control Points
tion and time of sampling are known; make sure
the top of the sample is marked as well. Proce- Whenever bottom features, reef elements or
dures for obtaining longer cores are not much dif- data collection stations must be located, a point (or
ferent, except it is usually necessary to drive the points) of reference must be available; otherwise,
tube into the bottom. Simple impact corers have there will be no way to accurately relocate them.
been devised to make this task simpler (Naval These points of reference, called control points or
Civil Engineering Laboratory, 1985; Sanders, bench marks, should be established around and/or
1968). through the reef site so that no object or feature is
very far from a control point. This also insures
An important consideration in obtaining sam- that if a control point is disturbed or lost, another
ples of unconsolidated sediments is that the loca- can be re-established easily.
tion from which they are obtained be
representative of the area being investigated. Oth- Control points can be made of anything that
erwise, the sample will not be useful in charac- is durable, that will remain in the same location
terizing the sediments in the area: it will give reef and that can be easily located and uniquely identi-
scientists a false impression of what the bottom is fled, perhaps with its own tag or number. A good
like. Pooling multiple samples from the same site choice for many areas will be steel rods or pipes.
will be more representative than a single sample. They should be long enough so that the top will be
two or three feet above the bottom, after the rod or
Mapping pipe is driven into the bottom several feet Both
Mapping is a crucial part of artificial reef re- horizontal and vertical measurements can be refer-
search. Physical and biological measurements enced to the control points. Each point should be
may be of little value if the locations of the meas- given a different name, number or letter to distin-
urements are not known, or if divers cannot return guish it from the others. It will be necessary to la-
to the same points later to take additional measure- bel the points underwater to avoid confusion
ments. Reef divers should become familiar with during mapping.
basic mapping techniques so they can use them Once control points are installed, distances
during site surveys and monitoring surveys. (measured to the nearest meter) and azimuths 3 be-
Divers should strive to make accurate, rather tween the points should be measured so that their
than precise, maps (see Chapter 1 for discussion of positions with respect to one another can be deter-
this). The desired degree of ac-
curacy should be determined Figure 4.5
before any diver enters the
water, based on the intended Measured
use of the data, bottom time Position
limitations, etc. Remember, it x--Position Error
will take much more time to
make measurements accurate to
one meter than it will to make e Actual
measurements accurate to five Position
meters or ten meters; in some
cases the less accurate measure-
ments may be sufficient.
Figure 4.5 and the follow-
ing table will assist reef divers /Angular Error
in determining the accuracy re-
quirements for locating an ob- Control
ject. Note that for a certain Point

26
 mined. An azimuth is an angle measured clock- Figure 4.6
wise from north; azimuths will lie between 00 and
3590. The elevation at the top of each control point Objec
should also be determined (use a depth gauge to do 10
this). Divers may wish to refer to any basic land
surveying text for a discussion on how to check control
the accuracy with which control points have been Point

mapped (look for discussion on traverse closure a) using I control Point

and adjustment).
Please note that the exact position of a con-
trol point (i.e., latitude and longitude or LORAN Object
coordinates) need not be determined. Without -
very sophisticated (and expensive equipment, it Pont I - Potr 2
will be impossible to perform this task. Instead, ", .. ', n

the approximate surface position corresponding to False Position

a control point should be determined so that the di-
vers can repeatedly find the control point and b)Using 2 Control Points
make accurate measurements using it as a point of
reference. coino

Locating Objects on the Bottom Object

In order to locate an object (or data collec- 1

tion station), it is necessary to reference it to one ontrol
or more control points. The horizontal position cotro Point 3
can be found given any one of the following:
- the distance and direction from a single c) Usin 3 control Points
control point or bench mark. use a good quality, oil-filled gauge or electronic
- the distances from two control points and dive computer which measures depth and be sure to
an approximate direction from either con- use the same gauge to measure at both ends). The
trol point. true horizontal distance is related to the slope dis-
- the distances from three control points. tance and the difference in depth (elevation) of the
These are illustrated in Figure 4.6. Note two points by the following equation:
that in the case where an object is located using X = S2 - D2
two control points, distance measurements alone X = true horizonal distance
will not suffice. For example, suppose an object is S = measured slope distance
determined to be 25m radius from point one and
another arc with a 35m radius from point two re- D = difference in depth between the two
veals that there are two intersections of the arcs. points
Thus, there are two possible locations of the object Be sure to use consistent units, i.e., if X and S
for the given distances. In order to determine are measured in meters, make sure that D is meas-
which location is correct, an approximate direction ured in meters, not in feet.
from either control point to the object is required. Vertical distances can be measured as de-
If three control points are used, the arcs will inter-
sect on only one point and directional information s c b ed ab o v e- y r ead in g a presre gauge at two
is not neededlocations and taking the difference between that
is not neededtwo readings.
Divers should be careful when making meas-
urements to pull the tape taught (gravity and cur- Figure 4.7
rents may both cause the tape to sag or distort,
causing measured distances to exceed actual dis- Point 2
tances). Divers should also be careful when meas-
uring distances along a slope or from a point on
the bottom to another point above the bottom. In AD
such cases, the distance measured by the tape (the X
slope distance) will be greater that the true horizo- ----
nal distance (see Figure 4.7). This error can be Point I
corrected, if a diver measures the depth at both
ends of the tape with his depth gauge (be sure to

27
References
American Society of Civil Engineers, Pip- Herbich, John B., Offshore Pipeline Design
lines in the Ocean. 1974, 110 pp. Elements. Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1981, 233 pp.
American Society for Testing and Materials, Johnson, R.E. and Hilder, F.A., "Isopycnal
"Underwater Soil Sampling, Testing and Construc- Temperature-Salinity Diagrams", Old
tion Control", ASTM Special Technical Publica- Dominion University School of Oceanogra-
tion 501 1972. phy, Technical Report 41 1981.
Aska, D.Y., ed., "Artificial Reefs: Confer- Kim, T.I., Sollitt, C.K. and Hancock, D.R,
ence Proceeding", Florida Sea Grant Report 41, "Wave Forces on Submerged Artificial Reefs Fab-
1981. ricated from Scrap Tires", Oregon State University
Bowles, J.E., Foundation Analysis and De- Sea Grant Publication T-81-003, 1981.
Sign, McGraw-Hill, 1977, 750 pp. Miller, James W., ed., NOAA Diving Man-
Bortone, S.A. and Van Orman, D., "Biologi- ual. U.S. Department of Commerce, 1979.
cal Survey and Analysis of Florida Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, "Deter-
Artificial Reefs", Florida Sea Grant Techni- mine Seafloor Soil Properties with Diver Operated
cal Paper 34 1985a. Geotechnical Tools", NCEL Techdata Sheet 85-
Bortone, S.A., and Van Orman, D., "Data 23, Port Hueneme, CA 1985.
Base Information and Assessment of Biotic and Raymond, B., "Underwater Photogrammetic
Abiotic Parameters Associated with Artificial Survey of a Tire Reef", in Aska, D.Y., ed., Artifi-
Reefs", Florida Sea Grant Technical Paper 35, cial Reefs: Conference Proceedings", Florida Sea
1985b. Grant Report 41, 1981, pp. 211-218.
Chang, H.H. and Ford, J., "Pipeline Shore Sander, J.E., "Diver-Operated Simple Hand
Approach: Analysis and Design", ASCE Journal Tools for Coring Nearshore Sands", Journal of
of Transportation Engineering, Vol 109, No. 6, Sedimentary Petrology. VoL 38, No. 2, 1968, pp.
1983. 1381-1386.
Grace, R.A., Marine Outfall Systems: Plan- Schencek, H., Introduction to Ocean Engi-
ning. Design and Construction. Prentice Hall, Inc., neering. McGraw Hill. 1975. 351 pp.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1978.

28
Chapter 5
Site Selection And Evaluation By Divers
By HeywardByMathews
HeywardMathews particularly those using nets or trawls. Often there
are obstructions or snags in an area that is already
T he most critical phase of any artificial reef avoided by net fishermen. The selection of such an
construction project is the selection of its site. area will avoid any conflict with existing fishing
A properly selected reef site will attract, for a long operations, and benefit the net fishermen by having
time, large numbers of fish to a location which is a buoy in the area of the obstructions that will al-
easily found by fishermen and divers. Improperly low them to avoid it completely. An existing
sited, the reef can become lost, or settle into bot- wreck can be an excellent starting point for an arti-
tom sediments, or attract only a minimal amount ficial reef, and the addition of materials can only in-
of fish. It also can become a hazard to navigation crease the fisherman's choices around the wreck
and bottom trawlers or even be found washed up (see Appendix F for further information on site se-
on some beach. The research diver plays a vital lection).
role in the site selection process by providing first
hand observations of the sea floor that cannot be Role of Divers in Site Planning
provided by simple fathometer surveys. Divers and diving clubs can make a very im-
portant contribution during the planning stages of a
Some General reef project by surveying local fishing spots and
potential artificial reef sites. Often anglers have
Considerations for Reef Sites only a general picture of the bottom based on depth
In most reef building projects, a general lo- sounder tracings. They can seldom tell if the bot-
cation for the reef site is usually selected, either by tom has living corals, sponges, or other live bottom
local officials, a fishing or diving club or civic or- organisms, especiallyif they are low profile. The
ganization. There is a tendency among anglers to fathometer tracing will not show the supporting
select an existing favorite fishing spot to "sweeten ability of the bottom, so the diver must test the sub-
it up" or make a "good bottom" even better. If the strate with his hand, some type of bottom probe, or
site has any type of natural reef or "live bottom" retrieval of a bottom sample to determine if it will
then the use of such a site for an artificial reef is properly support the reef materials. Chapter 4 pro-
discouraged by agency. Part of the
the permitting vides further discussions about testing and describ-
discouraged by the permitting agency. Part ofing sediment for its ability to support reef materials.
reason for this is that there is insufficient research ing sediment for its ability to support reef materials.
to determine what effects an artificial reef may
have on the functioning of a natural reef system. Preliminary Surface Survey
In addition, the artificial reef materials may actu-
ally damage some of the existing natural bottom Once a general area has been selected, the
community, such as incrusting corals and sponges. diver/biologist should make a systematic fathome-
ter survey of the area unless it has already been sur-
When an artificial reef is built in the middle veyed and fished extensively in the past. If
of a flat, featureless bottom, it can serve as an oa- possible, a permanent record of this survey should
sis in a desert of sand. Divers have observed great be made by using a paper tracing or video of the
concentrations of fish on new artificial reefs fathometer readings. A series of transects using a
within a few days of placement in such areas, good quality fathometer is the least costly and time
Most offshore areas which have such barren bot- consuming way to do this. In most areas the "live
toms are usually well known to local divers and bottoms" are rock ledges or outcrops. Generally,
fishermen. Where possible, the nearest site to a these structures may have some lateral orientation
sea buoy or inlet is preferable to save both time with respect to the coastline. This occurs as the
and fuel costs for the users traveling to and from continental shelf slopes seaward where it intersects
the reef. The site should not be located in or adja- rock strata that form the ledges and outcrops which
cent to a heavily used shipping channel or fairway, have become covered with benthic communities.
because these areas will be in use day and night by Knowing that such structures run at some angle
small boats. with respect to the shore-line, makes it easy to es-
Another important consideration for the site tablish transect lines. They should be set up to run
selection is local commercial fishing operations, at right angles to these structures to reduce the

29
chance of one being missed. Once the transect file. It may be possible to use low-density materi-
lines indicate an area devoid of any hard bottom als such as tires, on soft bottom sites. However,
communities, then the physical survey of the bot- great care must be taken when using low-density
tor can begin, reef materials since these materials are prone to
shifting during storms. Any reef that is in exposed
waters (those receiving direct waves from the open
Underwater Site Survey sea) should be constructed of only high-density ma-
Before any reef site is finally chosen, there terials in depths of less than 80 to 90 feet. In many
must be an underwater survey by divers to verify areas, the Army Corps has stopped permitting tire
that there is no live bottom and make a physical reefs in offshore waters because of the possibility
and visual check of the bottom type and measure of the materials shifting off the reef site and even
its supporting ability. Generally, the surveyors ending up on the beach (see Appendix G for more
should swim a 50-meter radius around the poten- information on reef materials and construction).
tial site to verify there are no significant "live bot-
tom" communities in the site area. Significant
"live bottoms" would include any large rock Biological Survey Report
ledges or outcroppings having an incrusting (at- Once the underwater survey is completed, a
tached) or fouling community. Even the bare sand written initial biological report should be made
bottoms have some marine life living in or on it, (See Appendix H, pages 3 and 4 for example).
but cannot support a large community of incrust- This report is often required by the various permit-
ing invertebrates and fish. The divers should docu- ting agencies as part of the original application.
ment fish and benthic organisms along a 50-meter This report should include a careful description of
transect line. It is best to count the organisms for the bottom material (sand, shell, mud, etc.) the de-
a one to three meter width on either side of the grees of firmness (as measured by sediment probe
transect line. Generally, a two-diver team is used and core sample described in Chapter 4) and a de-
and the lead diver swims in a constant direction scription of the biological community present on
from some starting point with a slate, and the sec- the site. The exact position of the site should be de-
ond diver follows and plays out the measured tran- termined by Loran C reading and several compass
sect line until the correct distance has been bearings to fixed points on land if it is in view.
covered. If possible, replicate transects should be This initial biological report is not only im-
run in different parts of the site permit area to esti- portant for the permit application, but it is also im-
mate the patchiness of the biological community. portant to provide a comparison of the site before
If a known point can be used for the transect line, and after the reef construction. In most instances
then later runs along the same line after construc- of a reef failing to remain on site or its loss of ef-
tion, it will provide excellent data as to the effec- fectiveness, the initial site survey, or the lack of
tiveness of the reef building effort. If possible, a such a survey was a major cause in the failure.
specimen of any organisms that cannot be identi-
fied by the divers should be collected and pre-
served for later identification by a qualified Post-Deployment Survey
biologist. If collection is not possible, a photo Usually a post-deployment reef survey is re-
should be made instead. quired to verify placement and fulfill the terms of
Surveys by a towed camera for hard bottom the construction contract with the barge and tug
are inadequate, for they can sometimes be mislead- crew. Some serious problems have occurred in the
ing. They may show a bottom that looks solid, but past when the actual site placement was several
in fact may have a firm sand overlay on soft silt or hundred yards away from the site surveyed by the
clay sediment. While it is unusual, there are some divers.If the site is near any live bottoms, be sure
locations where divers have observed a thin sand to have the dive team present before the first place-
layer which has covered a much softer sediment ment to make a final check. Often the use of a
which cannot support reef material. Only a diver small marker buoy will insure that the materials
using a long (at least a five-foot steel or fiberglass are placed in the exact location selected. This
rod) sediment probe can check the sediment to pre- marker buoy will also help prevent the materials
vent later loss of reef material by sinking, from being scattered by the barge crew. The pro-
In such instances, where there is evidence file of the materials appears to be very important,
that soft sediment exists, reef materials should be so the maximum piling up of the materials is de-
selected that will provide profile and habitat even sired, and a small jug on the site will help greatly.
after some sinking has occurred. If, for example, A post deployment map and photographs should
the reef is to be built from bridge rubble, then a also be prepared to document the scatter and pro-
layer of small sized rubble could be placed first to file of materials immediately after the deployment.
provide a base, then the larger sections and pilings This will be useful for later comparisons to deter-
could be placed on top to provide maximum pro- mine changes over time.

30
 Divers play an essential role in reef site se- Mathews, Heyward H. Artificial Fishing
lection well before and even after a reef site is de- Reefs, Materials and Construction. September
veloped. They can insure that existing "live 1983. Florida Sea Grant Publication # MAFS-29.
bottom" habitats will not be harmed, they can pre- Mathews, Heyward H. Artificial Reefs:Per-
vent loss of reef material in soft bottoms and they mit Application Guidelines.October 1984. Florida
can document the scatter and profile of the reef Sea Grant Publication # SGEB-4.
materials after the reef is constructed. Feedback Burchfield, Bill. Constructing an Artificial
from trained diver-observers is essential for maxi- Reef Buoy. June 1979. Florida Sea Grant Publica-
mizing the effectiveness of reef site selection and tion # MAFS-9.
construction efforts.
To receive these publications, write Flor-
ida Sea Grant College Program, Building 803,
References University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611.
Mathews, Heyward H. Artificial Reef Site
Selection and Evaluation. August 1979. Florida
Sea Grant Publication # MAFS-20.

31

I.
*I
Chapter 6
Collecting Biological Data:
Benthic & Planktonic Plants & Animals
by Quinton White

T he presence of plankton and benthic organ- Why Sample Benthic &

isms and plants are important reasons why
many species of fish are attracted to an artificial Planktonic Organisms?
reef. These organisms make up a living commu- To understand how a reef functions and to
nity which provides food and shelter and are the unravel the question of which fish are attracted to
major living components of the artificial reef cor- the reef and why; you must understand the reef's
munity. living components and interrelationships. Since
The sampling necessary to look at the pm- the benthic and planktonic organisms associated
ducivity of an artificial reef must include not only with any reef comprise "food" for fish, it is an es-
the fish, but the benthic (bottom living) and plank- sential part of the puzzle that needs to be deter-
tonic (free-floating) organisms which are associ- mined.
ated with it. Biomass is the term used to define
the total amount of living material in a given area. Tam lin
When the biomass is measured at a specific point The Difficulties Sampling
and time, it is called the standing crop of the area. Benthic & Planktonic
Standing crop differs from productivity in that it
does not look at the change in biomass amount Organisms
over the time, nor at the rate at which biomass is The complexity, or at least the potential corn-
produced. Productivity is the change in biomass plexity, of the planktonic and benthic invertebrates
per unit time. and plants on an artificial reef structure is im-
To understand how productivity on a reef mense. Over time, different organisms become at-
changes, we can construct a food chain or food tached to a reef and compete with their neighbors
web. The food chain illustrates "who eats whom." for space. In some cases, one or two species will
It is based on photosynthesizing plant materials dominate, whereas in other cases a number of spe-
which are called the primary producers. This plant cies will crowd together. It is impossible to inven-
biomass, in turn, is consumed by herbivores (ani- tory the entire reef structure, therefore we are
mals that eat plants), and then the herbivores are forced to divide it into small subsections which
consumed by the carnivores (animals that eat ani- can be studied in detail This is sampling. Since
mals). This can be illustrated by the food pyramid we are not going to examine every square centime-
shown in Figure 6-1. ter of the reef, it is important that the sampling be

Figure 6.1

Predators: Animals that eat

- other Animals

o"
B E Carnivores: Animals that eat Animals
,E Herbivores: Animals that eat plants and other Primary
SProducers
SP Primary Producers: Phytoplankton, Algae and Plants

Food Pyramid: Each box represents the relative biomass of plant materials and benthic inverte-
brates found in the food chain associated with natural and artificial reef ecosystems.

33
done systematically so that it may be repeated accu- name capitalized and underlined, and the species
rately on other similar structures for comparisons, name just underlined without caps (for example
It is essential that systematic sampling be done, us- Millepora alcicornis Fire Coral). The genus and
ing replicate efforts, so that meaningful compari- species names are underlined because they come
sons can be made. Isolated observations are useful from Greek or Latin derivatives and are foreign
but not meaningful for making comparisons or de- words in our print. We italicize the print in books
termining causation, as is systematic quantification for such names; but since we do not have that ca-
and sampling, pability with typewriters, we normally underline
It is beyond the scope of this chapter to dis- them. This is also true in handwritten cases.
cuss the philosophy and statistics behind sampling
theory. Be aware that a single observation is use-
ful, but it gives you no information about change Planning & Preparation for
over time. The single observation merely shows Sampling
that the event happened "once." To accurately fol-
low the changes that may be occurring on a reef, it Standardize Everything
is necessary to use repetitive sampling techniques It is essential that regular and repetitive sam-
that are as nearly alike as possible. For example, pling be done in order to detect any trends or bio-
DiverDan makes a series of observations using a logical patterns that develop. Much care should
six-inch square area as his sample size. He takes a be taken when deciding how much sampling can,
series of closeup photographs and scrapes this area or should be done. For example, it is better to take
and places the sample in a plastic bag to be ana- a number of small samples rather than one large
lyzed. Scuba Sam makes a similar dive at a later sample. This is because you have a greater chance
date, but uses a square foot as his sample area. He of getting more and different species in a number
photographs the area and also scrapes material into of small samples than you do in one large sample.
a plastic bag for future analysis. Later, Data Ana- You should therefore decide how many small sam-
lyzer Debbie looks at the two samples. If she did ples you can take in a given research dive. Re-
not know that they came from different size sam- member that each diver is limited by bottom time,
pie sites, the analyses and her conclusions might experience, and sampling capability. The diffi-
be very misleading. Remember, it is important to culty of working underwater compounds the sam-
be consistent in sampling methods. Once you have pling problems. Experience has shown that most
decided on a sampling method, stick with it. If divers are initially overly optimistic in their objec-
you find it needs to be modified, take special care tives. They think that they can gather more sam-
to record these changes in method on the data ples than is actually possible. However with
sheets. experience, you will find that task loading from
having to work safely underwater will limit how
much you can accomplish. One general guideline
Identification of Plants & is to think about what you can do and then try to
Encrusting Organisms do half of it; then be happy if you get at least half
of that done.
Depending on the time of year and the gen- In standardizing everything, be sure that the
eral location of an artificial reef, the potential for
collecting routines and theinformation
the information that
that is
is col-
col-
finding variation in the plankton and benthic com- lected each time is consistent and repetitive. It
munities is tremendous. There are approximately does not do any good to have one set of divers re-
1,500,000 species of living things now described cording salinity and turbidity, while the next set of
and named in the scientific literature. Luckily, divers is only observing temperature. Prioritize
800,000 of these are non-marine insects, but that the information that is needed and make sure that
still leaves approximately 700,000 species. Per- it is obtained on each and every sampling event.
haps you are beginning to get the idea that it is
very difficult to know exactly what might be found
where. Most organisms can be identified only af- How Big is a Sample?
ter they have been properly sampled, preserved It is difficult to give an a (before the
and returned to a laboratory. References listed at t diclt t i a bef th
the end of this chapter are a partial bibliography of fact) desirable quantitative size for each benthic
books and reference material for identifying inver- sample. What can be done will be partially based
tebrates. Even when experienced scientists iden- on the type of reef being studied and the nature of
tify an organism down to the genus and species the question
the questioto to be
be answered. Benthc communi-
answered. Benthic communi-
level, they will often send it to an independent tes are ormay attached to the boreom or some
S ,substrate associated with the reef. A number of
authority for verification.
verification, large pieces of concrete placed on the bottom as
Scientists would like to identify organisms to an artificial reef will be impossible to bring to the
the species level. This is where you see the genus

34
surface to examine. If the need to collect benthic techniques by trial and error. Think through ex-
samples is a possibility, place small, removable actly what you want to accomplish and carefully
pieces on the reef that could be easily returned to plan how to best complete the task. Collecting
the surface for analysis. Typically, on any one trip most benthic (fouling) organisms, will usually re-
to a reef site, at least three samples should be quire some scraping device and a container for the
taken. The number three is useful because it is an sample. Use of a simple putty knife and plastic
odd number of samples from which data can be ex- zip lock bags often suffice. Fabrication of special
tracted and better analyzed statistically. scraping tools may be needed, especially if the
sample is to be quantified.
Photographing
Whenever possible, a series of photographs Materials and Methods
should be used to document benthic growth. Some Some thought should be given in advance re-
suggestions for successful scientific (data) photo- garding materials needed to handle the kinds of
graphs of benthic life are: specimens brought back to the surface. A number
1) Include a scale or some known object for of handy items include plastic bags and refrigera-
scae in te p; tor containers in which to place your specimens,
along with the necessary formalin for preserva-
2) Take the photograph at an oblique angle tion. If the substrate to be sampled is large and im-
in order to show some degree of three-di movable, then a small scraper, or hammer and
mensional structure--hence, it is often best chisel may be necessary to dislodge the speci-
mens. During sampling, care should be taken not
not to shoot straight down on a subject, to disrupt the substrate surface, and to prevent the
but rather to shoot at an angle (note how loss or escape of mobile organisms. The sampled
ever, you would shoot straight down on a specimens can usually be placed in a plastic bag or
subject when accurate quantification is box, and returned easily to the boat. In planning
your dive, it would be wise not to attempt to carry
needed from the photograph; too many individual pieces back to the boat. This
3) Get close to the subject. Broad sweeping simply increases the chance that some might be
photographs are not good for species iden lost. It also means that they may be confused or
tification, butticn b
be bt
tin,
can t tthe
uused tto indicate
n mixed up. Confused or jumbled data is worthless.
Once on board the boat, the diver should preserve
quantity of growth present in a given area; the samples quickly, or at least keep them cool in
4) Include a date and location tag in the an ice chest until brought to shore. Immediate
photo series; processing can be important as many organisms
will die and deteriorate in the heat and low dis-
5) Make sure the photos are recorded in a solved oxygen of the small sample bags or boxes.
photo log book.

Identifying
Preserving Ideally, it would be nice to identify by name
In general, collected specimens should be all the specimens obtained using the scientific bi-
preserved as soon as possible after they are nomial nomenclature because these names are
brought to the surface. This can be done in a 10 unique. In practice, however, for much of the
percent formalin solution then later transferred to a work on artificial reefs, it will only be necessary
40 percent isopropyl alcohol or 70 percent ethanol to recognize the fact that a given organism is a dif-
to make it easier (less irritating smell) on the per- ferent species and not that it be identified to the ge-
son doing the identification. For plant specimens, nus species level. A general biology textbook can
initial as well as final preservation in alcohol is be used as a source for the descriptions and classi-
adequate as natural pigmentation will usually be fications of animals into related taxonomic groups
lost using either technique. called Phyla, and plants into related taxonomic
groups called Divisions. Appendix I is a general-
ized classification scheme. These species lists can
How to Collect Samples also be used to suggest what species are generally
One of the most difficult things to tell a diver present on these reefs. References can be used to
is how to collect specimen samples. What works identify species found along the Florida coast.
for one diver will not always work for another. Di- This reference list is fairly extensive and serves as
vers often vary tremendously in the degree of com- a good bibliography for invertebrate and marine
fort and efficiency they show underwater. It will plant identification.
be necessary for you to develop some of your own

35
 Once a specimen has been identified, it is a Cook, David G. and Ralph 0. Brinkhurst.
good idea to save it for the reference collection. It 1973. Marine Flora and Fauna of the Northeastern
can be used later to help with future identifica- United States. Annelids: Oligochaeta. NOAA
tions. The reference collection will serve as an in- Technical Report NMFS CIRC-374 21p.
valuable tool for training future reef research Correa, Diva Diniz. 1961. Nemerteans from
divers as well. Much time can be saved by train- Florida and Virgin Islands. Bulletin of Marine Sci-
ing new research divers to identify reef organisms ence of the Gulf and Caribbean. 11 (1): 44p.
from reference specimens, before they actually Cutler, Edward B. 1977. Marine Flora and
dive on the reef site. Fauna of the Northeastern United States. Sipuncula
NOAA Technical Report NMFS Circular 403 7 p.
Suggested References Day, John H. 1973. New Polychaeta from
Beaufort with a Key to all Species Recorded from
* Available from commercial bookstores. North Carolina. NOAA Technical Report NMFS
* Abbott, R. Tucker. 1968. Seashells of CIRC-375.
North America Golden Press, New York. 2 8 0 p. Deichmann, Elisabeth. 1939. The Holothuri-
* Abbott, R. Tucker. 1974. American Sea- ans of the Western Part of the Atlantic Ocean. Bul-
shells Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New letin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at
York. 663 p. Harvard College. 71 (3): 44-226.
* Amos, Stephen A. and William H. Amos. de Laubenfels, M. W. 1949. Sponges of the
The Audubon Society Nature Guides. Atlantic Western Bahamas. American Museum Novitates.
and Gulf Coasts. Random House, New York. 670 No. 1431 25p.
P. de Laubenfels, M. W. 1953. A guide to the
* Arnold, Augusta Foote. The Sea-Beach at Sponges of Eastern North America. University of
Ebb-Tide. Dover Publications Inc., New York. Miami Press.
490 p. de Laubenfels, M. W. 1953. Sponges from
Brattegard, Torleiv. 1970. Mysidacea from the Gulf of Mexico. Bulletin of Marine Science of
Shallow Water in the Bahamas and Southern Flor- the Gulf and Caribbean 2 (3): 511-557.
ida. Part 2 Sarsia 41: 35P. Dowds, Richard E. 1979. References for the
Cain, Thomas D. 1972. Additional Epi- Identification of Marine Invertebrates on the South-
fauna of a Reef off North Carolina. The Journal of em Atlantic Coast of the United States. U.S. De-
the Mitchell Society. 79-82. partment of Commerce. (NOAA Technical Report
Calder, Dale R. and Morris L Brehmre. NMFS SSRF-729) 3 7 p.
1967. Seasonal Occurrence of Epifauna on Test Downey, Maureen E. Starfishes from the Car-
Panels in Hampton Roads, Virginia. International ibbean and Gulf of Mexico. Smithsonian Contribu-
Journal of Oceanology and Limndogy 1 (3): 149- tion to Zoology 1261: 158.
164. Dorjes, Jurgen. 1972. Georgia Coastal Re-
Calder, Dale R. 1977. Guide to the Com- gion, Sapelo Island, U.SA.: Sedimentodogy and
mon Jellyfishes of South Carolina. South Carolina Biology. VII Distribution and Zonation of Macro-
Sea Grant Marine Advisory Bulletin 11. 13p. benthic Animals. Senchenbergiana marit 4: 169-
Calgren, O. and J.W. Actiniaria, Zoantharia 182.
and Ceriantharia from Shallow Water in the North- *Emerson, William K. and Morris K. Jacob-
western Gulf of Mexico. Published by the Insti- son. 1976. Guide to Shells. Land. Freshwater. and
tute of Marine Science, University of Texas 2 (2): Marine from Nova Scotia to Florida. Alfred A.
141-172. Knopf, New York. 482p.
Chace, Fenner A. 1972. The Shrimps of the Farrell, Douglas H. 1979. Guide to Shallow-
Smithsonian-Bredin Caribbean Expeditions with a water Mysids from Florida. Florida Department of
Summary of West Indian Shallow-water Species Envirohmental Regulation, Tampa 71p.
(Crustacea: Decapoda: Natania) Smithsonian Insti- Fauchald, Kristian, 1977a. The Polychaete
tute Press. 98: 17 9 p. Worms: Definition and Keys to the Orders. Fami-
Chitwood, B.G. 1951. North American Ma- lies and Genera. Natural History Museum of Los
rine Nematodes. The Texas Journal of Science Angelos County, Science Series 28.
(4): 617-665. Fauchald, Kristian, 1977b. Polychaetes from
Coe, Wesley R. 1951. The Nemertean Fau- Intertidal Areas in Panama with a Review of Pre-
nas of the Gulf of Mexico and of Southern Florida. vious Shallow-Water Records. Smithsonian Institu-
Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Carib- tion Press, Washington, D.C. No. 221.
bean 1 (3): 149-186.

36
 Field, Louise Randall. 1949. Sea Anemo- Klemm, Donald J. 1982. Leeches (Anne-
nes and Corals of Beaufort. North Carolina. Duke lida: Hirudinea) of North America. U.S. Environ-
University Press 5: 29p. mental Protection Agency, Ohio.
Fox, Richard S. and Kenneth H. Bynum. Kramp, P. L 1959. The Hydromedusae of
1975. The Amphipod Crustaceans of North Caro- the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent water. Dana Rep.
lina Estuarine Water. Chesaeake Science. 16 46,284p.
(4): 223-237. Larson, Ronald J. 1976. Marine Flora and
Fox, Richard S. and Edward E. Ruppert. Fauna of the Northeast United d States Cnidaria:
1985. Shallow Water Marine Benthic Macroinver- Scyphozoa. U. S. Government Printing Office.
tebrates of South Carolina. University of South 18p.
Carolina Press, Columbia. 32 9 p. McCain, J. C. 1968. The Caprellidae (Crus-
* George, David and Jennifer. 1979. M!a tacea: Amphipodat of Western North Atlantic. U.
rine Life: and Illustrated Encyclopedia of Inverte- S. National Museum Bulletin 278 147p.
brates in the Sea. John Wiley and Sons, New McCaul, William E. 1963. Rhynchocoela:
York, 2 8 8 p. Nemerteans from Marine and Estuarine Waters of
*Gosner, Kenneth L. 1978. A Field Guide Virginia. The Journal of the Mitchell Society.
to the Atlantic Seashore. Houghton Mifflin Cor- 111-124.
pany. Boston. 329p. McCloskey, Lawrence R. 1973. Marine
*Gosner, Kenneth L. 1971. A Guide to the Flora and Fauna of the Northeastern United States:
Identification of Marine and Estuarine Inverte- Pvenogonida. NOAA Technical Report NWFS
brates: Cape Hatteras to the Bay of Fundy. John CIRC 386 12p.
Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 6 9 3 p. McDougall, Kenneth Dougal. 1943. Sessile
Gray, I.E., Maureen E. Downey and M. J. Marine Invertebrates of Beaufort, North Carolina.
Cerame-Vivas. 1968. Sea Stars of North Caro- Ecological Monographs 13 (3): 322 - 374.
lina. Fishery Bulletin. 67 (1): 127-163. Manning, Raymond B. and Fenner A. Chace,
Hartman, Olga. 1945. Marine Annelids of Jr. 1971. Shrimps of the Family Processidae from
North Carolina. Duke University Marine Station the Northwestern Atlantic Ocean. (Crustacea: De-
Bulletin. 2: 53p. capoda: Caridea). Smithsonian Institution Press.
Hiltunen, Jarl K. and Donald J. Leimm, Washington.
1980. A Guide to the Naididae (Annelida: Clitel- Marcus, Eveline and Ernst. 1960. Opistho-
lata: Oligochaeta) of North America. U.S. Envi- branchs from American Atlantic Warm Waters.
ronmental Protection Agency Ohio. Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Carib-
Holme, N. A. and A. D. McIntyre, eds. ban. 10 (2): 129 - 203.
1984. Methods for the Study of Marine Benthos. Maturo, Frank J. S. 1957. A Study of the
Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. 387p. Bryozoa of Beaufort, North Carolina and Vicinity.
Holthuis, L. B. 1955. The Recent Genera Journal of the Mitchell Society. 11-68.
of the Caridean and Stenopodidean Shrimps Maturo, Frank J. S. 1966. Bryozoa of the
(Class Crustacea, Order Decapoda. Supersection Southeast Coast of the United States: Bugulidae
Natantia) with Keys for Determination. Rijks- and Beaniidae (Cheilostomata: Anasca) Bulletin
nuseum van Naturrlijke Historie. Netherlands. of Marine Science. 16 (3): 556-583.
15 7 p. * Meimkoth, Norman A. 1981. The
* Kaplan, Eugene H. 1982. A Field Guide Audubon Society Field Guide to North American
to Coral Reefs of the Caribbean and Florida includ- Seashore Creatures. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
ing Bermuda and the Bahamas. Houghton Mifflin Menzies, R. J., O. H. Pilkey, B. W. Black-
Company, Boston. 289p. welder, D. Dexter, P. Huling. A Submerged Reef
Kaplan, Eugene H. 1988. A Field Guide to Off North Carolina Internationale Revve Hydrobid-
Southeastern and Caribbean Seashores: Cope Hat- gue. 15 (3): 393431.
teras to the Gulf Coast. Florida and the Caribbean. Mikkelsen, Paul S. and Robert W. Vimstein.
Petersen Field Guide Series; Houghton Mifflin 1982. An Illustrated Glossary of Polychaete.
Company, Boston. 425p. Terms. Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc. Technical
Keer, George A. 1976. Indian River Report No. 46.
Coastal Zone Study. Compass Publications. Ar- * Miner. Roy Waldo. 1950. Field Book of
lington Va. (Prepared by T. Wolcott). 105p. Seashore Life. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York.
8 88
Kirkland, Patricia A. 1981. Identification p.
Manual for Common Estuarine Invertebrates of * Morris, Percy A. 1973. A Field Guide to
the Little Jetties St. Johns River. Marine Science Shells of the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and the
Education Center, Mayport, Florida. 19p. West Indies. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
3 30
p.

37
 Pawson, David L 1977. Marine Flora and Stuck, Kenneth C., Harriet M. Perry and
Fauna of the Northeastern United States. Echino- Richard W. Heard. 1979. An Annotated Key to
dermata: Holothoroidoa. NOAA Technical Report the Mysidacea of the North Central Gulf of Mex-
NWFS Circular 405, National Marine Fisheries ico. Gulf Research Reports. 6 (3): 225-238.
Service. Thomas, Lowell P. 1962. The Shallow
Pearse, A. S. and J. W. Littler. 1938. Polyc- Water Amphiurid Brittle Stars (Echinodermata,
lads of Beaufort, N. C. Journal of the Mitchell Soci- Ophiuroidea) of Florida. Bulletin of Marine Sci-
ey. 235-247. ence of the Gulf and Caribbean. 12 (4): 623-694.
Perez, Farfante, I. 1969. Western Atlantic Van Dover, Cindy and William W. Kirby-
Shrimps of the genus Penaeus. U. S. Fish and Wild- Smith. 1979. Field Guide to Common Marine In-
life Service, Fisheries Bulletin. vertebrates Part 1: Gastropoda. Bivalvia.
Perez, Farfante Isabel. 1978. Families Hip- Amphipoda. Decapoda and Echinodermata. Duke
poolytidea, Palaemonidae (caridea) and Penaeidea, University Marine Laboratory. 78p.
Sicyoniidae, and Solenoceridae (Penaeidae), in Vincx, Magda. 1981. New and Little
Fischer W. FAO Species Identification Sheets for Known Nematodes from the North Sea. Cashiers
Fishery Purposes, Western Central Atlantic Vol. VI. De Biologie Marine. Vol. 8811: 431-451.
Pettibone, Marian H. 1976. Revision of the * Voss, Gilbert, Lee Opresko, and Ronald
Genus Mecelicepha McIntosh and the Subfamily Thomas. 1973. The Potentially Commercial Spe-
Macellicephalinae Hartman-Schroder (Polychaeta: cies of Octopus and Squid of Florida. the Gulf of
Polynoidae). Smithsonian Institution Press, Wash- Mexico and the Caribbean Area. University of Mi-
ington, D. C. No. 229. ami Sea Grant Program. 33p.
Phelan, Thomas. 1970. A Field Guide to the Voss, Gilbert L 1976. SeashoreLife of
Crinoid Echinoids of the Northwestern Atlantic Florida and the Caribbean. Banyan Books, Inc.,
Ocean. Gulf Mexico and Caribbean Sea. Smith- Florida 199p.
sonian Institution Press, Washington, 40: 22p. Watling, Les. 1979. Marine Flora and
Pilsbry, Henry A. 1953. Notes on Florida Fauna of the Northeastern United States: Crustac-
Barnacles (Cirripedia) Proceedings of the Academy cea: Cumacea. NOAA Technical Report NMFS
of Natural Science of Philadelphia CV: 13-30. Circular 423. 23p.
Plough, Harold H. 1978. Sea Squirts of the Wells, Harry W., Mary Jane Wells, and I. E.
Atlantic Continental Shelf from Marine to Texas. Gray. 1960. Marine Sponges of North Carolina.
The Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland. Journal of the Mitchell Society. 200-245.
1 18
p. Wells, Harry W. and I. E. Gray. 1964. Poly-
Provenzano, Anthony J., Jr. 1959. The Shal- chaetous Annelida of the Cape Hatteras Area. The
low-water Hermit Crabs of Florida. Bulletin of Ma- Journal of the Mitchell Society. 70-78.
rine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean. 9 (4): Wells, Harry W., Mary Jane Wells and I. E.
349-420. Gray. 1964. The Calico Scallop Community of
Reanod, Jeanne C. 1956. A report on some North Carolina. Bulletin of Marine Science of the
Polychaetous Annelids from the Miami-Bimini Gulf and Caribbean. 14 (4): 561-593.
Area. American Museum Novitates. No. 1812 40p. Williams, Austin B. 1964. Marine Deca-
Sawyer, Roy T., Adrian R. Lawler, & Robin pod Crustaceans of the Carolinas. Fishery Bulle-
M. Overstreet. 1975. Marine Leeches of the East- tin. 65 (1): 292p.
em United States and the Gulf of Mexico with a Williams, Austin B. 1984. Shrimp. Lob-
Key to the Species. Journal of Natural History. 9: sters. and Crabs of the Atlantic Coast of the East-
633-667. em United States. Maine to Florida. Washington,
Serafy, K. Keith. 1979. Echinoids (Echino- D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
dermata: Echinoidea) Memoirs of the Hourglass Wood, Carl E. 1974. Key to the Natantia
Cruises. Vol V Part III. Florida Department of (Crustacea, Decapoda) of the Coastal Waters on
Natural Resources Marine Research Laboratory. the Texas Coast. Contributions in Marine Sci-
St. Petersburg. ence. 18: 35-55.
Shier, Daniel E. 1964. Marine Bryozoa from Zingmark, Richard G. ed. 1978. An Anno-
Northwest Florida. Bulletin of Marine Science of tated Checklist of the Biota of the Coastal Zone of
the Gulf and Caribbean. 14 (4): 602-662. South Carolina. University of South Carolina
Smith, Ralph I., ed. 1964. Keys to Marine Press, Columbia. 364p.
Invertebrates of the Woods Hole Region. Spauld- Zullo, Victor A. 1979. Marine Flora and
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Stimpson, Kurt S., Donald J. Klemm, and poda: Cirripedia. NOAA Technical Report
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North America. U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Ohio.
38
Chapter 7
Sampling And Studying Fish
On Artificial Reefs
by Stephen A. Bortone and
JamesA. Bohnsack Reasons and Objectives for
Studying Artificial Reef Fish
An Introduction to Fish There are many important reasons for study-
About 30,000 species of fish are thought to ing the fish which live on artificial reefs. Many
inhabit the world today. The potential number of study reef fish simply because they are fascinat-
species which one may encounter on a marine arti- ing. It is no wonder that aquarium keeping is one
ficial reef is quite high. Of all the species of fish of the most popular hobbies in the world today.
known today, about 58% occur in the marine envi- Artificial reefs serve to enhance fishing and may
ronment. Of these, 40% inhabit the warm, shallow increase fish abundance in local areas. By study-
continental shelves, the areas where artificial reefs ing how the fish are associated with artificial
are usually located. Fish have existed on earth for reefs, we can discover what features, factors, or at-
about 600 million years and in that time have tributes of reefs help contribute to their potential
evolved and adapted into a wide variety of forms effectiveness. We can assess the relative fitness or
specialized for a wide variety of habitats. Most liv- condition of the area, by observing an artificial
ing fish are boney fish but a number of jawless (ag- reef for the kinds of fish, their numbers, and their
nathous; e.g., lampreys and hagfish) and condition. Even minor changes in environment
cartilaginous (boneless) fish (sharks, skates, and may lead to noticeable dramatic changes in the
rays) are also known. composition of a fish community, since fish re-
Fish are aquatic, cold-blooded vertebrates spond to changes in environmental conditions in
. ,^ ar e aq u at l ;c *" r s the ocean. A data base of information collected
with gills and fins. They occur in fresh-, brackish-, the ocean. A data base of information collected
and saltwater and individuals of some species can for over a period of time on a fish community will
survive in waters below freezing in the Antarctic permit us to detect the effects of environmental
Ocean while others have been found in warm changes caused by naturally or human-induced ac-
water springs hotter than 1040 F (400 C). In addi- tivity.
tion, they have been recorded in mountainous areas The three most common goals of sampling
at altitudes as high as 3.1 miles (5 km) and to studies on artificial reef fish populations are to:
depths of 6.8 miles (11 km) in the oceanic 1) monitor the reef fish community composi-
trenches. tion over time;
Fish occur in a wide size range. Adult fish 2) compare the fish populations between arti-
can be as small as 5/8 of an inch long (15 mm; the
dwarf pygmy goby) and as large as 69 feet (21 m; ficial and natural reefs;
the whale shark). All fish start out either as an ex- 3) evaluate various reef construction meth-
temally or internally fertilized egg. Most eggs re- ods, materials and configurations, for
leased into the water are externally fertilized and the desired effect.
become either free living (pelagic) or attached to
something (demersal) until hatching into a larvae These studies can target a specific group
stage. After a few weeks, the free swimming lar- such as a commercially important species or they
vae often transform into juveniles which may re- can treat all observable species.
semble adults except for color and minor Several different kinds of data may be gath-
differences in shape. Eggs for many species do not ered to accomplish the above goals. Comparisons
undergo external development. They remain in- can be made within and between artificial reefs us-
side the body of the female where they are fertil- ing a cumulative species list. This entails main-
ized, nurtured, protected, and born resembling taining a list of species observed during each dive
small adults, or survey on that site. An improvement on the spe-

39
 cies list data would be to include some ESTI- perse over an area because of changing require-
MATE OF RELATIVE ABUNDANCE. This ments in their natural life history (i.e., way of life).
may be done subjectively (i.e., by using words For example, aggregations can form for reproduc-
like: abundant, common, few, rare, etc.) or objec- tion, feeding or predator avoidance.
tively by including some method of quantification Fish may form loose aggregations or schools
by counting. Improvements on a relative estimate that can be very well ordered. Schools can be com-
of species' abundance would be to determine as ac- posed of one or several different species, and this
curately as possible the ABSOLUTE ABUN- can complicate underwater identification. Many
DANCE which could in turn be related to species fish have a particular habitat preference. For exam-
density. A further improvement of the data may pie, certain species are always found on the under-
be made by obtaining not only an estimate of num- side of a structure, and thus, may be abundant only
bers but also of the sizes of individuals present. where the reef has many overhanging features
The methods designed to obtain these data will be (such as a shipwreck having many exposed decks)
discussed later. or even absent from reefs without this type of
Notes on the condition of individual fishes cover (such as a barge with the hull intact).
can be used to assess and determine the differ- Some species show very obvious patterns of
ences, similarities, or changes that may have taken daily activity which affect their apparent abun-
place on a particular reef or between several artifi- dance. Day, night, and crepuscular (dusk and
cial reefs. These data could include notes on the dawn) activity patterns in various species can se-
health of individual species, such as, the presence verely affect our ability to observe the fish commu-
of open sores or wounds on their bodies, the num- nity on a reef. This must be considered in the
ber and types of parasites from specimens, and the sampling strategy. Some night-active (nocturnal)
general overall behavior of the fish. In short, just species, although common on an artificial reef,
about any attribute of fish or their community can may seem absent because individuals are "resting"
be recorded, monitored and analyzed to assess the in crevices out of view of the daytime observer.
differences and similarities of fish communities on
various artificial reefs. Changes or differences in water conditions
can also influence the presence or relative abun-
dance of fish species on artificial reefs. Lunar, so-
Problems Associated with lar, and other tidal factors may greatly influence
current flow which, in turn, affects the dispersal
Assessing Fish and aggregation potential of fishes, especially on
the shallow, inshore reefs, and around estuaries or
On Artificial Reefs entrances to bays and harbors. In some areas even
A discussion of the problems associated minor tidal changes may produce extremely strong
with the assessment process is essential in order to bottom currents, which may alter the turbidity
become aware of the limitations of particular meth- (water clarity), temperature, and salinity. These
ods and to correctly interpret and evaluate the changes can affect a species' chances of being seen
data. These problems can be found at several lev- since they may influence them to move from one
els: place to another. This movement will, of course,
1) problems involving the fish; affect the observed composition of a community as-
sociated with a given reef. The accuracy and con-
2) problems involving the habitat; sistency of underwater visual assessment
3) problems involving the observer that can techniques are also greatly affected by water clar-
be overcome; and ity (turbidity), which impacts the effectiveness of
4) problems that cannot be overcome. each method as we will see later. When water clar-
ity, and consequently visibility is reduced, the ef-
Fish all move to some degree. Some move- fective volume or area observed is reduced.
ments are relatively obvious such as those per- Therefore, if one makes a visual assessment when
formed by: pelagic (free swimming) species, the underwater visibility is 50 feet and then makes
which form schools; or by those that shift or another assessment in the same place at another
change position frequently. However, even those time when the visibility has been reduced to 10
species which are sedentary (bottom dwelling and feet, the actual volume of water observed has been
lethargic) move as well. Fish may also come to- drastically reduced. Depending on the method cho-
gether to form clumps, schools, or aggregations, sen, water clarity can have rather severe effects on
which may themselves move. These clumps, ag- the repeatability and subsequently, the comparabil-
gregations, or "patches" of fish may result from ity of the study.
one or more factors. Included among those are Most of the sampling methods divers employ
random chance, where no factor causes the aggre- in studying of the samping
artificial reefs methods
divers employf
vis-
gation. Most groupings, however, occur for one or m tud
s ingar tifi a l r e f s i n v olav e so m e p o f v i s-
more reasons. Many species congregate or dis- ualsampling. Behavior, color, and morphological

40
(shape and size) differences among species can in- Fish and Fauna Data
fluence visual detectability. Large fish are usually
more noticeable than small fish; and brightly col- Perhaps the most important aspect of any
ored, actively swimming fish are more noticeable study assessing the fish on artificial reefs is that
than sedentary or cryptically (camouflaged) col- the species' identifications must be accurate, reli-
ored species. Secretive species, even when able. and verifiable. The very basis for compari-
brightly colored, may be missed because they are sons and evaluations is based on correct species
hidden from the field of vision. Schooling species identification. With a little training, practice, pa-
present their own sampling problems because of tience, and care, anyone can accurately identify
the geometry, size, and species composition of the most of the species encountered on artificial reefs
school One study has shown that divers consis- in the coastal southeastern waters of the United
tently overestimate abundance of fish in a small States, especially in water shallower than 130 feet.
school and typically underestimate abundance in
large schools (Klima and Wickham, 1971). NOTE: Use of LOCAL COMMON
Human activities can also influence a fish NAMES OF FISHES SHOULD BE AVOIDED.
community. Continual harvesting by both com- Probably more problems, misinformation, and just
mercial and recreational fishermen (this includes plain bad data have resulted because of the use of
hook-and-line as well as spear fishing) can very local names. An example from the northern Gulf
quickly alter the community composition, espe- of Mexico illustrates this point rather well. Off
cially on a small reef. This may occur in selective Pensacola there occurs a species of grouper scien-
removal of all larger food fish or by the removal of tifically called Mycteroperca microlepis (note: sci-
only one or two of the preferred food fish. This re- entific names for organisms are usually underlined
moval can have indirect effects. For example, if a or printed in italics). Its official and correct con-
valuable food fish is removed from a reef by over- mon name is the gag grouper. Unfortunately local
fishing, it may be replaced by another perhaps less fishermen refer to it as the black grouper. This in
desirable fish, which could now exist on the reef itself is not a major problem, except that off south-
because of reduced competition. Studies have ern Florida there is another species of grouper
shown that the faunal composition of a community whose official common name is the black grouper,
shifts dramatically when the major predators are Mycteroperca bonaci. This situation actually oc-
no longer present. curs very frequently. The result is that anyone not
familiar with local common names will have great
difficulty using data from a survey made in an-
Collecting Data other area when local common names have been
used. If data between two areas are compared,
On Artificial Reefs there would be a very real possibility of making
Physil Environment false conclusions on the comparative abundance of
two species, thought to be the same, but which are
The physical data or information describing in reality quite different.
the structure and environmental conditions associ- The American Fisheries Society has set
ated with an artificial reef can be just as important standard common names for fishes in North Amer-
as the data on the fish community itself. Physical publication:
data provide a basis to fully evaluate an artificial
reef and establish its effectiveness or compare that A List of Common and Scientific Names of
to itself or another reef. Data are needed to help Fishes from the United States and Canada", 1980,
determine what factor or factors may be associated C.R. Robbins et al., available from the American
with, or responsible for, the differences in the fish Fisheries Society, 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Be-
communities. This is possible only through a care- thesda, Maryland, as Special Publication Number
ful examination and comparison of both the physi- 12 ($10 paperback or $15 hardbound as of January
cal and biological data which will then allow us to 1986).
understand or predict fish community structure. Most books, handbooks, and texts for identi-
Appendix J provides the minimal types of fication of fishes use the common names as
physical data which should be recorded during any adopted and established by this American Fisher-
assessment of the fish community on an artificial ies Society publication.
reef. The reader should refer to the other chapters One way to ensure that the fish are accu-
in this handbook, specifically, "Chapter 4, Oceano- rately identified, is to establish a voucher or refer-
graphic Data Collection and Reef Mapping" and ence collection of accurately identified and labeled
"Chapter 5, Site Selection and Evaluation by Div- fishes representing those species that are usually
ing" for specific methods of properly obtaining observed on the artificial reefs being studied. By a
physical data. voucher collection we mean that at least one or

41
more individuals (some males, females, and juve- most dive shops under the colloquial name of
niles) should be collected, properly preserved, "goodie-bag".
identified, labeled, and then saved for reference. Cast nets of various diameters and mesh
The voucher collection can be used to train divers sizes can be used by divers in collecting fishes. A
or serve as a kind of review for key characteristics diver merely swims to a position above a speci-
that will aid them in fish identification. It will also men or even a small school of fish and drops the
aid in identifying observed fish suspected as being parachute-like net over them. The lead or bottom
unusual or different. A correct fish identification line conforms to the substrate and blocks the es-
can be assured by an observer who has taken the cape of the fish in all directions. Once entrapped,
time and made the effort to become familiar with the fish is forced against the netting material
the one or two key or main anatomical features where it can be held before transfer to a holding
which aid in correctly determining a species' iden- bag. A piece of 1/4 or 3/8 inch mesh nylon net-
tity. Familiarity with the specimens in a voucher ting cut in a circle with a diameter of 3 feet and
collection along with a knowledge of the descrip- weighted with a piece of chain or some lead
tions and illustrations in various field identifica- weights along the perimeter can serve as a mini-
tion books of fishes are important in this regard. ature cast net. This net is especially useful for col-
Photographs and videotapes taken at study sites lecting smaller fishes. It is easy to make, easy to
can be valuable because they show colors and pat- use, inexpensive, and effective.
terns which may fade in preserved specimens. A slurp gun, which is simply a large bore di-
ameter clear plastic tube fitted with a plunger, can
Fish Collection also be useful when capturing small fishes around
artificial reefs. When operated, the plunger acts to
Collecting techniques used to make voucher create a vacuum in the tube and the fish is literally
collections are varied and no one single technique sucked in. The tube entrance must quickly be
is effective on all species. Sometimes special tech- blocked to prevent escape. Many fishes tend to
niques may have to be developed in order to obtain swim up-current. With this in mind, one can force
an especially difficult to catch species. Before us- water out of the tube and cause a fish to swim "up-
ing any technique, however, check local regula- current" into the mouth of the slurp gun where
tions. they can then be more easily "slurped". Much
Hook-and-line fishing is good for collecting practice and patience is needed to be truly effec-
most of the commercially and recreationally impor- tive with a slurp gun.
tant fish species associated with artificial reefs. Spear fishing has been, and will continue to
Using smaller hooks and/or special baits may help be, one of the most popular and effective ways of
in collecting species not normally collected by capturing fishes on artificial reefs. Spear fishing
usual fishing methods. Sometimes divers can actu- can be used to obtain specimens but care must be
ally use the hook-and-line method underwater to taken not to excessively damage the fish. Many
obtain certain fishes needed for the voucher collec- anatomical features of fish, especially those about
tion or to verify a sight identification. the head area, are important for accurate identifica-
Baited fish traps are also useful in obtaining tion. Obviously, smaller fish are the most suscep-
specimens but may require special care and ex- tible to damage from spear fishing, especially if a
pense on the part of the user. Some divers use a large spearhead armed with a double or single
baited, large clear glass jar. Many small reef fish, barb, is used. An Australian (three-pronged, pyra-
such as wrasses and damsel fish, will venture in- mid pattern) spearhead minimizes damage and is
side the jar to obtain the bait even in the presence especially effective on smaller fish down the 3 or
of a diver. Once the fish is inside a diver merely 4 inches in length. Sling-type spears may also be
covers the mouth of the jar to trap the specimen. more useful to divers when trying to capture small
Hand held nets or dip nets can be used to ob- specimens under turbid conditions.
tain smaller species such as gobies, blennies, and Care should always be taken with speared
juveniles of larger species, such as snapper, grou- fish because the blood from the speared fish may
per, grunts, and porgies. One technique found use- attract sharks. This problem can be relieved some-
ful when using a hand net (1/4 or 3/8 inch mesh is what by quickly removing the fish from the water
good for most purposes) is to chase the fish into a and by conducting the spear fishing at the end of
corer or crevice, place the net over the entrance the visual census period. Every effort should be
and use the other hand to force the fish out of its made to keep fish slime and odors off the boat
hiding place into the net. It is often useful then to deck and off the divers. Hook-and-line fishing
transfer the fish to a holding bag. The holding bag should be conducted as a last order of business in
can be constructed of scrap 1/4 or 3/8 inch nylon an area also. Taking these minimal precautions
net material with a drawstring, or purchased from should reduce the chances of having a survey bi-

42
ased, interrupted or terminated by an unwanted eyes. If this should happen, immediately flush the
hungry guest, affected area with clean water and consult a physi-
Trawls and other commercial fishing gear clan.
may prove useful in obtaining voucher specimens. If possible, fish should be alive when placed
Although commercial gear is generally not used in the Formalin. If this is not possible, the fish
directly in an area where an artificial reef is lo- should be quick-frozen upon capture and allowed
cated, it can be extremely effective in sampling to thaw in the Formalin. Less preferably, captured
the adjacent fish fauna. Gill nets set over an artifi- fish should be placed on ice and then put directly
cial reef are useful for obtaining pelagic or free in the Formalin.
swimming fish. This type of gear is generally If specimens are larger than 4 or 5 inches, it
more effective in turbid water. Again, check local will be necessary to make a small (1 or 2 inch) slit
regulations regarding the use of any commercial into the body cavity on the right side of the fishes'
fishing gear. bellies (by tradition the left side should remain in-
Photographic techniques using still photog- tact unless it is already damaged). This will allow
raphy, motion pictures, or video tapes (especially the fixative, in this case Formalin, to more quickly
in color) are very good ways to "capture" a speci- penetrate the body cavity to insure proper fixation
men. While it certainly is preferable to have a (fixation merely means making the tissues less vul-
specimen "in hand" when trying to establish its nerable to bacterial decay) of the internal organs.
correct identity, the next best thing would be to On very large specimens (over 2 feet long) it is ad-
have a good clear photograph or motion picture, visable to make a longer cut into the body cavity.
It would also be a good idea to have a picture of a Do not force the fish into its container so
living or freshly collected specimen'to be used in that it becomes distorted and twisted. The fish
conjunction with the actual specimen when trying should not be packed tightly in the container with
to identify it. Live color characters are often im- very little Formalin fluid since plenty of fixative
portant for identifying many fish species. We must surround each specimen to reduce bacterial
have avoided suggesting collecting methods decomposition.
which employ chemicals such as rotenone or ex-
plosives such as dynamite. While under certain Fish should be kept in Formalin for at least 3
conditions and with expert care, these can be effec- days but no longer than a week. Then they should
tive in obtaining specimens, the obviously nega- be transferred to a STORAGE LUID OR PRE-
tive features preclude their use by most SERVATIVE, which is usually made of alcohol.
non-professionals. Their use requires proper train- While Formalin is very good for fixing (killing)
ing and legal permits. cells and stopping bacterial decay, it has a ten-
dency to cause tissues to become soft with time,
There are few methods which can be used to and the fumes can be irritating to the eyes, making
capture fish on artificial reefs. Remember that in- handling quite unpleasant. The best and easiest
genuity often prevails over frustrating attempts to way to transfer specimens from the fixation fluid
employ "standard" techniques to capture particu- to the preservative fluid (isopropyl or rubbing alco-
larly elusive specimens. The important thing is to hol) is simply to pour off the Formalin in a well
collect a voucher specimen because without it ventilated area, and replace it with the preserv-
there may be a question or doubt raised about a ative. Isopropyl alcohol, available at most pharma-
fish's correct identity. cies, when diluted with an equal amount of tap
water, becomes 50 percent isopropyl alcohol and
Speci n makes a good and inexpensive preservative. It
Specimen Preservation should be noted that the Formalin may be reused a
Once a fish has been collected, it should be couple of times, then disposed of as a hazardous
photographed before color loss then care taken to waste.
permanently preserve it as a voucher specimen for The containers that specimens are kept in are
reference and identification purposes. The pre- also important. Clean glass jars should be used.
ferred method for handling fish is to place them in For aesthetic purposes, the jars should be of the
a container of 10 percent Formalin as soon as pos- same type and generally plain in design. The jar
sible then later preserving in alcohol. Formalin is lids should be plastic (either Bakelite or polypro-
prepared by diluting concentrated formaldehyde pylene). Metal lids should not be used for they
(obtainable at most pharmacies) with nine parts quickly corrode, especially in the presence of For-
water (preferably with water from where the speci- malin. Good quality glass jars can be obtained
men was collected). Caution should be exercised from bottle and jar distributing companies. A par-
when handling this chemical as it can burn or irri- tial list of North American bottle distributors, pre-
tate the skin and is a possible carcinogen. Special pared by the American Society of Ichthyologists
precaution should be taken to avoid breathing, in- and Herpetologists, is found in Appendix K.
gesting, or getting Formalin in open cuts, sores, or

43
 Larger voucher specimens (too large for gal- Species Identification
Ion jars) may be maintained in tight sealing plastic Any research concerned with surveying fish
buckets. Wooden boxes or containers lined with fi- must first begin by identifying and learning the
ber glass resin and filled with preservative can also species likely to be encountered in the study area
be used as holding or storage tanks when preserv- while still on dry land. Our aim is to be able to
ing larger specimens. visually identify fish species underwater with the
Whether the specimens are placed in tight aid of identification guides and voucher collec-
sealing glass jars or wooden boxes with loose fit- tions.
ting tops, it will be necessary to periodically in- H. D. Hoese and R. H. Moore's book enti-
spec the containers. Because the preservation tied "Fishes of the Gulf of Mexico" (1977, Texas
fluids can evaporate rather quickly, fluid levels A and M University Press, College Station, Texas)
should be checked at least twice a year. If the is an excellent book introducing anyone to the
amount of evaporation has not been too severe, methods of identifying fish. It includes a good
merely "topping off" the containers with additional general account of each species and is comprehen-
preservative should suffice. Extreme loss of fluids sive enough in its scope to include most, if not all
indicates a leak somewhere. To insure that the jars species one might encounter on an artificial reef in
do not undergo excessive evaporation, it would be Florida's inshore as well as offshore waters.
a good idea to keep them in an air conditioned Some other books that are useful are: "A Field
room. Guide to Atlantic Coast Fishes of North America"
It is important to properly label all speci- by C.R. Robins, G.C. Ray & J. Douglas (1986
mens with the appropriate field location and collec- Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston), "Caribbean
tion data. Labels should always be placed in the Reef Fishes" by J. E. Randall (1963, TFH Publica-
jar with the specimen and not on the outside of the - tions, Jersey City, New Jersey); "Guide to the Cor-
container. Below are two typical labels which als and Fishes of Florida, the Bahamas, and the
should serve as examples for size, format, and the Caribbean" by Iday and Jerry Greenberg (Sea-
minimal information necessary to insure proper hawk Press, Miami, Florida); "Fishwatchers Guide
identification of specimens: Figure 7-1. to West Atlantic Coral Reefs" by C. G. Chaplin
Plastic papers, such as an underwater paper (1972, Livingston Publishing Co., Wynnewood,
called Plaspyrus (available from Bel-Art Products, Pennsylvania); and "Hand Guide to the Reef
Pequannock, New Jersey) may be useful for mak- Fishes of the Caribbean" by F. J. Stokes (1980,
ing labels, but this paper may not accept indelible Lippencott & Crowell, New York).
writing inks as will the rag paper. One advantage These books are narrower in scope, how-
of this plastic paper is that it has other uses in our ever, and tend to include only the more popular
artificial reef assessments. A technical writing or and colorful fishes found on natural coral reefs.
drawing pen should be used with such inks as ordi- They might suffice for studies in the southern por-
nary fountain pens will clog rather easily. Possible tion of Florida, but probably will prove somewhat
alternatives might be to use waterproof "laundry" inadequate in areas north of Tampa and Fort Lau-
pens or even No. 2 lead pencils. One should never derdale. They will supplement and complement
attempt to use felt-tip or standard ball point pens. each other and together all the above books will
The ink will inevitably dissolve and a blank label provide a good literature basis from which to be-
(and missing data) will result. gin a study.

Figure 7.1
r OF __
Specimen Labels
Specimen THE~___, a__,,
UNIVRSITY _
m
WEST FLOEVA
__o__

Preprinted labels with fancy lettering is nice -...

but not essentianl. it is only important that ^-'- 3".

the information be recorded and legible. The _...__

paper that the labels are made from is impor- -

tant, since normal paper deteriorates rapidly °' '""
in alcohol or Formalin. The "best" paper for o...c.._
labeling is 100 percent cotton rag paper. The
Byron Weston Co., of Dalton Mass., pro- THEUNVET
duces a paper called Byron Weston Resistall ,,
THE
UNIVERS• Of WEST FLor
Linen Record, which is very good for this pur- "_____,_
-.
pose. In the southeast this paper may be obt- sut. C_...
sained from the following dealers: -...
,
Strickland paper Co., Mobile, Ala.
Dillard Paper Co., Atlanta, Ga.
c.L
C.. N,.
Knight Paper Co., Atlanta, Ga.
Col. b
44
 Many fish have color patterns that allow tions. A three-ring, loose-leaf notebook or a sur-
them to be identified from photographs of draw- veyor's notebook will do for this and don't forget
ings. Others do not have features which make to use waterproof ink pen or pencil when writing.
them easily recognized. Therefore, it is important (NEVER USE FELT TIP PENS).
to become familiar with the species likely to be en- Figure 7-2 is an example of a field note
countered before making a dive to collect data. sheet preprinted with the typical data one might
This is done by studying the drawings and photo- want to jot down after a dive. Appendix B offers
graphs in the texts, and taking the time to collect some additional examples. (Please see Figure 7.2)
and identify the voucher specimens. The blank space below the preprinted lines
At this point, the research diver should be is to record the species observed, characteristics of
ready to enter the water and begin some actual the fishes which might aid in their identification
sight identifications. Before an actual survey be- (i.e., color, size, etc.), relative abundance (rare,
gins, however, all the participants should make at common, abundant, etc.), life stage (juvenile or
least one or two inspection dives or trial runs in adult, male or female), and any interesting behav-
the area to do some preliminary identification, ioral or ecological features.
Once in the water, a plastic writing slate or The data most desired by scientists concern-
pad of underwater writing paper to record the spe- ing fish on artificial reefs are species composition,
cies seen will be needed. Special anatomical char- relative abundance, and estimates of individual
acters should, of course, be noted. It is highly sizes. A species listing by itself has relatively lit-
probable that one might see a species that is totally tle value. However, if this is the only kind of data
unfamiliar, but by writing down some distinguish- possible to collect, given the circumstances, condi-
ing features, confirmation of its identity is more tions, or experience of the diver group, even some
certain. Notes should immediately be written kind of comparison within and between reefs is
down regarding the species' notable charac- still possible. It is preferable to use a sampling
teristics, color patterns, and other features that will strategy which obtains a representative sample of
make it easier to identify. Underwater color photo- the community. These data can be used directly
graphs (or better yet, color transparencies) will be as an index of relative abundance or they can be
a great aid, especially if the specimen is suspected treated mathematically to estimate total abundance
as being different or unknown and cannot be cap- on a reef.
tured. It is important to compare notes with fel-
low observers and just as importantly, to learn to Figure 7.2
accept (or reject if need be) the identifications
made by others. There are ichthyologists and fish-
ery biologists at most of the universities through- ,,, E UNVERS ..
OFWEST.O
out the Southeast, who can be called upon to help .....
you with your identifications. We emphasize
again that while variation and inaccuracies in data .
gathering on artificial reefs is inevitable, the data .. , _ W _ A

base must contain accurate species identifications. -- - r -- _ .._

While it may not be possible to identify each indi-
vidual to the species level an alternative would be ".
to identify each individual at least to its correct ge- "". ..1 T "
,...
nus or family. _.,. -- c....... .

Importance of Field Notes

Too many trust their memories only to leam
(or worse, never find out) that they have forgotten
some character, species, or observation critical to
a study. This happens most often when consider-
able time takes place between the dive and note
writing or data recording. Even the best of us
have problems keeping track of information when
several dives are made on the same day, or the
weather is rough and/or the excitement of the mo- O
ment causes a lapse in memory. We suggest, in
addition to recording the physical data as outlined
previously, that a field notebook be used to write
down your immediate impressions and observa- Field Note Sheet

45
 Beginners can start by simply identifying cies. The second method, Fixed Point Sampling,
and recording species of interest. Thompson and provides an index of abundance of all observable
Schmidt (1977) and Jones and Thompson (1978) species.
developed a method in which divers swim ran-
domly around a reef and attempt to locate and iden-
tify all possible species within a 50 minute period. Moving Transect Sample
Species are given a score of 5 to 1 depending on The lack of structural uniformity over space
which respective 10 minute time interval they were and time on artificial reefs often makes traditional
first observed. This is an excellent method for pro- transect sampling strategies difficult or impossible.
ducing a species list and for training divers on fish For this reason, we recommend using a fixed
identification. search route or a timed search period in which all
Advanced divers, using methods described individual fish of interest are located and counted.
below, should collect more quantitative data which In situations where the reef structure is relatively
estimates abundance and even sizes. Measuring constant, like a ship wreck, a prescribed search
sizes under water can be a problem because objects route can be established. Careful attention should
appear closer (and therefore enlarged). Divers who be given to precisely following the same route for
desire to estimate fish sizes should carry a measur- each sample. The same starting and ending point
ing device of some type. One which we prefer con- should be used. A route map should be made for
sists of a rod approximately 3 feet long with a ruler later use. Target species are recorded as they are
attached perpendicularly on the far end. This will observed. The data can be influenced by differ-
help avoid problems in estimating true sizes. Di- ences in water visibility. This can be minimized
vers should practice estimating sizes of various ob- by recording only those individuals observed
jects from a distance and then compare their within a predetermined distance. The distance cho-
estimates to the measured size underwater. sen should depend on prevailing conditions.
Visual census data are most easily recorded In complex habitats, a timed search period of
with a pencil on plasticized paper held by a clip- 15 minutes per sample is suggested. During this
board. We do not recommend using data sheets period all observed individuals of the predeter-
with preprinted species' names because they tend mined target species are recorded. Likely hiding
to bias the diver's observations and usually do not places for particular species can be searched. In or-
save time. It often takes considerable time to read der for results to be comparable, a constant swim-
and find names on a list underwater. Scientific ming speed should be maintained during the
names can usually be abbreviated using the first search. Swimming speed should be the slowest
three letters of the genus and the first four letters of speed necessary to adequately take data on the
the specific name (e.g., the red snapper, Luýtanus densest concentration of the desired target species.
campechanus becomes "lut camp". Plastic paper Distance covered can be estimated by calibrating
provides a convenient permanent recording me- distance as a function of time at the established
dium. The Plaspyrus brand paper referred to ear- swimming speed, although in areas with strong cur-
lier is good for this. Heavy rubber bands will help rents such calibration may not be effective.
in holding sheets on a clipboard. Another method Several independent, small samples are gen-
of recording data consists of using opaque (white) erally more desirable than one large sample. Multi-
sheets of plexiglas which have had their surfaces pie samples are more desirable for statistical
roughened with sandpaper. These "slates" can be treatment. Therefore, small increments of search
reused as they can be cleaned with scouring pow- distance or time are recommended. More samples
der or sandpaper. Pencil can be used to write un- can be taken in large habitats and the average or
derwater on both materials (you can even erase mean values used. Buddy team members should
underwater as well with a plain old rubber eraser), collect data in order to provide a variance estimate
A simple way to transcribe the data on the slate, to between observers. The first sample collected on a
paper, is by using a copy machine. given day can be used for comparison purposes in
situations, where fish populations are affected by
counting, such as when individual fish are fright-
Sampling Methods ened away from a reef by the presence of divers.
In order to properly assess fish on artificial
reefs, we must have a firm understanding of the at-
tributes and limitations of the methods we wish to Fixed Point Sampling
employ. Below are two methods designed to This method is more suited for sampling all
quickly and simply visually monitor the reef fish species on reefs with complex or diverse communi-
populations. The first method, Moving Transect ties. Studies which concentrate only on a few spe-
Samples, is used to sample specific species of inter- cies might not reveal all the information which is
est, such as snapper and grouper, although the biologically important. Larger species are likely to
method can be used on any species or group of spe- be attracted to sites because of the presence of

46
smaller "trashfish" or "baitfish" species. Scientists cies that continually swim through the sample area.
would like to know more about the relationships This procedure will reduce chances of recording
between the large and small species. the same individuals more than once. Data on bot-
With this method, fixed points are selected tom features within the sample radius may be re-
from which data onwhich
fromon community
community composition are
data composition are corded for later reference. Photographs of the site
collected. Points can be randomly selected (pro- may be helpfuL
vided points chosen are truly random in the statisti- Again, great care must be taken to record
cal sense) or they can be fixed at certain locations and keep track of all essential information about
for purposes of comparison. On a particular artifi- the dive. Otherwise the data collected will be use-
cial reef, such as a wreck, sites might be chosen less. Copies of raw data sheets and dive log sheets
which can be easily relocated, such as on the an- should be kept together, although later, the data
chor, the fo'c'sle, or a point along the hull on the can be recopied and organized for analysis. Names
upcurrent or downcurrent side. Permanent points of divers, date, weather conditions, depth, name of
are recommended for detecting temporal (i.e., time reef and sample locations should be recorded.
associated) changes and when different divers are Numbering each sample is recommended. Any ad-
monitoring the same site. ditional information that can be provided should be
At each point, both members of the buddy recorded such as visibility, sea conditions, tidal cy-
c lo u d
team first record all species observed within a pre- cle, cloud cover,
cle, unusual observations.
and unusual
cover, and observations.
set distance of a 3600 arc during a five minute pe-
riod. This distance used should be constant. We Fish Survey Data Type
recommend 8 meters (about 25 feet) in areas with
prevailing clear water although shorter distances Any analysis of the data obtained in a visual
may be used. The distance to be sampled should survey must be considered as to kind as well as
be measured and marked at one point. Several quality of data. The kind of data will generally be
brands of fiberglass tape measures are commer- at least one and perhaps all of the following:
cially available, which can be submerged in salt 1) species list;
water. Usually a stationary object on the bottom 2) qualitative speces abundance;
will serve as a handy reference point for each sam-
ple. 3) relative species abundance;
Any fish that swims within the imaginary cyl- 4) absolute species abundance.
inder extending from the bottom to the surface The appropriate ways to handle each of these
within the five minute sample period is recorded, data types will be considered below. In all cases
At the end of the sample period an estimate of the you must compare data of the same type. For ex-
number of individuals observed for each species is ample, it would be erroneous and misleading to
then recorded. Minimum, average, and maximum compare the seasonal changes in abundance of red
size estimates for each species can also be re- grouper at a particular artificial reef, if some of the
corded. Only a few individuals of most species ap- surveys recorded relative abundance and others
pear within the sample radius during the five used qualitative estimates. To analyze the data in
minute sample so their numbers can usually be eas- the above example, one would have to go to the
ily remembered. Individual fish which are not lowest common denominator of similarity in data
likely to leave the sample radius can be counted af- type. In the above example, the relative abundance
ter the five minute sample period by starting at one data would have to be converted into qualitative
point and rotating around 3600 until all the view- data to allow a meaningful analysis.
able area is covered. We recommend counting
only one species at a time and working up the list
from the bottom to avoid bias caused by a ten- Species Lists
dency to count each species when it is particularly It is possible to compare artificial reefs
noticeable or abundant. Working systematically merely based on a list of species known to inhabit
back up the list reduces the chance of overlooking them. Granted, the analysis may be crude, but
a species that remains within the sample area for there are some things which can be said in a study
only a short time can be counted as they appear using these types of data providing one is aware of
during the five minute sample period. Usually the assumptions necessary to validate the compari-
only a few species are in this category. son.
When large schools of fish are present, it A dive team may survey a reef and merely
might be necessary to count by 10's, 20's, 50's, or note the species observed at the site at a particular
even 100's. This method relies on detecting rela- time of day or time of year. It may be possible to
tive abundances so do not be concerned about ob- use the presence/absence of certain species to gain
taining absolute accuracy. The maximum number some insight into the nature of artificial reefs. Be-
of individuals seen at one time can be used for spe- low are some hypothetical examples of the uses

47
made from the kinds of information someone jacent reefs, they may be vastly more numerous on
might gather from a simple species list. one of these structures.
1) A certain species of fish may have been Qualitative abundance data are generally re-
absent at one time of the year and present corded on some type of verbal or numeric scale.
e .r n i i as A species may be said to be abundant, common,
few, rare, or given a number score for the abun-
preference by the species. dance assessment (e.g., 5,4,3,2,1) to signify the
2) A species may be absent at one type of verbal qualifiers above. The verbal or numerical
reef, yet present at another reef which is scales can vary of course. An extremely abundant
fish could become a perfect 10 on a 10 point scale.
close by but composed of a different type It is preferable that if qualitative abundance scores
of material. This implies a habitat prefer- are used, that they be accompanied by some rela-
ence by the species, tive abundance definitions: e.g, abundant = more
3) Presence of a species only when another than 100 individuals; common = 25 to 100 indi-
Sa l viduals; few = 5 to 24; rare = less than five.
species was absent
species was absent might
might imply
imply compet-
compet- . some similar
If defined in . . manner as above,
tion between the two species. qualitative data can be treated as relative abun-
4) Higher numbers of species consistently re- dance data and analyzed accordingly. The prob-
corded on one reef in comparison to others lem is that because of the wide ranges in potential
implies that something in the nature of the species abundance and the necessarily narrow
range of qualitative categories, a lot of useful in-
structure allows or permits this to remain formation in our visual surveys may be lost.
because of some factor such as size of the
reef, amount of fishing pressure, proxim- Relative Species Abundance
ity to natural reefs, or some other factor
Relative species' abundances are perhaps
not easily recognized without further the most appropriate kind of data for scientific
study. analysis of the fish fauna assemblages associated
There are several basic assumptions which with artificial reefs. Most of the data gathering
are made when comparing artificial reefs by spe- techniques outlined previously record relative spe-
cies lists. The first is that when a species is noted cies abundance. The abundance figures for each
on a particular survey, it was in fact present (again species are considered "relative" because they are
errors in species identification can invalidate this relative to the particular technique used. For ex-
assumption). The second assumption is that just ample, an estimate of grouper using a moving tran-
because a species was not seen or recorded does sect technique gives a number of grouper relative
not mean that the species was truly absent from the to that technique and would not be comparable to
area. It is of course probable, although unlikely, grouper abundance data gathered by a fixed point
that after a series of surveys on a particular reef count technique.
that one might miss seeing a species when it was
actually there all along. This may happen because Absolute Abundance Data
of the geometric configuration of some artificial
reefs, the behavioral features of some species, also An improvement of the relative abundance
the species' abundance, or variation between ob- data by species is the absolute abundance which re-
servers to see some species. It should be noted lates the relative abundance to some special pa-
that even though a species list really only notes the rameter such as the surface area of the reef and its
presence of species, species abundance is impor- value should be independent of the census
tant as it is theoretically easier to miss a species method. For all practical purposes, these type of
which is rare, especially if it is small and crypti- data will not be considered further because of the
cally colored, degree of sophistication required in their collec-
tion and verification. This is because in order to
qualify as absolute abundance data, accuracy must
Qualitative Species Abundance be achieved on all levels of data gathering. The
Species' abundance data of this type are pre- area of the reef must be determined with certainty
ferred over species lists. This is because in a com- and must be accompanied with accurate and pre-
munity, fish are not just present on a reef, but are cisely collected fish faunal data. Unless extreme
also there in varying abundances. For example, care is taken to handle all possible variation in
even though gray triggerfish are present on two ad-

48
data due to experimental design, it is best to leave of species or the total number of individuals of all
this type of data collecting to research scientists, species versus collection data. The relative abun-
dance or qualitative score of individuals observed
is located on the vertical axis while the date,
Data Analysis month, season, or time of day is located on the
Volunteers should rely on professional scien- horizontal axis. These plots can be represented
tists for data analysis. It is imperative that the vol- either as a series of points connected by a line or a
unteers appreciate the need for accuracy and histogram (bar graph) as depicted in Figure 7-3.
consistency in their fish data collection. The major It is also possible to use graphs to look for
objectives of any study that assesses or surveys the factors which may be related to the number spe-
community of fish on an artificial reef should be to cies or number of individuals present. For exam-
look for changes in the fish fauna abundance pie, a plot of abundance of white grunts versus the
and/or composition that occur within an area or to temperature recorded on a site may show a rela-
look for differences between areas. Whatever our tionship like that in Figure 7-4.
objective, the most important aspect, allowing for
further analysis of the data regardless of the Figure 7.3
method employed, is to obtain reliable data that
have been recorded and reported consistently.
This is essential, not only for the analysis of the
fish assemblage data themselves, but also for the 0-
physical data that were recorded on each survey. ,,.
One of the outcomes of any data gathering study is
that the differences in measurements (species abun- .
dances or physical features) may occur. It is im-
perative that any differences we find not be caused o: .-.-.-. -
,F M J J, * . o
by changes in the technique used to obtain the
data. For example, let us say that your dive team
wants to compare two artificial reefs. One dive
team always surveys the shallowest reef and the
other the deepest reef. In comparing the abun-
dance data you notice there are always more red
snapper at the deeper reef and more gray snapper
at the shallow reef. While the differences may be
real and reflect a natural habitat affinity for the two
species in question, we must be sure that both dive , s .
groups conducted their surveys in the same manner o.rnls
and both groups knew the differences between red
and gray snapper. Our analysis might conclude Relative Abundance Data
that deeper reefs tend to have more red snapper vs. Month to Date Samples
and shallower reefs more gray snapper. If the dif-
ferences in species abundance were caused by misi-
dentification of one group's preference to Not carrying the analysis far enough is an-
overestimate red snapper, then our conclusions that other point to watch. In the example of a hypo-
the depth difference between these two structures thetical relationship between temperature and
was responsible for the species abundance differ- abundance of white grunt (Figure 7-4), the tempta-
ence is likely to be false. tion is to say that an increase in temperature
caused the increase in white grunt. To state this
would, however, make an assumption that tem-
Graphic Analysis perature caused the abundance levels when the
Graphs are probably the simplest and clear- data only indicate that temperature is related to
est way to begin an analysis of artificial reef cen- abundance. We might just as well have argued
sus data. A "first cut" of the data permits a that white grunt abundance caused the temperature
"picture" of the census results and may lead one to change! While increased temperature may have
conduct further analysis, which answer more so- been the cause of the increased fish abundance,
phisticated questions of the data. Graphs can be of our observation of the temperature-abundance rela-
several types, based on the kind of examination tionship only allows us to infer what the cause
one would like to conduct. Perhaps the simplest was. In fact, the increased abundance of the white
type of graph is a plot of the abundance level of a grunt may have resulted from an increased food
particular species versus some feature of the physi- supply independent of temperature. This is a ma-
cal data. This could be a plot of the total number jor point and must be understood before proceed-

49
 ing with any analysis which uses a plot of a rela- seem to have as many species as it should have),
tionship between the census data and a physical then we are left with the interesting and often re-
feature of the artificial reefs. warding task of asking some additional questions
such as:
Figure 7.4 1)Was it the technique?
2) Was there something about the conditions
on the day that the study was conducted
so that might account for the unexpected dif-
* ference (such as unusual weather or very
. low visibility)?
30- 3) Was the reef in question newly con-
structed (it may take several years for a
reef to "mature" and attain its "adult" or
So- * climax status)?
4) Were there some other recent factors,
0o is to as 30 which weren't quite usual for the area
TEMPERATURE F) such as a red tide, hurricane, or intense

Hypothetical Relationships-t is nec- fishing pressure?

essary to define and carry the analysis far This searching and questioning aspect is
enough to properly define the relationship. what science is all about First, establish what is
This hypothetical graph of temperature and out there; second, determine and document the re-
abundance of white grunt shows how incom- lationships among the fish and their environment;
plete analysis can skew results. and then try to explain why some of the data do
not fit the expected pattern of relationships.
The above mentioned way of analyzing data
Prediction & Trends allows us to look at trends among and within artifi-
cial reefs. In addition, we might also want to coa-
Through the process of plotting census data pare the specis list or relative abundances of a
of fish communities (either the community as a particular species between two reefs. Here a nu-
whole or particular target groups within the com merical comparison is perhaps best. For example,
munity) it may be possible to eventually predict ref A on a yearly basis tends to have 20 species
the status of the fish community by obtaining data of fish on it with a minimum of 15 and a maxi-
on one or a few of the environmental factors mum of 25 and a low average number of red snap-
which seem to have a relationship when we plot per at 35 per survey. Reef B has fewer numbers
the data. For example, after examiining a series of of species on an annual basis 10 (minimum = 7,
fish census data we might conclude that more maximum = 15) but red snapper were more numer-
snowy grouper occur on a reef when the tempera- ous with an average of 50 per visual inspection.
ture and depth are at a certain leveL Logically, we would first have to determine if the
While it is doubtful that accurate prediction differences in number of species of red snapper
of numbers of fish on a reef will always be possi- are important or significant. Then we might try to
ble using the technique above, it should be noted determine what the differences in factors or fea-
that by using more sophisticated statistical analy- tures on the two structures are, which may have in-
ses with the same data, reasonably reliable predic- fluenced the differences in the census data we
tions could occur. Again, university or research observed. Whether or not the differences are sig-
institution personnel should be able to aid you nificant is really a statistical question, which can
with these analyses as long as the data have been only be answered by someone well versed in the
collected accurately and in a consistent manner. subject of statistics.
Prediction in and of itself is interesting and
may be important, but a potentially more impor- Species Relationships
tant value of plotting data is to question the data Relationships
that do not "fit". For example, let us say that a Another way to analyze the abundance data
very strong relationship exists between the amount of artificial reef fishes is to plot the abundance of
of surface area of artificial reefs and the number of one species versus another. This will help deter-
species it normally has living on it, regardless of mine the relationship that exists between any two
season. If a survey done on a very large reef has species. For example, when the abundance of
very few species on it (in other words, it doesn't white grunts is plotted against the abundance of

50
black sea bass, we might see a generally positive lot about the fishery potential and community dy-
relationship that indicates that when there are a lot namics of artificial reefs. Finally, store your data
of white grunts, there are usually a lot of black sea in such a way that others, in the future, can find
bass. This might mean that the habitat features are and understand it. To do anything less, will render
favorable to both species. Let us say, however, all your work worthless.
that when we plot the abundance of white grunts
versus pinfish we find the opposite to be true.
That is, when white grunts are abundant, pinfish References
are rare or few. This could mean, in addition to Bohnsack, JA. 1982. Effects of piscivorous
the reverse for the similar habitat argument posed preditor removal on coral reef community struc-
previously, that perhaps there was some competi- ture. pp. 258-267.In: G.M. Caillet and CA.
tion taking place between the two species and that Simenstad. Gutshop '81: Fish Food Habits Stud-
whenever one species becomes abundant it tends ies. Washington Sea Grant Program. Seattle.
to exclude or outcompete the other.
Chaplin, C.G. 1972. Fishwatchers Guide to
West Atlantic Coral Reefs. Livingston Publishing
Summary Co., Wynnewood, Pennsylvania.
It is not possible to go into all the fine details Greenberg, I. and J. Greenberg. 1977.
of the data analysis in this short introduction to the Guide to Corals and Fishes of Florida, the Baha-
subject. It is, however, important to keep in mind mas, and the Caribbean. Seahawk Press, Miami,
some basic ideas when analyzing artificial reef fish Floda.
visual census data. Hoese, H.D. 1977. Fishes of the Gulf of
1) Make sure the methods used to gather the Mexico. Texas A and M University Press, College
Station, Texas.
data for any given analysis have been Jon,. Thomps,
Jones, R.S. and MJ. Thompson, 1978.
taken with a CONSISTENT method of Comparison of Florida reef fish assemblages using
censusing. a rapid visual technique. BulL Mar. Sci. 28: 159-
2) Double check the data for accuracy and be 172.
suspect (that doesn't mean throwing Klima, E.F. and DA. Wickham. 1971. At-
traction of coastal pelagic fishes with artificial
them away) of data that do not fit your x- structures. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 100(1): 86-99.
pected pattern. Randall, J.E. 1963. Caribbean Reef Fishes.
3) If they don't fit, try to determine why: TFH Publications, Jersey City, New Jersey.
a) natural phenomenon? Robbins, C.R., R.M. Bailey, C.E. Bond,
b) error in data recording (yes, it happens J.R. Booker, EA. Lachner, R.N. Lea, and W.B.
to the best of us)? Scott. 1980. A list of common and scientific
names of fishes from the United States and Can-
4) Examine or inspect the data by graphi- ada. 4th edAmer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Pub. No. 12,
cally displaying them. Bethesda, Maryland.
5) Look for relationships between commu- Robbins, C.R., G.C. Ray & J. Douglass.
nity and species abundance with other 1986. A Field Guide to Atlantic Coast Fishes of
species or environmental factors by plot- North America. A Peterson Field Guide. Houghton
Mifflin Company, Boston. V-XI, 354p.
ting the data. Stokes, FJ. 1980. Handguide to the coral
6) Try to use your graphs to help predict the reef fishes of the Caribbean. Lippencott and Crow-
abundance of a species. ell, New York.
7) See if your prediction works. If it does- Thompson, MJ. and T.W. Schmidt 1977.
n't, try to find out why. Validation of the species/time random count tech-
If the species identification, abundance and nique for sampling fish assemblages at Dry Tortu-
environmental data have been collected accurately gas. Proc. Third Inteat. oral Reef Syp. 1:
and with consistent procedures, you will have a
valuable data base from which we can all learn a

51
 ~

~···················........."~r~,~-~\~c
Chapter 8
Survey Techniques: Identifying
the Economic Benefits of
Artificial Reef Habitat
J. Walter Milon and Building 803, University of Florida, Gainesville,
RonaldL. Schmied Florida 32611. The cost is $2.00.

Srtificial reefs represent man's attempt to aug-

ent the natural productivity of the oceans. The Basis for Economic
While these structures may increase biological di- Benefits
versity and abundance, their ultimate success de- There is a common perception that artificial
pends on the pleasure they provide to sport reefs are just like other marine habitats and should
fishermen and sport divers. In the past, sportfish- be available to everyone. The difference, how-
ing clubs, civic groups and local governments have ever, is that artificial reefs are often created at pub-
provided manpower and funds to establish reef pro- lic expense and are not a gift of nature. While
jects. However, with increasing emphasis on fiscal they are open and available to everyone, everyone
conservation, artificial reef projects are being does not have the right to demand more artificial
forced to compete with other civic and recreation reef construction. Local or state governments for
projects for public spending. As a result, it is nec- example would not be fiscally responsible to their
essary to document the benefits of existing reef taxpayers if they built artificial reefs which did
structures and to determine the potential benefits not provide larger economic benefits than the
and costs of new reef projects. Neglect of eco- costs incurred. The analogy to a private recrea-
nomic factors can lead to underinvestment in reef tion facility should be obvious. No businessman
habitat by government and/or private concerns. would invest in a fishing pier unless he expected
the economic returns to be at least equal to the
This chapter provides an overview of altema-
tive techniques to assess the economic benefits of
artificial reefs. Since artificial reef use is not con- We assume that artificial reefs provide an
trolled through entrance gates or admission fees environment in which a food chain is established
like many other recreation facilities, it is necessary that encourages the propagation or recruitment of
to use survey techniques to determine usage and socially desirable marine species. Sport fisher-
the associated recreational benefits. The first sec- men and divers benefit from the structures be-
tion discusses the basis of economic benefit meas- cause they enjoy recreational experiences that
ures for recreation activities where there are no might not otherwise be available or they would
explicit admission or user fees, as artificial reefs. have to travel longer distances to enjoy a compara-
The second section discusses three alternative ble experience. The task in identifying the bene-
methods for estimating economic benefits: 1)con- fits of artificial reefs is to determine how much
parative valuation, 2) travel cost valuation and 3) the users of these facilities would be "willing to
contingent valuation. Examples of the survey ques- pay" for the right to continue using an existing
tions that could be used for each method are pro- reef or to use a new reef.
vided as Appendices L & M. The third section It is difficult to determine how much an arti-
assesses the relative merits of alternative data col- ficial reef user would be willing to pay for the ex-
lection techniques for artificial reef usage surveys, perience since it is not possible to charge an
Since it is not possible to provide a complete over- admission fee. Therefore it is necessary to use in-
view of economic benefit and cost techniques direct methods to determine how much fishermen
within the space of this handbook, the interested and divers would pay for a typical "user day".
reader should consult "A Handbook for Economic This amount becomes the basis for establishing
Analysis of Coastal Recreation Projects" by J.W. the total benefits of an artificial reef. If the num-
Milton and Grace Johns. This publication is avail- ber of user days per fishermen/diver can be deter-
able through the Sea Grant Extension Program, mined and the total number of users in a given

53
 year, the total annual benefits can be established
through the formula:

Cell One Cell Two Cell Three

Total Annual Willingness to Number of User Total Number of

Benefits pay Per Day Day Per Diver Divers
This total equals Cell One times Cell Cell Two times Cell
Two Three

For example, if the average diver were will- four per year, and the total number of divers using
ing to pay $5.00 per trip to an existing artificial the reef during the year was 1,000, the total annual
reef, the average number of trips to that reef was benefits for divers would be:

$20,000 = $5.00 x 4 x 1,000

A comparable calculation for sport fisher- The advantage of this method is that it is
men could be made to determine the total annual quick and data are easy to collect. The disadvan-
benefits of the reef. tages are numerous. First, this approach only
One of the difficulties in establishing these measures the cost of getting to the dive site, not
user day values is the exact nature of the "recrea- the actual value of the dive experience.This is
tion experience." Is this experience on an existing similar to saying that the only value in going to
reef or on a new reef? Is this new reef the first in Disney World is the expense of getting there. Sec-
the area or do several already exist? Are the types ond, there is no distinction between the quality of
of experiences different on artificial reefs at differ- the recreation experiences. An artificial reef may
ent water depths? All of these are relevant con- be more or less enjoyable than a natural reef or
cerns in establishing economic value, however, other dive site but this method cannot allow for
each creates a separate research problem. In the these differences between different destinations.
following discussion, we will assume that we are Finally, establishing a measure of the user day
trying to estimate the economic benefits for an ex- value is only one part of determining the total
isting artificial reef. We will look at three altema- benefits of an artificial reef. It would still be nec-
tive methods (comparative, travel cost, and essary to determine the number of user days per
contingent valuation) of establishing user day val- diver and the total number of divers using the reef
ues and the total benefits for the reef. After a dis- during the year. The next method offers some
cussion of the three methods, we will conclude help on these aspects.
with some suggestions for assessing the value of
new reef projects. Travel Cost Method
The travel cost method depends on users' ex-
User Day Value Methods penditures to get to a site as a measure of their
willingness to pay for that site. This method has
Comparative Valuation Method been used since the 1950's to value recreation
The comparative valuation method is per- sites for Federal projects, including the US. Army
haps the simplest but the least precise approach. Corps of Engineers. It can be shown by using a
The basic premise is that the price of a comparable simple example. Suppose that a survey procedure
recreational experience can serve as a proxy for has been set up so that interviews can be con-
the user day value of a particular recreation. For ducted with divers at an artificial reef site. The in-
example, in order to establish the user day value terviewing is done randomly among divers at the
of an artificial reef to divers, a comparative valu- site and the interviews are conducted at different
ation would use the cost of a private charter dive intervals during the season (year). The interview
trip to some local reef site. If the going rate is $15 questionnaire (see Appendix L) is designed to de-
per trip, then it would be assumed that this is the termine the diver's place of permanent residence,
user day value for diving experiences in the area. the distance traveled to the site (local marina or

54
ramp), the number of dives made at the site per data had been collected and broken down into
year, the number of divers in the party and the ex- three groups on the basis of distance travelled
penses incurred enroute. Suppose the following (travel zone).

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Average Distance Number of Divers Number of Dives at Average Expenses
Traveled from Travel Zone Site/Year Incurred
200 miles 200 1 $150
100 miles 200 2 $100
50 miles 400 4 $50

This information can now be used to deter- ship lists from local diving clubs and certification
mine economic benefits for all divers. First, it is lists from a diver certifying agency. Cross check-
necessary to estimate the total number of potential ing was used to eliminate double counting. We
reef divers in each of the travel zones. Suppose can combine this information with the survey infor-
for our example that this was done using member- mation in the following table:

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Travel Zone Total Number of Participation Total Number of
Divers in Travel Zone RateTrips Per Travel
200 miles 1,000 252% 250
100 miles 1,000 25% 500
50 miles 1,000 50% 2,000

The participation rate (Column [3]) is deter- Total benefits are determined by making
mined by dividing the number of divers from each two assumptions: 1) the travel costs of the divers
zone by the total number of divers sampled. The from the farthest zone measure the maximum will-
total number of trips per travel zone is determined ingness to pay for use of the site, and 2) the differ-
by multiplying the participation rate times the total ence between maximum willingness to pay and
number of divers per travel zone and then multiply- the costs incurred by divers from other travel
ing by the average number of dives at the site per zones is a measure of benefits received. Thus to-
year. tal benefits can be calculated as follows:

Travel Zone Average Benefit Per Total Number of Total AnnualBenefits

Trip by Travel Zone Trips Per Zone
200 miles $150 -$150= 0 250 0
100 miles $150 - $100 = $50 500 $25,000
50 miles $150 - 50 = $100 2,000 $200,000

The travel cost method uses a number of sim- Contingent Valuation Method
plifying assumptions to determine an annual bene-
fits estimate. There are a number of alternatives One alternative to using a proxy such as
that can be used to introduce more realistic assump- travel cost for the "willingness to pay" of divers
tions but these extensions are beyond the scope of for an artificial reef site is to ask them directly
this discussion. The interested reader should con- what value they place on the dive site. The pri-
suit pages 36-50 of A Handbook for Economic mary advantage of this approach is that is provides
nalyg of Coastal R eaton r a direct estimate of benefits without the restrictive
of Coastal
Recreation ects. 55Analysis

55
assumptions of the travel cost model The major ing between high and low starting points (say,
shortcoming is the hypothetical nature of the ques- $200 and $50). In addition, the interviewer should
tions. Respondents may not understand the ques- not deliberately change the starting point because
tion or they may not respond seriously or the of perceived differences in income of the respon-
interviewer may bias the responses by certain re- dents.
marks or gestures. Some of these shortcomings Since much of the same basic information
can be overcome by careful instructions and proper needed for the travel cost method is also needed
question design. for the contingent valuation method, it is useful to
The simplest form of the contingent valu- combine the two in a questionnaire. In this man-
ation approach is direct questioning. For example, ner the annual benefits per diver can be compared
an interviewer at a dive site could ask divers the and a range of economic benefits determined.
following question:
"Ifan annual permit system was established Survey Methods
for diving at this site, what is the maximum
amount you would be willing to pay for this per- Most recreation surveys collect two types of
mit?" data: 1) basic descriptive data about frequency of
The average amount that divers indicate as site use, purpose of trip, hometown, etc., and 2)
their willingness to pay is a measure of the average measures of benefit such as travel costs or will-
benefits and could be combined with other informa- ingness to pay for the recreation experience. In at-
tion on the total number of divers at the site to de- tempting diving/fishing surveys there are two
termine the total annual benefits. The main critical issues: determining how to contact divers
objection to direct questioning is that it is too open- using the site and determining how many divers in
ended to produce realistic responses. An altema- total are using the site. In general, a sampling pro-
tive is to use iterative bidding instead. The cedure can be set up that uses either mail, tele-
objective is to introduce some payment vehicle phone, or personal interview methods to
(e.g. a dive site permit or increases in fuel costs) determine the total number of divers. For exam-
and then suggest dollar amounts. The respondent ple, local dive club lists and certification lists
will eventuallySeventuall
convere to aa final
converge to final response and could be used to determine the total number of di-
this will be the willingness to pay. Let's consider vers in the immediate area that could be using the
an example. The interviewer asks the following artificial reef. Then either a mail or telephone sur-
questions and receives the answers in parentheses; vey of these divers could be used to determine if
the process stops when the respondents' maximum they use the artificial reef. Information of type (1)
willingness to pay is reached. could be gathered in this manner and the total
number of users determined.
permit system was estab-
1) If an annual SThe difficulty arises in collecting informa-
lished for this reef site, would you buy a tion of type (2). It is possible to use mail and tele-
permit if it cost $50? (No) phone surveys to collect this information but there
2) Would you buy one if the cost was $20? are serious questions whether these methods are
(Y) accurate for this information. Personal interviews,
(Yes) preferably on site or at a local marina or boat
3) Would you buy one if the cost was $30? ramp, are preferred since they allow the inter-
(No) viewer to correctly interpret the questions for the
4) Would you buy one if the cost was $25? respondent. The major problem with the inter-
view approach is cost. It is expensive to keep an
(Yes) interviewer at a site and to repeat this process in
Thus a maximum willingness to pay of $25 order to provide a sufficiently large sample. How-
has been established. ever, if accuracy is very important to the final re-
It is very important that the respondent under- sults, the interview approach is highly
stand that the purpose of the question is not to recommended.
"tax" them for diving or to actually institute a per-
mit system. This could lead to deceptive re-
sponses. An example of the type of introduction Summary
that could be used is given in Appendix M. An- These considerations are summarized in the
other consideration is the starting point in the itera- following table. The ranking runs from A - most
tive bidding process. In general when an preferred to C - least preferred. These rankings
interviewer starts off with a high initial price, the are based on general results of recreation studies
respondent will end with a higher willingness to for other types of facilities and the personal experi-
pay than if a lower starting point had been selected. ences of the authors.
This problem can be avoided by randomly switch-

56
Survey Method
Mail Telephone Site-interview

Response Rate C B A
Purpose of Trip C B A
Expenditures A B B
Valuation questions C B A
Cost of Information A B C
(A = most preferred, C = least preferred)

The best approach to surveying reef users Milton, J. W. and Johns, G. A Handbook
for economic benefits would be to consult with for Economic Analysis of Coastal Recreation Pro-
your local Sea Grant Extension Agent before you jects, Florida Sea Grant Report Number 45, Uni-
begin any survey work. Your agent can put you in versity of Florida, Gainesville Fla. 32611
touch with qualified university researchers who Thompson, M. E. and Roberts, K. K. "An
can assist you in designing and implementing a Empirical Application of the Contingent Valida-
survey for artificial reefs in your area. This will tion Technique to Value Marien Recreation"
save you money in the long run and will assure (draft), Louisiana State University, Center for
that you collect the right kind of information. Wetland Resources, Baton Rouge, La. 70803.

References
Ditton, R. B. et al "Predicting Marine Rec-
reational fushing from boat Characteristics and
Equipment." Transactions of the American Fisher-
ies Society, Vol. 109 (1980): 644-648.

57
 )r`
~
CQi~L~-~L L~ -_
Chapter 9
Disseminating Information on Reef
Research Activities
by Thomas M. Leahy The channels can be arbitrarily divided into
two broad categories: personal and mass media.
Information obtained through monitoring of reefs
or other reef research activities is relatively use- Personal Channels
less unless it is passed on to those who need it and
those who, although not necessarily in need, are in- Person-to-Person Contact on a One-to-
terested. As a result, divers who have this informa- One Basis
tion are almost certain to be faced with This informal channel is the simplest and
communicating it to others in one way or another. most direct means for conveying information and
In fact, communication of research information is a can also be the most effective: Immediate feed-
vital element of a reef research program. back from the person receiving the information is
This does not mean that divers must also be possible, any questions can be answered on the
professional communicators. They do not need the spot, and any misunderstanding immediately
trained voice of a broadcaster or the writing skills cleared up. The disadvantage to this method of
of a veteran newspaper feature writer, but it helps communication is that it is feasible only when a
to be able to think logically and clearly, to speak few people must be contacted. It is slow and time-
distinctly, and to write literately-qualifications it consuming and in many cases would not serve the
is assumed the divers already possess. purpose intended.
The purpose of this chapter, then, is not to at- No special skills or instructions apply to use
tempt to teach writing or speaking, but to discuss of this channel since it is something we all do
the most effective channels for disseminating infor- every day. It is important, however, to remember
mation and methods for using these channels. the importance of "intelligibility" in what is com-
municated. This can be assured through good
But first, two cautions to remember. In most speech characteristics and logical development of
cases the divers will not be scientists. They are the subject. Listening critically to one's own
trained as diver technicians, and are qualified to speech as well as to that of other people will e-
gather data, to map a reef, and to report on what ate anawareness of improvements which are
has been observed. They are not qualified to inter- needed.
pret the data and should not attempt to do so. Any
request for information which depends upon inter-
pretation of collected data should be referred to the Person-to-Person Contact at Group
scientist who has been given the information. Meetings
Also, the importance of accuracy should al- This, too, is a relatively simple and direct
ways be kept in mind. Sometimes, despite the ut- means for conveying information and if the group
most care in reporting, errors will creep in. This is is not too large it can also be very effective. As
evident in the fact that although newspaper report- with the one-to-one contact, immediate feedback
ers and editors are trained to provide accuracy in from the audience is possible (or, if not immedi-
published news stories, incorrect information still ate, during question session following the formal
continues to appear in print from time to time. presentation at which time any misunderstandings
can be cleared up). More people can be reached at
one time than in the one-to-one method but it is
How to Use Channels of still much slower and reaches far fewer people
Communication than is possible through other means.
There are a number of ways or channels of
communication available to the divers for relaying Using this channel requires more organiza-
information. The channel or channels used will de- tion of the information to be presented so some
pend upon the type of information to be conveyed, time must be spent in preparation in order to make
the audience to be reached, and the purpose to be the remarks effective. In preparing the report, con-
achieved by reporting the information. sideration should be given to the composition of

59
the audience and the reaction which is expected or Newsletters
desired from them. If the purpose of the presenta- A periodic newsletter can be a very effec-
tion is to inform, then the reaction desired would tive channel for dissemination of information to a
be an increased understanding on the part of the selected audience such as members of a local fish-
audience. If on the other hand the purpose is to
stimulate action, then the audience must not only ing club, the local artificial reef committee, co
be convinced of the necessity for such action but concening local reef and the reef program and
actually
actually persuaded
persuaded to
to take
take the steps to accomplish concerning local reefs and the reef program and
the steps to accomplish other interested persons. It may be desirable to
compile information for dissemination on a regu-
In relating information concerning the condi- lar basis (quarterly for example) to keep those in-
tion of artificial reefs or in discussing information dividuals informed as to the progress of any
concerning a planned artificial reef program or any current monitoring efforts or reef research which
other related information, it can be assumed that is planned or already underway.
the audience will have an interest in the subject Using this channel does require some effort
and therefore the speaker will not have to be par- advantages
ticularly concerned
ticularly concerned with motivating the audience
with motivating but the advantages over
over the
the mass
mass media
media are
are fairly
fairly
the audience obvious. The writer of the newsletter has com-
to listen plete control over the information because it will
not be edited in any way. The writer and distribu-
Presenting the Information tor also have control over who gets the informa-
tion and when the information is distributed.
an be theinformation
inormati
The size of the audience will have a definite None oof thi
Non this can controlled if
beinformton if the
influence on the way in which the information is is to appear in the mass media. It is true that the
presented. If a small group is being addressed, the newsletter has to compete for attention with all
presentation may be very informal with the speaker other items in the mailbox leaving the possibility
and audience sitting around in a random circle of that it might not be read, but on the other hand,
chairs and discussing the situation point by point, the recipient would be presumed to have an inter-
If it is a much larger group, the presentation may est in the information and therefore this should
be more formal and with the speaker using a micro- t e ro
phone and questions being delayed until comple- a pr
tion of the formal talk. The latter situation requires Using a newsletter for dissemination of in-
a greater amount of preparation on the part of the formation requires compiling the information,
speaker to organize the material for presentation to writing it in an acceptable style, having it dupli-
the larger audience. cated and finally distributed.
The best rule for speaking to a group has
been used so often it is almost a cliche: Tell them Writing the Newsletter
what you're going to tell them; tell them; tell them
whatMost
what you told them. writing in newsletters is a rather infor-
In other words-state your mal, chatty style of writing along the lines of a
purpose, deliver your message, and summarize it personal letter. Some newsletters
along the
are lines
produriting
of a
briefly. You can't do much more than that. personal letter. Some newsletters are produced
with the writer sitting down and typing out each
bit of information until finished, and then perhaps
Use of Slides signing his or her name. Others are set in type by
In making a presentation before a group of a professional typesetter, with professional design
size it may be helpful in terms of audience un- and layout. Even when the letter is typed rather
any ding to havehelpful in terms of audience un- than typeset it is generally preferable to have two
derstanding to have some visual materials, particu- columns than to have the material typed across
larly slides to accompany your talk. the entire page. This makes the information eas-
If the information is such that it will be ier to read.
shown a number of times to different groups, it
might be advantageous to prepare a slide/tape
show with an electronically pulsed cassette tape to Packaging the Newsletter
move the slides at the appropriate time. This, of If the newsletter is to be an "economy
course, requires special equipment to pulse the model" it can be, and should be, as neat and attrac-
tape as well as projection equipment which will tive as possible. This means a neat typing job,
permit coordination of the tape and slides. adequate margins, and a clean duplicating effort.
Some guidelines for working with slides are It may have a title or a heading along with a logo
contained in Appendix N. if the organization has a logo. Color can be added

60
by using a colored paper. If it is to be printed or newsletter recipients save copies of the newslet-
mimeographed on both sides of the paper the ters for future reference.
weight of the paper should be heavy enough so
that there will be no "show through."
How simple or elaborate the newsletter is, Mass Media Channels
depends upon such factors as the amount of Newspapers
money available to produce and distribute it, the
expertise of the person who prepares it, etc. When The local newspaper, whether daily or
a newsletter is aimed at a specific group interested weekly, can be a very effective way of reaching a
in the subject matter it is not necessary to package large audience. Many counties, depending upon
it expensively to attract attention and promote the population, will have at least one daily paper
reading. Presumable the recipient will want to and several smaller weekly papers. All represent
read it anyway. a channel through which information may reach
the decision makers and other influential and inter-
ested people in the area covered by the paper.
Distribution of the Newsletter Remember, however, that the newspaper is
Distribution of the newsletter requires devel- a business and like any other business, it must
opment of a mailing list and keeping the list up to make money in order to keep on operating.
date. Small mailing lists are relatively easy to han- Whether a paper makes money depends upon its
die but larger lists have a greater turnover and re- circulation and the amount of advertising sold.
quire more effort to keep current with additions, How much a paper may charge for advertising
deletions and changes of address, usually depends upon the size of the circulation,
Maintenance of mailing lists may be a so- and circulation depends on news. This means sim-
phisticated or as simple as time and equipment per- ply that the editor is not interested in items which
mit. If you have access to a computer and a are only self-serving pieces of information for
qualified computer operator the maintenance of some group, but in items that are newsworthy and
the mailing list can be accomplished quickly and of interest to the readers of the paper.
accurately and the computer can also be used to Remember, also, that most newspapers have
sort and print mailing labels. Much more time access to far more material than they can use and
consuming but still satisfactory is to maintain the therefore must be selective in what is run in the pa-
list manually using a card file or other method, per. Thus it is extremely important that a news re-
Mailing labels can be typed or even written by lease, or a call to an editor or reporter suggesting
hand if the list is small For larger lists where this an interview be based on material that is newswor-
is impractical, mailing labels may be printed on thy.
pre-gummed labels sheets from a master list using
a xerox or similar type copier. If necessary to di-
vide your list by special audiences (divers, fisher- Using the Newspaper
men, reef supporters, community planners, etc.) to There are essentially two routes to getting
provide flexibility in mailing certain information material into a newspaper. Providing information
to some groups but not to others, a coding system to a writer or reporter for the newspaper who then
may be improvised for filing and sorting. With a writes the story, or preparing a press release for
computer, of course, this task is handled much submission to the newspaper.
more quickly and efficiently than in a manual op- In the first instance, the reporter might con-
eration. tact you and request an interview for a story, or
Regardless of the means used to maintain you may have information of news value to the pa-
your mailing list, to be most effective it should be per and you will call a reporter, or reporters if sev-
surveyed periodically to determine if those receiv- eral papers are involved. If the request is initiated
ing the newsletter want to continue to receive it by you it is very important that the material is
and to locate those addresses which are no longer newsworthy. If not, the next time you call the re-
current. porters they may not respond at all.
A newsletter requires some effort but it is A media contact's role is to provide accu-
usually worthwhile and may be the most effective rate and complete information to the reporter who
communication tool available. The proof of this is will be responsible for assembling it into a story
the tremendous number of newsletters issued for publication in the newspaper. The reporter
every week by thousands of organizations country- will probably not show you the story before it is
wide ranging from churches and small service or- run so it is important that information given the re-
ganizations to huge corporations and government porter be accurate. Even then, by the time the
enterprises. In addition to the fact that they are copy is typeset and proofread there is a chance for
timely and useful, surveys have shown that many

61
 error to slip in. With accurate information from Sportsman, Florida Fishing News, Pleasure Boat-
the beginning this is less apt to happen, ing, Florida Scuba News, Sea Frontiers, Skin
The second possibility is for you to prepare a Diver, National Fisherman and even larger more
press release for submission to the newspaper. general magazines with national coverage such as
Since, as mentioned above, newspapers have more Smithsonian, National Geographic, Natural His-
material than they can use, it is more difficult to tory and Scientific American. However, it should
place information in the paper this way, than if re- be understood that placing an article in large circu-
porters for the paper wrote and submitted it, but lation national magazines is extremely difficult. In
there will be times when you have information many cases, articles are assigned by editors to writ-
which you feel is important to place in the newspa- ers of known quality.
per but not newsworthy enough to call a reporter. Placing stories in appropriate smaller maga-
Since writing and typing a press release in final zines with primarily local, state, or regional cover-
form will take some time, a good rule of thumb to age, while still difficult, is easier than breaking
follow is that if you have information which is into the national media. But since magazines
timely, which should appear in the newspaper's come and go, before submitting an article, make an
next issue, call the reporter, if it is information on the spot assessment of just which magazines are
which lends itself to "feature" material rather than now on the newsstands or in the library or other-
"hard news" then you have time to write and de- wise available in your particular area. From the
velop the press release yourself. above comments it can be seen that the magazine
Getting to know the editorial staff writers in- market is difficult to fit into a regular channel for
creases the chances of placing material in a news- dissemination of information. The exception
paper. A visit to the newspaper where you hope to would be those rare cases in which a magazine
get publicity will be well worthwhile. On daily pa- would agree to run a column by a diver/writer in
pers the city editor is the person who deals with lo- each issue. Such an opportunity would most likely
cal news and is the best person to see. If the be found in the smaller, local magazines serving a
newspaper has an outdoor editor he can also be a community, the state or a particular region of the
valuable contact for you. state. It would be, for all practical purposes, ex-
tremely difficult to arrange this with a national
magazine.
Preparing the Press Release But despite the obvious obstacles, this mar-
Appendix O,"Guidelines For Preparation of ket should not be neglected for it functions well as
Information For the News Media," contains infor- an additional channel when there is information
mation on the actual writing of a press release, spe- which can be appropriately packaged for readers of
cific information on how the release should be some particular specialized magazine.
presented and packaged, and an example of a sam-
ple press release. Since all copy is edited before
appearing in the newspaper, a press release, if oth- Writing the Magazine Article
erwise interesting and newsworthy, would not be Before beginning the writing of a magazine
rejected solely because it did not conform strictly article you should determine the purpose of the arti-
to the newspaper's style. However, preparing a cle and the intended audience. This will have
professional press release is beneficiaL much to do with the way in which you prepare and
present the material in the article.
aain
Magazines The next step will be to decide which maga-
zines may be interested in the article. Study these
Writing occasional articles for magazines magazines to see what type of articles they publish
can be a very rewarding experience. In addition to and how the articles are written. At this point you
providing information to readers of the magazine, could begin writing the article attempting to
It may also prove to be quite profitable. Most of "slant" it to one particular magazine. It will prob-
the general interest magazines of years past have ably save time, however, to first write to the editor
ceased publication. Taking their places on the of the magazine stating that you have an idea for
newsstands are special interest magazines which an article which you believe will be of interest to
focus on a particular subject such as health, fash- the readers of the magazine and explain briefly
ion, beauty, women, family, business, computers, what it is. If the editor does not respond favorably,
diving, outdoors, fishing, boating, sailing, natural write to another editor and another until one indi-
history, science etc. The list is almost as endless cates an interest in the material Although writing
as the interests of people. and sending out these query letters takes some
Some of the magazines which may be inter- time, in the long run it may save a lot of writing
ested in articles concerning artificial reefs, diving time because the editor who indicates interest will
to monitor reefs and related ideas are Florida most likely have certain requirements to pass on to

62
you such as the length of the article and how the Most radio programming today features a
subject should be treated, music/news format with a five minute news seg-
And remember-whenever you send in a ment every half hour or every hour. It is primarily
query letter or a completed manuscript always en- "headline" journalism. Interspersed with the mu-
close a stamped, self-addressed envelope for reply. sic are commercials, brief commentaries, or some-
times PSAs. But it moves at a rapid pace and in
Help in writing and preparing the manu- brief segments with very little time going by with-
script in an accepted format is addresses in Appen- out retuming to the music. To fit into such a for-
dix P). mat any message must be brief and to the point.
PSAs, for example, run no longer than 60 seconds
and most frequently no longer than 15 or 30 sec-
Radio onds. There are some stations which have a talk
Radio has been called a very personal and in- format with much more news and commentary in-
timate channel of communication because it can terviews. Such a station, offers a more flexible for-
bring the speaker right into the presence of the lis- mat and greater opportunity to participate in
tener. Radio is everywhere. There is hardly a longer programs.
place in the world where radio cannot be found. Material which is of a broad, general interest
In a sense, communicating through the means of has a greater chance of being aired than does infor-
radio is much like a person-to-person contact on a mation which is focused on a much narrower lis-
one-to-one basis or speaking in person to a group, tening audience.
except that the speaker cannot see the listener audi-
ence, cannot judge the impact of what is being
said, and is not aware of any questions the listen- Using Radio
ers may have. But the audience reached at one Radio use will probably be in one of three
time may be much larger. Instead of one person, ways-through brief news items on the local news,
the radio broadcast may be reaching hundreds or PSAs at whatever time the station can fit them in,
even thousands, or by participating in an interview or on a talk
But radio has disadvantages, too. Like show. Also, there is always the possibility of a
newspapers, a radio station is a business and must personal five-to-fifteen-minute program on a recur-
make a profit to stay in business. It usually has ring basis, for example once a week or once a
more material than it can use so if it is to be broad- month.
cast, the message must be newsworthy and of in- Getting to know the staff at the local station
terest to the radio audience. Although as part of or stations is a good public relations practice. De-
the licensing procedure a station agrees to operate pending upon its size, most stations will have, at a
in the public interest, convenience, and necessity minimum, a station manager who is responsible
and indicates what types of public service pro- for the entire operation, a proram director who is
gramming it plans to have, there is usually not responsible for the programming and for regular
enough available air time to accommodate all of and special broadcasts, and a news director who is
the requests the station receives to broadcast non- in charge of news gathering and reporting. At
commercial, public service announcements smaller stations the manager may also be the pro-
(PSAs). gram and news director.
Another disadvantage of radio is that the
message is fleeting and appeals to only one sense--
hearing. It is spoken and then gone. If the listener Being Interviewed
does not have the radio turned on or is momentar- An interview could come about in different
ily distracted while the message is being aired, it ways. For example, the station might request an
is missed altogether. Usually a radio listener is do- interview with you if you have information which
ing something else while listening such as driving they want to report. Or you might suggest to the
a car, eating, or doing some type of work. In such news director that you be interviewed because you
cases the message cannot be readily written down have news of local interest to their listeners. In
and filed away for future reference. If it cannot be either case, the interview might occur in the stu-
easily remembered it will probably be forgotten dio, or on location where the news is happening,
very quickly. Radio, then, is good for some infor- or it might be a telephone interview wherein your
mation dissemination and not good for others and comments on the phone are taped for later airing.
is most effective when the message to be delivered The interviewee's function in the interview
is simple, short and to the point--something that is simply to provide the information you have in
can be remembered without being written down
immediately.

63
as clear and logical a way as possible. A trained radio is prepared in a specific format. The same
radio voice is not necessary but speaking clearly applied to PSAs.
and distinctly is necessary. A halting monotone or For these reasons it is suggested that you not
an obvious and irritating speech habit distracts the spend time in attempting to prepare news or PSAs
listener, who may miss the importance of the infor- for a radio station as they would most likely be
mation being presented, completely rewritten before use anyway. A news
One word of caution. There is an old say- release that has been prepared for submission to
ing, "Before opening mouth put brain in gear." newspapers may also be mailed to the radio sta-
This is very good advice and you should always tions. If the station considers it newsworthy
think before answering a question since an experi- enough for broadcast over the local news program,
enced interviewer can sometimes cause you to say the newscaster will rewrite it in acceptable style
something you did not want to say or should not for reading over the air or will call you for an inter-
say. One way to counteract this is to come to the view.
interview with a list of prepared questions for the PSA information should be prepared in as
interviewer to use. He may not want to restrict the brief a form as possible, typed and submitted to
questions to the list but you will at least have es- the station. If the station decides to give it air
tablished the general area in which you are willing time, it will be rewritten in an acceptable form for
to speak, easier reading.
Of course, if you already have the knowl-
Your Own Program edge and training to prepare a news story or PSA
to be read over the radio, your chances for having
When you are the host of a program, even if it used are increased. Taking the information to
it is only five minutes long, listeners will be aware the station and discussing it with the program di-
that you are not a professional broadcaster and rector or news director is strongly recommended
will not expect perfection, but the program will be and will greatly increase the possibility of the ma-
more enjoyable for everyone concerned if you terial being broadcast.
speak as professionally as possible. Don't be
afraid to be human though! There's no need for
belabored apologies for mistakes made on the air. Television
In this type of situation, localize the pro-
gram as much as possible for this is important in Television is the giant of communications
ing listeners. Personalizble for th iimnformationus- tools available today. It reaches millions of peo-
holding
Personalize
listeners.the information us- ple and has had more impact on social and eco-
ing names when appropriate and not making gen- nmic pates in our co ntry andouo e
eral references. nomic patterns in our country and throughout the
world than any other medium
The ratio of available time to material is T s o -
very important. It will be quite obvious to the lis- The strength of telision ad its unimen
tener if you attempt to fill some extra time by ad- coubition o it ouna ad on. Sinceit
libbing. At the same time don't try to cram in too oba of sht set
much. The best way to insure that your material is appeals to both the sense of hearing and sight, the
of the proper time length is to time it beforehand. viewer is more apt to retain the message longer.
Adding music Adding
at
at the
the beginning
music and
beginning and end will set
end will set
Research into using television as a teaching tool
the tone and familiarize the listener with your pro- has sow that studnts larn as readily bywatch
they becometo hearing it
gram as accustomed ing TV presentations as in listening to a teacher in
each time. person. Since viewing TV requires both sight and
hearing the viewer is not apt to be engaged in any-
thing other than viewing, except perhaps eating, so
Writing For Radio there is more of an opportunity to record a mes-
sage on paper
sage on to be
paper to remembered later.
be remembered later.
Writing for radio is a specialized kind of
writing. Sentences must be short, easily read, and Despite its advantages, television also has
easily understood. To aid the announcer who is many of the disadvantages of radio. It is a big
reading the copy over the air, hard-to-pronounce business and must make money to continue opera-
or often misunderstood words must be written pho- tion and although committed to some public serv-
netically or in some cases even spelled out for clar- ice time, that time is very limited. The message,
ity. This applies also to symbols which are although appealing to two senses, is still fleeting
written out such as pounds, degrees, and percent, and must be seen and heard at the time it is aired.
and to numerals and sums of money which are As with radio, any Public Service Announcement
written out differently for easier reading. In addi- presented for possible use on television should be
tion, a news item submitted for broadcast over the simple, short and to the point.

64
 There is overwhelming evidence that televi- Announcement. Local news programs are the
sion is effective. And it should certainly be consid- most likely outlet for information on the condition
ered in any type of information dissemination of certain reefs and the artificial reef program in
program. But in doing so, the limitations must the community. Some stations will also have
also be taken into account and the message pack- other local programming such as interviews, or
aged accordingly. talk shows which conceivably could be devoted to
the subject of artificial reefs. These shows are usu-
ally scheduled for early morning or other off-time
Preparing a Public Service viewing hours rather than for the prime evening
Announcement (PSA) viewing time when regular network shows are pro-
It may be that information concerning a com- grammed.
munity's artificial reef program will not lend itself The procedure recommended for bringing
to presentation as a Public Service Announcement news to the attention of radio stations is suggested
(PSA) on television. But if a situation exists for the television stations as well. A prepared
where this appears feasible you should plan your news release for the newspapers should also be
announcement to fit the intervals where the station sent to the television stations. Again, establishing
interrupts its programming for commercial mes- a personal identity with the station manager and/or
sages or to identify itself. PSAs may run as long the news director is beneficial.
as 60 seconds or as short as 10 seconds and are Interviews will most likely be in the studio
usually of two basic types-a videotape, or for the or onsite. Portable television cameras now permit
shorter announcement, for example 20 seconds, a videotaping almost any place for instant use back
single 35mm slide with a spoken message. Re- in the studio. But remember that being on televi-
member, your PSA must be broadcast quality, sion is not the same as being on radio. You are be-
That means VHS or Beta tapes produced with ing seen as well as heard. Concentrate on the
home video cameras are not acceptable. As a re- person doing the interviewing--not on the camera
sult, you'll have to obtain services of video profes- or other distractions. Onsite there may be only
sionals. two people involved in interviewing and filming
However, since television stations vary the sequence--the person operating the camera and
widely in what their public service and program the person doing the interviewing. In the studio
departments will accept in the way of PSAs, it is there will be more people--most likely a producer,
highly recommended that you first check with the a director, a floor manager and several cameramen
station to determine what type of announcements depending upon the number of cameras being
are used, and where they are inserted in the pro- used.
gram.
Moreover, preparation of a PSA either on Using the Local Cable TV Channel
videotape or for a slide spot requires a certain
level of professional knowledge, skill and special The growth of cable TV in many communi-
equipment. You will most likely need to seek help ties, especially those away from larger urban ar-
on this. Station personnel may be able to direct eas, has opened up possibilities not available at
you to someone who can assist. commercial stations. Contracts governing cable
S. TV companies operating in a community may
The recommended course of action is to specify that at least one or more cable channels
have your material in mind, whether it be for a must be available for local programming at certain
videotape presentation, or for a slide spot, and times. This provides the opportunity for local pro-
then approach the public service department at the gramming and presentation of information of local
station for recommendations on how to proceed. interest such as conditions of locally established
For a videotape presentation, have in mind what is artificial reefs as determined by reef research di
to be taped and a suggested script for the spoken vers, etc. It is also easier to get time on the cable
part of the message. For the slide spot, have the channel than on the commercial television station.
slide or the idea of what the slide will be and a The disadvantage is that the audience reached will
script of the spoken message which will accom- be smaller because programming on the local ca-
pany it. ble is often not regular programming so there may
be no preprinted program.
Using Commercial Television Stations
Access to a local independent or network af- Appearing on Television
filiated commercial television station or a Public It is important on television as on radio to
Broadcasting System (PBS) station could be speak as well as you can, and be natural. A good
through appearance on a local news show or pres- conversational voice is best. And remember that
entation of a 10, 20, or 30 second Public Service

65
any unnecessary movements, gestures, facial ex- them other than that they are aware of your mes-
pressions, etc. (although you think you are off sage than the mass media may be a good channel
camera) may be seen and may be a distracting in- to use. If, on the other hand, you seek feedback or
fluence during the interview. If you are seated in need assistance from certain specific interest
a rocking chair, for example, the temptation to groups, the personal channels are the ones which
rock may be overpowering but if you persist in will work best.
rocking, it may become very disconcerting to the Audiences to be reached and messages to be
viewer. If you must point to some visual aid such disseminated should determine the media channels
as a map, for example, deliberately move slowly chosen.
so the cameraman can follow you. Fast move-
ments cannot easily be tracked.
Suggested Reading
Summing Up g U Communications Made Easy: A 4-H Guide
to Presenting Information, 4-H Youth Programs,
Choices for dissemination of information ex- Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State
ist, with potential audiences from 1 to a million. University.
Although impersonal channels - newspaper, maga-k, 3d E .
zines, radio and television--have the potential of Communications Handbook, 3rd Edition.
reaching far greater numbers, the fleeting radio or 1976. American Association of Agricultural Col-
TV spot, or the newspaper item glanced at over a lege Editors. The Interstate Printers and Publish-
hurried cup of coffee, will not have the impact of ers, Inc. Danville, Illinois.
personal contact, either one-on-one or in a group Millward, Celia, 1983. Handbook for Writ-
or contact through a direct mail newsletter. If ers, 2nd Edition. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
your objective is to try to inform as large an audi- New York, New York. i-xii, 1-523p.
ence as possible with no expected reaction from

66
Chapter 10
Training Volunteer Divers to Research
and Document Artificial Reefs
For Their Community
by Joseph G. Halusky - MONITOR existing reefs by coordinated
teams of trained divers, to regularly document
Srtificial reef construction in Florida is largely physical and biological changes over long periods
result of volunteer efforts. Properly trained of time.
sport divers with training, can assist the reef build- - CREATING PUBLIC AWARENESS
ers by providing feedback information about the about their FINDINGS (ie. Documented Observa-
success or failure of their reefs so that the most ef- tions) about the reefs. This is accomplished
fective reefs can be built for the least amount of ef- through presentations to civic organizations, legis-
fort and money. Volunteer divers can provide a lative delegations, fishery managers and sport fish-
valuable public service by establishing their own ermen with talks illustrated by underwater
professionally supervised reef research, monitoring photographs, videos and maps. Such loca feed-
projects and storing nf- back is essential for gaining the taxpayers' support
and documentation
domentation projects and storing this inf- to encourage local and state government involve-
mation in a publicly accessible reef data archives. ment in artificial reef projects.
The basic philosophy and strategy for a train- -ESTABLISH an ARCHIVES and REFER-
ing program is outlined so that volunteer sport di- ENCE COLLECTION to deposit reef data, photos
vers can: and videos, physical and biological samples which
1) assist reef builders with site selection; could be used by scientists, educators, citizens,
2) design and implement their own reef docu- agencies and reef builders. Since properly built
mentation and monitoring projects with ad- reefs may last for hundreds, perhaps thousands of
years, this information would be most valuable for
vice from professional scientists and assist future professional reef researchers who are finan-
visiting scientists with reef research; cially unable to conduct such long-term projects or
3) store reef information in a local public accurately reconstruct the reef building history.
reef data archives and specimen reference
collection; Role Of The Sea Grant
4) communicate their observations to the reef Extension Program
builders, their community,
bui s, trappropriate
a c, e In Florida, some limited research in artificial
agencies and the scientific community, in reef technology has been transferred to many reef
a credible manner. builders through local Extension Agents of the
Properly trained volunteer divers can provide Florida Sea Grant Extension Program (SGEP) and
the following services: from a Sea Grant supported, Artificial Reef Re-
- SURVEY reef sites. They can gather infor- source Team. Florida SGEP agents have worked
mation to document, evaluate and monitor man- with reef builders, sportfishing clubs, county and
made reefs BEFORE and AFTER reef placement. state government agencies and diving groups since
the mid 1970's. They have organized artificial
- FIND & VERIFY the existence of old and reef conferences, local workshops, and presented a
alleged artificial reef sites and live bottoms. Many variety of talks to assist with the transfer of reef
sites that were built prior to the use of the LORAN technology from the scientific community. The
C radio navigation system were frequently "lost". SGEP has published reef conference proceedings,
The rediscovery and verification of these old reefs a comprehensive bibliography on reef research
would provide a significant contribution to the work and fact sheets on site and materials selec-
knowledge about long term physical changes and tion, buoy construction and permit application pro-
biological succession, since so many of these reefs cedures (See references for a listing of Florida Sea
have been down for well over 25 years. Grant Reef Publications). The Sea Grant Reef Re-

67
source Team, has assisted the SGEP by consulting volve actual diving, non-diving "auditors" may
with various reef building groups, performing pre- also participate for a lesser fee. An important con-
liminary site surveys for new reef permit applica- sideration for a fee rate is that it is a measure of
tions and assisting with reef research diver training, the degree of commitment by the trainee for the
The original Florida Artificial Reef Research program. A higher fee usually results in less ab-
Diver Training Program (ARRDTP) was initiated senteeism.
by the in N.E. Florida Sea Grant Extension Agent
at Daytona Beach in 1980. The resulting series of Student Selection
seven workshops, spread over a seven month pe-
riod led to the model agenda that follows. Selection and acceptance of participants in
The SGEP
The SGEP Marine Agent plays a central, co-
Marine co- the ARRDTP
screening requiresmade
committee, up of those of
the organization whoa small
are
sc r e n ing c o m m itt ee , made up of those w ho are
ordinating role in organizing the training agenda. e
While the marine agent may not necessarily dive developing and coordinating the agenda. It should
himself, he functions to find and schedule the have representatives from the reef building group,
proper teaching staff in the variety of subjects cov- as well as leaders in the diving community, such
ered. As a member of the Sea Grant Network, he as dive club officials, dive shop owners or key in-
or she has access to many professional researchers,
structors.
strucors. TheThe Sea
Sea Grant
Grant Extension
Extension Agent,
Agent, who
who
many having underwater research experience, who may serve as the overall course director, should in-
can provide the theoretical background necessary sure that at least one representative of the scien-
to teach the program. Consequently, an essential tifi community is involved in the selection
first step for organizing an ARRDTP begins with process.
identifying a marine agent who can help to organ- Selection of fully enrolled students (those
ize the a special ARRDTP planning committee. that actually dive during the training) should be
limited to between 12 and 24, depending on the
availability of qualified divemasters, instructors,
Planning Committee and boat support. Normally, most dive instructors
When the community determines it needs an are limited by their liability insurance coverage to
Artificial Reef Research Diver Training Program it having no more than eight to ten students in the
should communicate with a Sea Grant Marine Ex- water at any one time, unless they have qualified
tension Agent to create a special ARRDTP Plan- assistant instructors to help. The number of Audi-
ning Committee. The committee functions to tors, who do not dive, may be limited only by the
identify and link up all local program supporters as size and availability of adequate meeting facilities.
well as nearby academic resources. A program of Qualifications of the fully enrolled student,
this nature requires many resources as boat trans- should be based on: their diver certification (at
portation, classroom and limited laboratory space, least advanced open water); physical condition (in
special data gathering equipment (which may need compliance with minimum AAUS standards-see
to be purchased or fabricated) and a professional Appendix A); experience in the local reef environ-
certified diving instructor to serve as the course di- ment; maturity; interest in the subject and WILL-
vemaster. Where possible, these items or services INGNESS TO CONTINUED INVOLVEMENT
should be contributed, to keep costs down, and fa- IN REEF RESEARCH after the training is over.
cilitate involvement and cooperation between vari- Of prime consideration are additional skills the
ous community groups. If possible, the committee diver may have, that would make him an asset to
should have representatives from local dive and the reef research effort. These include such things
fishing clubs, dive shops, local government agency as underwater photography and video, computer
involved with reef building, professional academic experience, mapping and drafting, public rela-
researcher(s) and commercial fishing industry. tions, specialized hobbies, etc. Since one premise
This assures community involvement and support of the training is that the graduates will train oth-
for the project from the beginning. ers, then evidence of teaching ability and leader-
Once the ARRDTP Planning Committee has ship skills should also be considered.
identified all the needed resources, received com- Obviously, great care should be given dur-
mitments from various supporters of the program, ing the selection process, if a reef research pro-
the selection of trainees and teachers arranged, the gram is to continue after the training is over.
final agenda can be established. (Trainee selection Immature, macho-types should be avoided. Em-
criteria will be discussed below). phasis should be placed on solid, grass roots indi-
Normally a registration fee is charged to help viduals, who have a sincere interest in supporting
defray expenses of guest speakers, purchase equip- their communities' reef building interests as a
ment and supplies, and cover boat transportation PUBLIC SERVICE.
costs. Since many reef research jobs may not in-

68
The Artificial Reef Research MENT IT! It is specific in that it focuses on under-
water data collection methods within the limits of
Diver Training Program sport SCUBA equipment and standard practices. It
Moel
sripion
D is unique in that it concentrates on teaching volun-
Model Description teers how to design data collection under scientific
The Florida Sea Grant Artificial Reef Re- supervision, and lead and store information from
search Diver Training Program (ARRDTP) primar- their own artificial reef documentation projects.
ily is a practical, hands on course in underwater On completion of the training, the students are
data collection and storage methods for the non- NOT certified, for this is not a diver certification
scientist, trained experienced sport SCUBA diver, program. Instead they receive acknowledgement
Secondarily, it provides limited training for non-di- that they have received training in collecting data
vers in data handling, storage and retrieval meth- in underwater environments, expedition leadership
ods and public relations. and public relations.
- It is a course in UNDERWATER DATA
COLLECTION METHODS. ARRDTP Course Outline &
- It is NOT a diver training course. Topics
Topics
The AIM of the ARRDTP The ARRDTP course series of two to three
day workshops over a seven-month period is pre-
- To train volunteer, non-scientist, SCUBA ferred since there are a large number of guest lec-
divers and non-divers, how to OB- turers from a variety of academic and government
SERVE, GATHER, DOCUMENT and institutions, who are sometimes drawn from great
STORE physical and biological informa- distances. Part of the intent of the program is to
tion and specimens from their commu- give the participants enough time with each
nity's artificial reefs. speaker so that they get to know them on an infor-
- To gather and store artificial reef informa- mal basis to building working relationships for fu-
tion in such a way that it is acceptable, re- ture projects. This would not happen if many
trievable and useful to the reef builders guest speakers were limited to a tight and busy
and the scientific community through the agenda. The opportunity for developing an evolv-
establishment of a public reef data AR- ing leadership is another effect of the program last-
CHIVES and specimen REFERENCE ing over several months.
COLLECTION. Each workshop is usually made up of a one
- To communicate and exchange artificial day lecture, discussion or lab exercise followed by
reef information with reef builders, other a one day underwater field experience. The under-
reef research groups, the scientific com- water experience coincides with the lecture mate-
munity, government agencies and the pub- rial presented with the guest lecturer serving as the
lic. NOTE: Particular attention is given "chief scientist" for the field exercise. Where pos-
towards cautioning ARRDTP students to sible, field exercises are held under conditions typi-
NOT interpret their observations or draw cal for the region where the students will be
conclusions from them, but merely report working after the training. Near the end of the
what they observe thorough maps, photog- workshop series, an intense, three-day leadership
raphy or quantified data summaries only. training expedition is held, usually at some remote
Data interpretation falls within the realm marine lab. This gives the students an opportunity
of the professional scientist(s) who advise to experience planning, organizing and leading the
the reef research divers, documentation of a real reef site. The students ac-
- To encourage volunteer divers to take tually plan and lead the exercise under limited su-
leadership in designing their own reef pervision from the staff. The last workshop is
data gathering projects in consultation focused on local project design, with the assistance
with a professional underwater researcher. of a local professional scientist.
- To involve and train others to observe
and gather needed artificial reef informa- Model Arrdtp Agenda
tion. This includes developing some form
of organizational structure that would in- WORKSHOP I--Orientation to Scien-
sure consistency and longevity in reef tific Diving & Diving Skills Review
monitoring projects and the archives. Lecture Session - This session introduces
The ARRDTP is merely a simplified course the student to the basic concepts of artificial reef
that teaches the first step in the scientific method - technology and strategies for gathering and storing
that is - MAKE AN OBSERVATION and DOCU- data from an underwater environment. (Chapters 1

69
& 2). It makes a clear distinction between Scien- ture, salinity, sediment characterization and sam-
tific Diving (Diving for Science) and Diving Tech- pling depth, reef profile and configuration. (Chap-
nology (Science of Diving) to insure the student ter 4).
understands that the workshops focus is on the for- Artificial reef construction practices are also
mer, that is, learning how to gather information un- described. This includes materials selection, han-
derwater. Discussions center around defining dling, how to configure materials on the bottom
what data and documentation is, specimens and la- and what features are most desirable in the reef
beling, and the function of a reef archives and ref- structure based on the best research available
erence collection. Some time is spent reviewing (Chapter 5).
safe dive procedures to be used in the course. A Water Session - This is a practical exercise
standardized logbook and dive log procedure is designed to actually document bottom conditions
outlined and used to review repetitive dive proce- on a potential reef site and develop a written re-
dures. (See Appendix B for example log sheets). port about it. Also, an underwater mapping exer-
Water Session - Usually in a well control- cise of an existing reef site provides the students
led, open water setting, where basic dive skills are with at least a beginning experience for learning
reviewed and final screening of fully enrolled stu- how to produce greatly simplified maps of reef
dents is accomplished by the course divemaster materials.
and course director. They may at this time screen
out any student who cannot demonstrate an ade-
quate and safe level of performance. A human per- WORKSHOP IV--Artificial Reef Bio-
formance (compass accuracy) exercise is run to logical Sampling and Building
familiarize students with scientific diving organiza-
tional procedures, the concept of task loading and a Reference Collection - Emphasis on
logbook and data storage methods. See Appendix Invertebrates.
B for underwater compass skills training. Water Session - This workshop, unlike the
others, begins with a water session. After a short
WORKSHOP
T-Underwater STTcience discussion on how to observe and collect biologi-
WORKSHOP
-Underwater Science cal samples of encrusting invertebrates from a reef
Photography and Public Relations. structure, a collecting dive is held. Specimens
Lecture Session - Describes how still, gathered are stored and used in the lecture/lab ses-
movie and video photography is used as a data sion on the following day. A systematic photo sur-
gathering tool to document artificial reefs and asso- vey method is also used to document the amount
ciated marine life (See Chapter 3). The public rela- and distribution of invertebrates on the reef.
tions training is focused on how non-scientist Lecture/lab Session - Students learn, in a
volunteers can present their reef data to the com- lab setting, how to properly preserve, quantify and
munity without discrediting themselves or their identify the encrusting invertebrates and plants
work (See Chapter 9). Practical exercises on radio gathered from the reef on the previous day. They
and TV interviewing are given in which students' learn how to catalog their specimens and develop
interviews are recorded and critiqued. their own reference collection. Discussions center
Water Session - Underwater still- and video- on marine ecology, the succession of encrusting
photography data-gathering methods are practiced. organisms and their relation to fishes on the reef
These exercises focus on using the camera to sys- (Chapter 6).
tematically sample some physical or biological
phenomena such as distribution of reef materials
along a transect, or the amount of substrate cov- WORKSHOP V-Sampling and Docu-
ered by encrusting organisms. menting Artificial Reef Fish Popula-
tions.
WORKSHOP II--Artificial Reef Site Lecture Session - Students learn how to
i.dentify reef fish, and learn of their limitations for
Selection, Documentation, Mapping, accurately counting and identifying fish in their
Engineering, Construction and Collect- natural setting. Descriptions of various fish count-
ing Physical Data. ing methods are given, with comment about their
Lecture Session - These presentations de- limitations and accuracy. The volunteers are also
scribe how to evaluate a reef site for its suitability encouraged to survey reef fish populations, by us-
for supporting reef materials on the bottom includ- ing still photography and video methods (Chapter
ing how to create a deployment map of reef materi- 7).
als and how to standardize and document physical Water Session - Various methods (includ-
data from a reef site. Topics include such things ing photo survey) for counting fish on an artificial
as; measuring visibility, currents, water tempera- reef site are practiced. Some sampling of fish for

70
addition to the reference collection is employed in cially turned over to the one of the students as the
this exercise. Reef Research Team Coordinator. (See Chapter 13
and Appendix Q for an example organizational
WORKSHOP VI--Artificial Reef structure and job descriptions).
Research Expedition Leadership Water Session - This is the first working
dive for the volunteer divers that begins their ef-
Training. fort to document their reef sites. It is based on the
A three day practical field exercise. This previous day's discussions and communication
exercise should be held at a remote marine re- with the reef builders.
search lab where students have access to wet labs, On completion of the training, the partici-
shoreside facilities, a research vessel and dive pants in the ARRDTP are encouraged to design
locker facilities to refill air cylinders and store and lead their own reef research projects, with the
equipment. The exercise lasts a full 24 hours/day assistance of some academic researcher. The pro-
for three days. Its purpose is to train students how fessional researchers oversee their projects to in-
to plan, organize and lead their own artificial reef sure that the data remains acceptable to the
documentation expedition while under limited scientific community, and that their project design
time pressure (Chapter 11). remains sound. The researcher benefits by having
Workshop begins with a briefing. The access to new data that he would otherwise never
staff appoints one student as "chief scientist" and receive. The Sea Grant Extension Agent contin-
another as "divemaster". They are assigned to ues to serve the volunteer group as their advisor
document a known reef site which is selected by and contact with the research community.
the staff. From that moment on, the appointed stu-
dents actually lead the research expedition. The
course staff serve as consultants to the expedition. Discussion
The staff does not make decisions or otherwise in- No additional diving skills beyond those re-
terfere with the expedition unless an unsafe deci- quired in a good advanced open water SCUBA
sion is made by the students. An in-depth course are needed for this type of activity. How-
debriefing is held at the end of the exercise. ever, if local reef conditions warrant that addi-
This workshop is also used to encourage tional training is needed to safely conduct
leadership development within the group that will underwater research, additional training should be
carry on well after the training is over. required. For example, deep diving methods or
diving in overhead environments, as may be found
in shipwreck penetration, may be essential. Accu-
WORKSHOP VII--Planning an racy in compass work and good dive logging pro-
Artificial Reef Documentation cedures are essential. A basic premise is that:
Program for the Community. "Good data comes from a comfortable
Lecture Session - This is the first planning Diver And Good Leadership and
session for designing an artificial reef research "Never should safety be sacrificed for
program for the volunteer divers. Workshop staff
consisting of the course director and a profes- data"
sional scientist(s) first discusses various brain- All Dive Planning and sampling procedures
storming and prioritizing techniques then serves should aim towards this end. This requires a pro-
as discussion facilitators and consultants to the ject leader to use sound, mature judgement to
dive group. Then a brainstorming session is lead avoid unnecessary stress and physically exhaus-
to develop a list of potential projects for the tive data gathering procedures. Unnecessary time
group. Leaders from the reef construction effort, pressure and task loading should be avoided. If it
local authorities, academic representatives and vol- is not, the additional stress on the diver will render
unteer divers participate in the discussions to pri- the data suspect, and it may need to be discarded.
oritize reef program information needs and design
a strategy to meet them. Individual projects are se-
lected, with project leaders appointed. Summary
Volunteers with proper training, can play a
vital role in the development of artificial reef tech-
Notes nology. They can be the eyes and ears for the sci-
Hopefully, by this time, an organizational entific community on the leading edge of this new
structure has emerged from within the group that form of aquaculture. As coastal fisheries habitats
will keep the volunteer group together well after become increasingly stressed by human develop-
the end of the training. Leadership should be offi- ment, volunteer reef research divers will be

71
needed to provide the long term information and ter Applications Ed. by Frank M. D'Itri, Lewis
sometimes unique insights necessary for the proper Publishers, Inc. 121 S. Main St, Chelsea, MI
assessment of artificial reefs as a fishery manage- 48118, pgs. 545-560.
ment tool.

Florida Sea Grant Artificial

References & Suggested Reef Publications
Reading There is a minimum fee for some publica-
FriedmAnn, Peggy. 1982. Divers Monitor tions. Contact the Florida Sea Grant College pro-
Our Artificial Reefs, Jacksonville Magazine, Vol gram to order publications. Write to:
19, No. 4, pgs. 22-26, 93. Florida Sea Grant Extension Program
Friedmann, Peggy, 1985. Researching the Building 803
Reefs, Florida Sportsman, January Issue, Vol. 16, University of FLorida
No. 1, pgs. 12-15.
SGainesville, FL 32611.
Leahy, Thomas M., 1983. Sport Divers
Monitor Artificial Reefs, Sea Grant Today, Vol.,
13, No. 1, pgs. 6-7. * MAFS-9 Constructing an Artificial Reef
Miller, James W. 1979. NOAA Diving Man- Buoy.
ual: Diving for Science and Technology, 2nd Edi- * MAFS-20 Artificial Reef Site Selection
tion, U.S. Government Printing Office, and Evaluation.
Washington DC 20402. Stock No. 003-017-00468- * MAP-29 Artificial Fishing Reefs Materi-
6. als and Construction.
Parker, Jr., R. O., R.B. Stone, C.C. Bucha- * MAP-30 Atlas of Artificial Reefs in Flor-
nan & F.W. Steimle, Jr., 1974. How to Build Ma- ida by Don Y. Aska & Don W. Pybas.
rine Artificial Reefs, Fishery Facts 10, Stock No. SG 2 D ory of Orgs
,
U.S. Govern- SGEB-2 Directory of Organizations and
0320-0i01, of Documents,
Supt. of
0320-00091, Supt. Documents, U.S. Govern- Persons Involved with Artificial Reefs in
ment Printing Office, Washington D.C. 204302, I- lorda tober 1 .
* SGEB-4 Artificial Reefs:
Permit Applica-
Rioux, Margaret A. 1987. Bibliography on tion Guidelines.
Diving and Diving Safety for a Scientific Diving
Program. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution * SGR-7 Annotated Bibliography of Artifi-
Technical Report WHOI-87-29. cial Reef Research and Management.
Seaman, Jr., William & D. Aska, 1985. The * SGR-41 Artificial Reefs: Conference
Florida Reef Network: Strategies to Enhance User Proceedings.
Benefits. In Artificial Reefs Marine and Freshwa-

72
Chapter 11
Underwater Research Project Management
By Gregg Stanton Perception of a Problem
Diving in support of research underwater is
Successfully gathering data underwater in- troubled by perceptual distortions which not only
volves the coordination of several complemen- compromise the quality of the data collected, but
tary components. They are: can significantly endanger the data collector.
1) Clearly defined realistic objectives; These distortions may be brought about by factors
2) Adequate support (academic, funding, within the underwater environment or by compli-
cations of the research design. Both are compli-
and man power) of those objectives; cated by stress. These problems may cause the
3) A logistical plan to achieve those objec- observer to record information which may not rep-
tives; resent the reality to be documented. Environ-
4) A measure of good fortune, and persever- mental distortions are physical phenomenon, such
Se as reduced visibility (turbidity) or light (as in a
ance. night dive),visual enlargement due to the refrac-
This chapter will focus on logistical plan- tive index of light across an air/water or salt/fresh
ning and will assume that clearly defined objec- water interface, and the relative natureof tempera-
tives, adequate support, and a measure of good ture upon our body's perceptual mechanism to
fortune have been provided. Also assumed is the name afew. Poorly defined or documented re-
diving competency of the audience, whether aca- search designs often createconfusion and ineffi-
demic or amateur, for the ocean treats us all alike ciency resulting in less than acceptable data.
when we are within its grasp. Stress is a common occurrence on a research
Research project managers are really risk project especially one conducted underwater. It
managers and may draw from the vast wealth of may come from predetermined phobias, sea sick-
this industries' models to better focus our atten- ness, real or imagined lack of training, unforeseen
tion. Kenneth MacCrimmon and Donald We- problems, time and support deficiencies just to
hrung, in their book titled "TakingRisks", name a few. Excessive stress is not uncommon in
defined risk as "the exposure to a chance of a loss" underwater research and is considered an underly-
which must be balanced against the chance of a ing cause for most accidents. Stress can distort
gain. They report that successful projects proceed what the physical senses detect with a number of
through a series of easily defined self regulating inappropriate responses. These include perceptual
steps to minimize loss and maximize gain. The re- narrowing, (a concentration on details of the imme-
mainder of their book is devoted to explaining this diate topic at the exclusion of a more endangering
model (See Figure 11-1). This model will serve greater topic), and task loading (greater expecta-
as a guide for underwater research projects. tions than are humanly possible under the circum-

Figure 11.1
RISK MANAGEMENT (REACT) MODEL
ADJUST TIME, INFORMAON
RECOGNIZE &CONTROL
C M E
H A X
A G P
N N 0
C I S
E T U

i D E

7CONSEQUENCES

--- TRACK 73
73
stances). Both conditions compromise the quality art of information retrieval. Open discussion re-
of the data and the safety of the data collector, for garding a problem often brings out further informa-
in both cases, vital information is ignored (See fig- tion that easily solves a problem before it becomes
ure 11.1). a major stumbling block. Information is not with-
Perception of a problem is the key to effec- out cost however, in that what effort is spent col-
tive risk management of diving to support underwa- lecting it to resolve problems is detracted from
ter research. If an individual is incapable of perhaps more productive data collections. The
detecting problems, risk management is impossible. search for information should therefore be focused
The challenge is to find a way that in this high- toward a specific objective to be effective.
stress environment, the risk managers can be unen- Control of the project is a relative issue as
cumbered by stressors that may adversely affect his we have so many who influence our activities.
judgement. Control over the quality of research is rightly pro-
The most popular method to isolate the stress tected by the chief scientist as is control over the
from the manager is to separate the dive manage- safety of the diving personnel by the dive master.
ment (dive master) from the science management Each seeks to control significant aspects of the re-
(chief scientist). While both individuals in this searcheffort. The better these two individuals un-
model should be risk managers (in their own dis- derstand and appreciate their responsibility (and
tinct areas), each now has more manageable tasks, control), the less time it will take to dispatch prob-
and when in equal authority on a project, comple- lems.
ment each other. Often, when excessive stress con- Following the React model, the next stage is
promises either science or safety, there is a choosing an action. Additional time, information
less-stressed manager available to respond and cor- and control over the problem, have been balanced
rect the situation. This may be in the form of sim- against the risk of loss. Decisions now will in-
plifying the tasks, aborting the dives or crease or decrease the chance of a loss regarding
restructuring the project through an evaluation of the actual Event, increase or decrease the magni-
the perceived problem, tude of the loss regarding the General Outcomes
and increase or decrease the exposure to loss re-
garding the Consequences.
Identify a Problem Effective risk managers strive to minimize
Now we have a person who is responsible for the chance of a loss, if there is to be a loss, mini-
the diving safety and a different person responsible mize the magnitude of the loss, and if at all possi-
for the collection of data on every dive project, and ble minimize the exposure (or possibility) of a loss
at every dive site. When a problem is perceived, while maximizing opportunity. This is entirely
the REACT model requires that it be evaluated, relative to the amount of risk an individual is will-
modified and put into perspective. Once perceived ing to take. Because people vary greatly as risk
as such, problems are quickly set into two catego- takers, agencies which are responsible for underwa-
ries: those that have been reviewed before and have ter research have often established risk policy in
policy guidance; and those that do not. This risk terms of acceptable and unacceptable loss. One
management model has an adjustment section that agency may accept a 5% incidence of decompres-
is important to understand. Follow the arrows up to sion sickness as tolerable because they nearly al-
the right from the Evaluate box and you will reach ways have a recompression chamber at the site and
the Adjust box. Only with adjustments can the per- use only young healthy men. Another agency may
ceived problem be changed. accept a 0 percent incidence for the same malady
d rik mt s a b because they seldom have a chamber within 2
acqirig
grek management seeks and Cojntrl hours of the site and use a wide variety of people
vacquiring grevater we, Information antd Control who are often out of physical shape. The dive pro-
problem. This adjustmentpereviouslyd(in the interest of files of each of these agencies at the same site con-
problem. This adjustment period (in the interest of ducting the same task will vary greatly due to
safety) must be balanced against the loss or gain of individual agency risk policies.
opportunity which may result from the inevitable
delays or additional constraints. Success is seldom measured by the absence
Time often cures many problems on a pro- of loss, but rather by the realization of opportunity.
Ame often cures mmanay problems on a pro- As underwater data collectors we take risks, calcu-
ject. A good rest from an arduous project may re- lated risks which are within the agency's policy on
solve the excessive stress that brought on the risk, in our quest to collect the data. Regardless of
problem in the first place. Personal or personnel the outcome of choice of action in the REACT
problems are often reduced given the time and model, the results of the action must be tracked.
room to be worked out. Time may bring better Only through such a cntinuous debriefing can re-
weather or site conditions. searchers learn from mistakes, find solutions and
Information regarding a problem is often elu- improve chance of success while reducing the risk
sive, shrouded in personal interpretations and mo- of loss. Additional tasks to be addressed during an
tives. Yet, as data collectors, we are masters of the

74
underwater research project may be divided into pie about may share common problems with their
two separate yet overlapping areas of support: lo- lodging arrangements. Agencies (or even small
gistical support and dive stations. Dive stations are groups) often require lengthy forms authorizing
tasks that are undertaken during dives while logisti- travel, insurance, and fuel reimbursements. Equip-
cal support refers to non diving tasks performed ment requirements such as compressors, tanks,
apart from the dives, boats and specialty research equipment will need
to be moved and stored during a project. This indi-
vidual may have tasks as simple as sizing the
Logistical Areas Described in trailer hitch to the boat trailer for a trip down to a
Dl local launch, to master-minding the transport of 10
Detail tons of supplies out to Palau, Micronisia. His
The logistical support described below may task is critical to the success of the project as lost
be combined and covered by a single individual for or late equipment often delays critical research.
small projects or expanded as the complexity of the
project expands. Due to economic and space re-
strictions on underwater research projects, the div- Boats
ing staff often doubles up on the logistical support Be it a small runabout on a trip down river
when not diving. Thus the person responsible for or a research vessel cruise to the Tortugas Islands,
food may also have been diving for data on the pre- a boat is one of the basic life support facilities of
vious shift. A project management form (found in the diving scientist. While the individual responsi-
APPENDIX R) has been created to assist in the co- ble for making boat arrangements does not need to
ordination of logistical tasks and dives on an under- be a licensed captain, it should be someone with
water research project. knowledge and skills in boating. The responsibili-
ties that come with this category include: selec-
tion of boats for the research; checking out the
Food condition and auxiliary support of each boat; ar-
This individual is responsible for planning ranging for fuel, maintenance needs and other sup-
the menu, cooking facilities and utensils and secur- plies; training personnel in boat handling for
ing a budget. Underwater research projects often conditions you expect to be working in and many
succeed or fail based upon the abundance and qual- other unanticipated considerations. Even if you
ity of the food. Diving requires a high caloric in- are working with a state research vessel, there are
take and plenty of on-site nondiuretic fluids. If the tasks that must be performed which are best left to
data collectors are poorly fed, the quality of the someone not otherwise over committed, such as in-
data suffers. Again, the complexity of the project spection of the facilities to be assured of its appro-
dictates the complexity of the food task. For a sin- priate cargo area and capacity, function of the
gle day outing, a "bring your own lunch" policy support equipment (compressor, a chase boat etc.)
may suffice. A week long cruise on the state run re- and special rules that personnel should be aware
search vessel may provide a part-time cook. A of PRIOR to arrival.
month at the Dry Tortugas may require a nondiving
full time cook. Regardless of the task, the rest of
the diving staff will be expected to pitch in with the Equipment & Air
dishes or even cook on occasion. Apart from the Chief Scientist and the Dive
Master, this individual has the greatest chance of
task loading. All of the support equipment not di-
LodginS rectly related to specialized data collection, boat-
A place to sleep, may be as critical as the ing, cooking or transportation must be assembled
food. Projects which are on the road moving from and tested prior to departure and managed through-
site to site will need a person who is responsible out the project by this person. This includes all
for securing advanced lodging and other related the life support gear (tanks, regulators, BC, etc.),
support. This task can be as easy as finding tents compressors, scooters, cameras, first aid supplies,
and camp sites near the research area, to coordinat- just to name a few. Small projects may rely upon
ing complementary accommodations at govern- the individuals of a project to see to their own
ment facilities or on board boats. Once the lodging equipment, but the loss or failure of one regulator
is secured, this individual usually is responsible for may reduce the efficiency of the entire group.
securing payment for the services consistent with More complex projects will need to subdivide this
their agency or project policy. responsibility between more people.

Transportation Safety Officer

This task is often combined with lodging or A task that usually is covered by the Dive
boats (especially small boats) in that moving peo- Master except on very large projects. The person

75
 responsible for safety works closely with the entire Captain
staff. This person will set up the emergency commu-
nication and evacuation procedures, secure and man- By US Coast Guard rules, the Captain of a
age the first aid kits, and be on a constant lookout boat is responsible for the safety of his ship and all
for safety problems which need to be resolved. aboard. He or she should always be consulted
prior to the cruise for site selection and proposed
diving or other use of the facility. The Captain
Principal Investigator should work closely with the Chief Scientist and
This individual usually is the instigator of the the Dive Master during a dive to insure that the
research, (although that is not required) and carries data is collected safely and in a reliable way. The
the burden of supervising the quality of the data col- Captain may abort a dive, a station or a cruise if
lected and providing for its security. Often, this per- he feels that the safety of those on board is in jeop-
son is the central figure of the project. The Principal ardy.
Investigator acts as a coordinator for all of the other
tasks, but seldom deviating from his focus on the re- Chief Scientist
search. He or she is responsible for developing a T
clearly documented research design and related train- This individual is responsible for managing
ing for all to understand. This person usually con- the collection of data in support of the research de-
trols the budget, writes the proposals, and is sign as established by the Principal Investigator
responsible for publishing the projects findings. (which could be one and the same person). Pre-
dive planning and post-dive debriefings with the
Captain and the Dive Master and the diving staff
Dive Supervisor will promote efficient data collections. The Chief
Equal in responsibility to the Principal Investi- Scientist may select team members, specific col-
gator, the Dive Supervisor works closely with pro- lecting schedules, techniques and technology
ject managers to insure that the highest possible which must be approved by the Dive Master. If
personal safety of the research team is assured. This the quality of the data is not acceptable, the Chief
individual often performs his duties as an extension Scientist may abort a dive, station or cruise inde-
of the sponsoring agency's office of Environmental peennt of the level of the safety. The Chief Sci
Health and Safety or Diving Program. He or she entist may not assume the responsibilities of the
must be very competent in life support and com- Dive Master or Dive Supervisor.
pressed gas technology, and underwater project risk
management. As with all the other tasks listed Dive Master
above, this one will grow in complexity dependent
upon the level of diver life support technology re- This person performs his duties as an exten-
quired (SCUBA vs. mix-gas vs surface supply, etc.), sion of the Diving Supervisor (and may be one
and the number of participants, location of the pro- and the same individual). The Dive Master works
ject and nature of the research objectives. The Dive closely with the Chief Scientist with considerable
Supervisor may either make personnel assignments pre and post-dive planning and supervision with
for the dive teams based upon the objectives pre- the diving staff. Typically the Dive Master wifl
sented by the Principal Investigator or simply ap- set up the dive station, inspect all the life support
prove those choices made by the Principal equipment prior to deployment, discuss specific
Investigator. tasks with team members, supervises the divers,
their logs and dive schedules while in and out of
At no time may the dive supervisor assume the the water, coordinate with the Captain to com-
responsbility of the principal investigator or the mence and terminate a dive, and supervise the
principal investigator assume the responsibility of chase boat and compressor operations, just to
the dive supervisor. name a few. Divers who have problems must feel
free to discuss them with the Dive Master. This
Die Station
Decri person forms a team with the Chief Scientist. The
Dive Stations Described Divemaster may never assume the responsibilities
Once the dive flag has been hoisted, project or role of the Chief Scientist or Principal Investiga-
participants change over from their logistical sup- tor.
port tasks and into their dive stations. These roles
may be consolidated into a few individuals depend-
ing upon the site, size and complexity of the project. Time Keeper
Agency safety policies usually dictate the minimal This is an optional task which becomes very
crew size which may vary between two and three. valuable as projects become complex. The Dive
Be aware that if you do not adjust to the complexity Master quickly becomes task loaded when more
of your project by increasing the staff size or reduc- than six people are diving on a continuous sched-
ing the research objectives, increased stress will re- ule. The Time Keeper maintains the diver logs
duce the quality and quantity of the data. and schedules such that every person on the pro-

76
ject has an ongoing dive profile which is con- a second Standby Diver may be assigned to the
stantly monitored. Prior to the dive the Time chase boat.
Keeper will work with the diving staff to fill out
forms and log the status of the life support equip-
ment. During the dive he or she will maintain stop Team Leader
watches and help with the tracking of divers in the In any dive team, one member should be des-
water. After the dive this individual will work ignated as the Team Leader, and be responsible
again with the staff to properly record data and for the safety and efficient data collection during
dive profiles, the dive. This individual should be careful to un-
derstand every aspect of the research objective and
Standby Diver prevailingenvironmental conditions.
A safety system of Standby Divers is often
advisable, where an individual or two, (depending Divers
upon the complexity of the research and hazards Individual members of the diving staff are
of the site situation) is/are maintained at the sur- responsible to conduct safe diving procedures at
face in a ready state should problems arise that re- all times. The Diver must maintain "Emotional,
quire their assistance. They may only enter the Intellectual, and Physical fitness". Should any
water at the direction of the Dive Master. No di- problems develop which would reduce the level of
vers may enter the water until the Standby fitness below acceptable limits, the Diver is re-
Diver(s) is (are) ready. quired to notify the DiveMaster immediately. If
the condition is severe enough, the Dive Master
SO and/or Diver should elect to abort their dive.
Successful data collection underwater is the
A second safety is the chase boat, which is product of hard and well thought out work, much
often tethered behind the stem of a larger vessel facilitated by good project and risk management
Should divers develop problems away from the and a measure of good luck.
mother ship the chase boat is deployed to assist in
an emergency rather than wait until the remainder
of the diving staff can be recalled, and the anchor References
pulled on the mother ship. The boat operator is re-
sponsible to check over the engine and boat, be fa- Kenneth R. MacCrimmon and Donald A.
miliar with its operation and be ready to deploy Wehrung. 1986. Taking Risks, The Management
immediately at the request of the Dive Master. of Uncertainty. The Free Press - Collier Macmil-
During night dives, an underwater lamp will be lo- lan Publishers, London. 380 pages.
cated in the chase boat Under arduous conditions,

77
jrlr~(l jli""""""""""""""""""""
Chapter 12
Establishing An Artificial Reef
Data Archives
ther complicated by the fact that many individuals
by Joe Halusky and from different agencies or associations are in-
volved in such projects, each requiring or generat-
Shawn Brayton ing its own format for the information.
Regulatory agencies requiring permits, the press
T he principal role played by volunteer reef re- wanting a story, a research scientist wanting spe-
search divers is to collect and record informa- cific types of data or the fishing club members
tion about artificial reefs in their community. wanting "just the numbers" are only a few exam-
Their efforts would be futile, if the information ples the many
of the
pes of which are
demands which
many demands likely to
a likely to be
be
made from the reef's documentation.
were to become lost, destroyed, scattered or pre-
served in a fashion that only a few individuals un- Obviously, reef building activity does not
derstood or had access to. It is surprising, how stop after the last material disappears below the
much valuable reef data has already been lost, sim- water's surface. The builders incur an obligation
SbecaScra
the "Ref" tt 1 Fd to record their historic event for the community,
ply because the "Reef Sapbook" that ole Fred future reef builders and even academic marine re-
kept, was lost in a fire, or ole Fred moved or died searchers. They may even need documentation to
and his widow tossed it out with all the other junk resolve a future liability concern. A well main-
he kept. The primary purpose for establishing a tained Reef Data Archives and Specimen Refer-
Reef Data Archives is to insure that this will never ence Collection should help meet this obligation.
happen. Establishing an Archives and speciment The establishment of the Archives and Col-
reference collection should be the focal point for lection is the most important activity of any reef
any volunteer reef diver organization. research effort! Without it, all research diving is
The objective evaluation and monitoring of a simply a waste of time! Consequently, the first
reef site demands that complete and accurate docu- and key issue to be resolved by any group wishing
mentation of the reefs history and subsequent to begin a reef monitoring activity, is to determine
changes exist. Minimally, this initial documenta- how and where an ARCHIVES is going to be es-
tion should include: tablished and who will maintain it. Any reef data
* preliminary reports, bottom surveys and biologi- handling procedures already used by those build-
cal observations of the site before placement; ing reefs should also be determined and included
in the plans for the reef archives. Once a commit-
* news clippings about the reefs construction;
ment by the group is made and the necessary com-
* the precise reef placement location; munication with reef builders has been
* lists of persons who actually observed the place- established, then procedures for setting up the ar-
ment; chives should begin.
* the exact date and time of the placement;
* a description (with photos) of the amount and Artificial Reef Data Archives
types of materials used;
poss a f rs Archives is defined as a place where public
* if possible, an accurate scatter map of the reef; records and historical documents are kept. An arti-
* follow up documents, maps, reports and photo- ficial reef research archives, kept by a volunteer or-
graphs from those who actually observed the ganization for their communities' reef placement
reef placement should also be gathered and in- program is specific and limited to that need. The
cluded in the reef's initial documentation. Fre- archives is a depository of artificial reef data and
quently, magazine articles and feature news historical information which is gathered in one or-
stories about a reef placement may be delayed ganized storage facility and maintained solely by
by many weeks or even months. These too, the appointed archivist or assistant. It should be
need to find their way back into the reef's initial set up in a public facility such as a local library,
documentation file. county administrators office, nearby college or uni-
A vast amount of information is generated versity, extension office or even a willing public
by a single reef placement. Obtaining complete in- school. A less desirable, but acceptable location
formation becomes a formidable task. This is fur- would be with the organization who is responsible

79
 for maintaining the artificial reef permits. The 4) Reference Collection & Catalog;
only difficulty with this is that access to files in 5) Reef research Personnel and Training
this situation is often restricted and their security
may depend on the fate of the organization. Or-ecor
ganizations having a long stable history and strong 6) Reef research Equipment Records,
leadership are more likely to continue, thus mak- Manuals and Technical file.
ing them suitable hosts for an archives. Organizational administrative records
should be kept by the elected leadership and not
The Archivist by the archivist, although they may be stored at
the same location.
The reef research diver organization or reef e archives, at first, should start with a
builders should appoint a competent individual as e reef site erit fils stored in afl
an archivist. This person becomes central to the or- copy ofthe ref site permit files stored in a file
ganization and to all reef research projects of the cabinet. Since documentation can take many
group. This means he or she must be a good comrn- forms such as video tapes, computer data bases,
municator as well as a good organizer who can news photos and various written articles and re-
take the time to establish the archives and keep it ports, special provisions may be needed to safely
up to date. store, index and cross index this material The ar-
chivist would be well advised to consult with a
The archivist should not be confused with professional librarian during the initial stages of
the groups historian and should not be the same setting it up. Consideration must also be made re-
person. The historians duties are limited to keep- garding screening information for quality and
ing a record of the groups activities or perhaps his- quantity before it is placed in the files. The chief
torical research about the reefs. The archivist, scientist should be responsible for this. Arbitrarily
however, stores the actual data gathered by the re- placing anything and everything in the file would
search divers and reef builders. Unlike the histo- soon render it useless for data retrieval
rian, the archivist plays a key role designing the
data sheets necessary to record observations and
develops ways to store this information in an ap- Library
propriate data base. Persons having some com- The library portion of the archives consists
puter experience and an understanding of how to of references, conference summaries and proceed-
handle scientific data make ideal archivists. Of ings, bibliographies, general and technical reef re-
course, the historian should create the historical ports which are not about specific reef sites the
file to be included with the archives, and assist the group is concerned with. It should contain an up
archivist where possible. to date file of the laws, policies and correspon-
The archivist is also the liaison with the dence affecting reef programs. Copies of reef
chief scientist who is advising the reef research management plans as well as various fishery man-
group, other scientists, agencies, and the divers agement plans should be kept in the general li-
who are individual project leaders. The reef re- brary. The library is also the logical place to keep
search group may be involved with many different administrative records and organizational corre-
projects at the same time, all reporting their data spondence. Maintenance of the general reference
through their project leader to the chief scientist library can be shared between the archivist, organ-
and finally the archivist. The chief scientist having izational secretary and any designated member of
direct knowledge of these activities is in the best the group. Care should be taken to insure all docu-
position to screen the data and keep the archivist ments are properly filed indexed and cross in-
up to date. The archivist is also a ready source of dexed. A library loaning and checkout policy
information for the group's coordinator or leader, should be established.
the rest of the membership and the public affairs
coordinator as well. Appendix S outlines a stand-
ard operating procedure for handling information Historic Records
for the archives. The historic record, maintained by the or-
ganization historian, consists of documents, news
articles and records of the group's general activi-
The Archive's Components ties and the chronology of events. It is the "Scrap
The reef archives generally consists of the Book" usually kept by most dive clubs or other so-
following components: cial organizations. While the information in the
1) Lrary historical file cannot be classified as "technical
data" it still provides background information
2) Historic Records; which may be needed to understand the "whys or
3) Reef Site Data and Project Data & hows" various reef programs came to be. It
Reports;

80
should capture the "politics" or "flavor" of the situ- original dive log information filled out on the dive
ation at the time. site. Standardized data sheets serve to remind the
Some attempt should be made by the histo- researcher, of the basic information needed, make
rian, to gather historical information from those data gathering more consistent, and make data
who have been involved with past reef construc- analysis much easier. Projects requiring specific
tion projects. While much of this information is informational needs such as an experiment or for
highly subjective, full of personal interpretations monitoring some change over a long period of
and inaccuracies, it often provides important clues time, requires that a form be designed for that pro-
about when and where reefs were built and who ject. This ensures that the required information is
built them. These clues can fill informational gaps consistently taken.
for later verification. Tape recorded or video All blanks on a standardized form should be
taped interviews of some of the "old timers" are filled out, even if "no observation" is made. When
useful for gathering this information. Many times, an observation is NOT made for a specific item on
these historical searches uncover written docu- a standard sheet, a dash (-), or a Not Applicable
ments as old fishing logbooks, maps and even pho- (NA) is entered, not a zero, (0). Zero (0) is a real
tographs of reef material before it was "dropped". number which indicates that something was
Thorough historical research can become searched for and not observed. A dash (-) or NA
the basis for designing reef research dives to ver- indicates that the data was not even searched for,
ify earlier placements. While earlier navigation taken or Not Applicable for this situation.
methods were crude at best, relocation and verifi- Appendix B contains examples of the dive
cation of these earlier reef placements by divers is log and data sheets used in the N. E. Florida Area.
essential for a complete inventory and evaluation The basic dive log sheet (Appendix B) which
of the areas reefs. Many "lost" reefs can be found documents the most elementary dive information
and placed back on the fishing maps. includes; who dived, where, when and conditions
Where possible, the historian, chief scientist relevant to the divers performance and safety. Of
and archivist should collaborate in reviewing the course, any limitations (such as limited visibility or
historic information. They should screen it for currents etc.) on diver performance should be
data that can be incorporated into the data ar- noted since it will effect the amount, accuracy and
chives. Most important would be dates, locations, credibility of data recovered on the dive. This in-
names of observers and materials lists of previous formation is very essential for those who must in-
reef placements. Photos and detailed maps or log- terpret the data later. Without it, the value of the
book notes having navigation information should raw data should be questioned and if in doubt, dis-
also be included in the reef data files. Occasion- carded.
ally, a well documented record of a fish catch or File organization for Reef Site Data & Pro-
observation from a specific site, if accurate and jects should be keyed to the site location by either
verified, should also be included in the data file. site name or by numeric (LORAN C and Latitude -
Longitude) coordinates. Projects specific to one
site should be filed under the site name. Projects
Reef Site Data & Project Files which cover more than one site should be filed un-
This is the essence of the archives. This file der the projects name, and cross referenced in the
contains the actual dive logs (or verified copies), site specific files. For example, a "Snapper Sur-
raw data sheets, placement reports, fishing sur- vey" project involving three reef sites should be
veys, special project data and reports, maps and filed under the heading "Snapper Survey". A note
copies of the reef permits. This file should be or- should be placed in each site file indicating "See
ganized according to each reef location. Access to Snapper Survey" to show data from that site is also
this file should be exclusively controlled by the ar- available in another file. If possible, data sheets
chivist. Controlled access to this file ensures that should be duplicated and filed under each of the
the information in it is of high quality, verifiable, three site files.
consistent and stored in a manner that is retriev-
able. In addition, any information stored in this
file should be duplicated and stored in another lo- Reference Collection Documentation
cation as a backup. The back up system is neces- Research of any oceanographic or biological
sary to prevent loss of data from theft, accidents or nature will usually result in the collection and han-
just plain carelessness from some user. dling of physical or biological specimens which
Raw data gathered by divers, fishermen, re- must be stored in a reference collection and cata-
searchers and/or reef builders should be entered on louged. The definition of a specimen in this case
a standardized form in pencil or permanent ink (no can be expanded to include film, video and audio
felt tip pens please, for they smudge when wet) tape recordings. Documentation of a specimen
when possible, and always accompanied by the usually begins with the proper labeling of the speci-

81
men at the time of collection. Afterwards, it is as- menting their credentials as qualified underwater
signed a unique specimen number, and entered in data gatherers.
the catalogue, creating a paper trail to account for Future investigators, concerned about the
its storage location and disposition. A specimen credibility of the data will need this information to
catalogue, should be cross referenced with the site analyze the reef data for individual variations.
data and dive log file. For example, the catalog Verification of an important observation may also
may show a soil sample Number 19870521-3, require that the investigator personally contact the
from reef site "Miss Anna", is stored by Dr. T.W. diver who made the observation. Monitoring train-
Smith, in Jacksonville Universities Biology Lab, ing progress is also essential for future project
Room 25, at Jacksonville, Florida. If the sample is team selection and developing leadership roles and
borrowed, perhaps by "Dr. Jones" at another uni- special job assignments.
versity, a record of its loan should be made by the Finally, there are the legal implications for
originating curator (Dr. Smith) and kept until its re- maintaining such records. Should an accident oc-
turn. The designated "Specimen Curator" and cur or legal conflict arise, this file may become ad-
"Reef Data Archivist" must keep in constant com- missle as in a tri or legal hearing.
munication regarding the storage location preser- The timely maintenance of this file provides fur-
vation requirements and accounting of reef ther assurance that all research divers meet mini-
specimens. mum safety standards and are current with respect
Standardized data sheets which originally ac- to timely training requirements and regular check-
companied the specimens during their collection, ups as with CPR training and physicals.
should be cited in the catalogue, and their file loca- The research teams Divemaster, "Training
tion noted. It is important to be able to match a Director(s) and Diving Control Board should be re-
specimen with a data and dive log sheet, in the eg e
event further study is needed. The use of unique spo le for establishing this record keeping sys-
specimen numbers greatly simplifies this job. tern and keeping this file up to date. They may
specimen
greatly
numbers
simplifies this joelect to limit access to this file and not store it with
One example of a numbering system, used the regular "public" archives. The archivist should
above, makes use of the date the specimen was col- be kept apprised of this files status.
lected. For example, the number 19870521-3, indi-
cates that it was sample number 3, collected on the
21st of May, 1987. Its format is YYYYMMDD- Research Equipment Records &
(Sample No.), where YYYY is the number of the Manuals
year, MM is the month number, DD is the day of This file contains all documents, prchase re-
the month and the sample number is arbitrarily as- cords and technical operating manuals for equip-
signed on the day of collection. It is unlikely that ment owned by the reef research team. If the reef
this number will be duplicated, unless a large num- reseah ou aes a nt fr p
ber of samples are taken by different people on the rearch gro is or d s a not or prot or
same day. If that happens, the archivist can assign poration, these records will be required by law to
same
additional If that happens,
day. identifying e arcis
codes inth camn asn
the specimen show that the equipment is properly accounted for,
fcata- iin good repair aned oof should the organiza-
oa
log. Using such a numbering system forces the
log. Using such a numbering system forces the tion cease to exist. It also insures that technical
catalog to be organized chronologically. It further manuals for sophisticated equipment are not lost,
simplif mat gve a wie thmdpd-e sen for sophisticated equipment are not lost,
manuals
simplifies matching dive site data with the speci or warranty information misplaced. If the equip-
men since both are keyed to the date of collection. or warranty peformatio mispaintd. Ifthe equip-
ment requires periodic maintenance, then a Sus-
Maintaining specimens and their accounting pense File of required maintenance activities
requires the services of a well trained curator. should be established. A Suspense File is merely
Careful thought must be given towards finding a organized according to the future dates when a
suitable Reference Collection storage site and cura- maintenance activity is needed. Each piece of
tor. Most often, a nearby university, college, jun- equipment should have an Equipment Use & Main-
ior college or even high school may have more tenance Log with it.
than adequate storage and recordkeeping facilities. Some coordination may be needed between
Many even have faculty willing to serve as cura- the Chief Scientist, Divemaster and Training Direc-
tors, especially if the specimens can be used for tor(s) to limit access only to qualified equipment
educational programs. operators. For example, a research team member
wanting to use the video camera may require spe-
Reef Research Personnel & Training cial training before having access to it. Some re-
Records cord should be made in the individuals training file
listing what organizational equipment he/she is
Personnel and training records provide the qualified to use. Controlling access to equipment
background information about the volunteer reef is especially important for specialized life support
researchers. This information is essential for docu- equipment since it has a bearing on safety. (i.e, de-

82
 compression computers, surface supplied equip- value is self evident. This file should be physically
ment or air compressors). located away from the original archives storage
site in another building, perhaps even with some
other organization.
Using The Archives & Misfiled data can become lost even within
Specimen Collection the same file cabinet. Use of standardized library
e, q" o t d a coding and filing systems can minimize misfiling.
The questions, "Who owns the data and The Library of Congress Subject Heading System
specimens ?" and "Who should have access to it ?" (LCSH) is the most widely available subject head-
are sure to arise. This is especially true after a few ing system available for general purpose manual
years of data and specimen collecting, when word files. It has a list of subject headings and a set of
gets around, and the information's value begins to rules of how to set up for those items not included
increase. Schools may wish to borrow a "few" on the list. The LCSH is a basic tool of most librar-
specimens for a class or science fair. Divers, fish- ies and should not be difficult to find. Consulting
ermen and reporters may wish to look through the with the local librarian should be a first starting
data files to record reef "numbers" or to write a point before creating the file system.
story. One prime concern is whether the inexperi- e
enced (unfamiliar) file user, will return the data to The use of a database program on a micro
its proper place in the file, without harm or altera- computer offers an excellent means for storing
tion. Altered or lost data is costly, especially if it large amounts of information which can be quickly
is irreplaceable. sorted and reorganized to suit the users needs.
This makes future analysis easier, and ensures a
higher degree of standardization (unless it is fre-
Who Owns The Data & Who Should quently changed). Of course, more planning must
Have Assess To It? be done during the earlier stages of file develop-
ment to ensure all appropriate data is included.
The answer to this question rests with the Needless to say, any computerized system should
question "Who paid for it ?". If the research divers be user friendly so that anyone having even the
were performing as volunteer members of a not for most rudimentary computer knowledge can easily
profit corporation (which in essence is supported access the information. The computer system
by the taxpayer) then the data is public informa- should use a common disk operating system
tion. If the organization is a private corporation, (DOS), and should not be some unusual or hard to
and financed the research project from either find brand. The primary concern is that the data
within the corporation, or if the corporation was will be easily accessible even ten or twenty years
hired, than the data is owned by the corporation or in the future. The data stored in a micro computer
whoever hired it. If the data was gathered as part should always have a hardcopy (paper) backup of
of a public grant, it belongs to the public. If it was the raw data and summarized reports. All disks
funded by a University researcher, it belongs to should be copied as backups as well.
that scientist and the agency providing the grant
(most often this is public tax dollars).
More often than not, the answer simply will Summary
be that the public owns the data, and is therefore Establishing the Artificial Reef Data Ar-
entitled to access to it. Of course this does not im- chives is no small task. It requires the dedication
ply that the public is entitled to unlimited access and commitment of a sincere, hard working indi-
and indiscriminate use of this information, espe- vidual and the complete support of the reef re-
cially if it results in its loss or alteration. The reef search team. It is the focal point of all reef
research organization and the archivist should de- research efforts. Perhaps the willingness of the
sign a system that encourages public access with- group to make a firm commitment to creating the
out unnecessary inconvenience to either. archives should be considered the first test of the
organization's strength and dedication.
Controlling & Retrieving The Reef The archivist should be appointed as a semi-
Research Information permanent position. Consistency in this position is
essential to creating an effective and efficient infor-
The Archivist will need to use every means mation storage and retrieval system. Anything less
at their disposal to insure that the data will always is inviting chaos.
be understandable, never lost or destroyed, yet
within easy access of the public. This can be as-
sured by first designing standardized data records, References
a redundant filing system and publishing user ac-
cess guidelines. The redundant system creates a Library of Congress. 1980. Library of Con-
backup file that should not be readily available to gress Subject Headings 9th ed. (LCSH)., Library
the public. While expensive initially, its long term of Congress, Washington, DC. Note: This should

83
be readily available in the local library. Very use- American Society of Picture Professionals
ful for designing your own subject headings. P.O. Box 5253
Ritzenthaler, Mary Lynn. 1984. Archives & Grand Central Station
Manuscripts: Administration of Photographic Col- New York, NY 10163
lections., Society of American Archivists, Chicago.
Robl, Ernest H. 1986. Organizing Your Pho-
tographs, Amphoto an imprint of Watson-Guptill Society of American Archivists
Publications, 191 pgs. Interest in historical and contemporary col-
lections of materials.
Useful Organizations Society of American Archivists
600 S. Federal SL, Suite 504
American Library Association Chicago, IL 60606
Largest North American library organization
publishing journals and books on filing and cata-
loging rules. Monthly journal "American Librar- Special LibrariesAssociation
ies" is available at most libraries. Publishes journal "Special Libraries", a
American Library Association monthly "Specialist" and a membership directory.
50 East Huron Street Also has a variety of books in librarianship and re-
lated fields.
Chicago, IL 60611 latd
Special Libraries Association
1700 18th St. NW
American Society of Picture Washington, DC 20009
Professionals
Publishes a directory and a newsletter for
photographers, picture researchers, editors, archi-
vists and librarians on the business and legal as-
pects of picture use.

84
Chapter 13
Guidelines For Organizing AVolunteer
Reef Research Diver Organization
by ScottL. Braunsroth and
Initial Considerations
Dennis Short Formalizing a Volunteer Research Dive
Team, one must remember that the average volun-
teer diver, though motivated and well initiated, is
t is obvious that there are more recreational di- none the less a volunteer who's career may be far
vers than marine scientists and that the majority removed from professional marine scientists.
of marine scientists never dive, yet it is these scien- Thus, a volunteer program must address six basic
tists that have dedicated years of study and re- criteria in order to be initiated, maintained and
search to the understanding of the complexity of kept on the continuing path of development:
our marine environment. The big question, is just 1) A particular need must be established;
how do we get these two groups together? One 2) Organizational structure must be clear;
scenario involves the formation of a well organized 3) Volunteers and scientists must work as
volunteer organization dedicated to this end, in the
interest of artificial reef technology of science. Partners*'
The thought of forming volunteer research 4) he public must provide support; (Volun-
service organizations dedicated to a distinct aspect teer research is not free)
of our society or environment is not new. For ex- 5) The program must be educational, inter-
ample, volunteers of the National Audubon Soci- esting and fun; and
ety for years has been surveying bird populations and
in a coordinated nationwide effort. The concept of 6) A means to publish and communicate
using volunteer sport diver organizations for the their finds and events in their commu-
collection of scientifically valid marine data is nity.
based in the American Littoral Society's original There is also a place for nondivers who have
attempts to collect data and record observations by special skills which would benefit the group. The
sport fishermen and sport divers. Florida Sea usefulness of acquiring highly-talented certified
Grant's Extension Program has spawned trainng sport divers such as divemasters and instructors is
for Volunteer research diving groups meet the in- readily apparent for the management of safe, suc-
creasing need for reef data in the face of rising cessful diving operations. But most sport divers
costs of reef construction, manpower shortages and also have other useful skills. Sport divers come
the unlikelihood of government agencies collecting from virtually all social and economic levels of
such information for a local project. our society. Their individual professional skills
The concept of voluntary sport diver re- and abilities can also have a significant impact on
search activities is not limited to artificial reefs in the effectiveness of the organization and the re-
the marine environment.The idea can be applied search information it collects. The assistance of a
equally to the study of beaver ponds in the north- diver who may also be a doctor or an attorney is
west or the reservoirs of the Tennessee River Val- readily appreciated, but not so quickly recognized
ley. However, it is first essential to establish if a are the added benefits of divers who also are book-
need for volunteer research effort truly exists. Con- keepers, boat mechanics, public relations experts,
tacts with state and federal agencies may reveal an teachers, or welders. It is rare that the potential
already established monitoring program which member is unable to provide more than just his or
may thwart the most well-meaning of intentions, her diving talents for the benefits of the organiza-
Once the need for underwater data is established, tion. Ironically, those members who also have ac-
the group of motivated sport divers can proceed counting or secretarial skills may prove to be the
with the establishment of a formal organizational more valuable members of the organization.
structure and training, which would facilitate their Let us consider these six points in greater de-
primary goal; the safe collection, storing, and pro- pth and determine how each contribute to the over-
tection of information gathered. There is also a all success of the volunteer program.
place for nondivers who have special skills which
would benefit the group.

85
Need tact for Incorporation status, tax exempt infor-
The recognition of a need is paramount in mation, liability and grant preparation, their ef-
the initial formation of a volunteer group. This forts can be directed in a more productive
need must be presented to the respective partici- manner and success is more likely to be as-
pants in such a manner that will encourage them to sured.
not only give up their free time but have them en- Now let's look at an organizational struc-
list the help of others. Without a legitimate need, ture that has shown some relative success. At first
the volunteer recruitment effort will be an arduous glance its obvious why (See Appendix Q).
task. This essential first step is probably the easi-
est to achieve. The environment is a very emo-
tional issue and does not take a great deal of The Executive Board
persuasion for individuals, especially end users of The Executive Board of seven members
the environmental resource, to want to get in- sets the tone of the team and establishes the over-
volved. The importance to learn more, to assist all direction. They also act on suggestions pre-
the scientific community or to inform the public, sented to them by the team and they must submit
are all examples of vital needs that could spark en- all programs before the team for approval. Be-
thusiasm among the volunteers, thus promoting a cause they are kept to seven members, decisions
rallying point at which to proceed to the next step; are made more efficiently. In case of a split deci-
form an organization, sion, the coordinator can break a tie. In this ad-
ministrative structure, there are no general rules,
Organizational Structure only lieutenants. Everyone has an equal voice
and the coordinator acts only in a facilitator capac-
This element in the establishment of a suc- ity.
cessful Volunteer Research Diving Team is the
make or break ingredient. Without a clear organ-
izational structure, all the best intentions and en- The Committees
thusiasm in the world will not sustain a Volunteer Predesignated working committees provide
Research Diving program for long, yet ironically, areas to which team members can direct their ener-
it is the formation of this very element that often gies most sufficiently. The committee is a useful
causes the demise of the volunteer effort. The av- tool which can assume any responsibility that best
erage volunteer diver neither has the time, required suits the needs of the Reef Research Team.
skill, or the inclination to endure an extensive or-
ganizational process. It is during this grueling ex- Operational charts and designated commit-
ercise that the volunteers bury their enthusiasm tees provide avenues to direct the members effects
under a mound of paperwork, procedures, rules, but procedures are needed to explain how.
regulations, and constitutional or charter bureauc- Procedure manuals are a must for members
racy. Exhausted, frustrated and disillusioned, an to keep their possession and review. Examples
otherwise capable volunteer group throw in the are:
towel either unable or unwilling to undergo this * Organizational/Committee Procedures-ex-
tribulation and they should not be required to. Re- plains responsibilities and methods.
member, they are volunteers, not paid employees. * Diving Safety Manual-sets standards to pro-
To eliminate this initial hurdle as well as tilt the and liability responsibility.
scale of success to the more positive side, two al-
tematives should be considered: * Research Data Collection Methods Manual-
aA) A r a d c s tandardizes accepted data collection methods
* A) Approach an active recreational dive club that can be accepted by marine scientists and
that would be willing to broaden its activities to easily implemented by research divers.
include reef research functions. This would
eliminate or at the very least reduce the energies
needed in developing a new organizational Going Public
structure. Conforming to the requirements of a When drawin from an established dive
reef research program from which the reef re- club, the key element for going public is proper
search team can concentrate their efforts on data communication. The fact that sport diversrepre-
collection,Slon. communication. The fact that sport divers repre-
sent a small segment of the population of a com-
* B) Follow a pre-established outline or canned munity actually lends itself to easy
program on the "How To s" in establishing a communications with prospective members. No-
new organizational structure for Reef Research tices can be posted in dive shops and personal con-
divers. Reinventing the wheel must be avoided, tacts with local dive clubs can expose a high
If volunteers are provided a step-by-step system percentage of the diving community to the intents
on how to establish an organizational structure, of the organization, so these avenues should be ex-
including a directory on what agencies to con-

86
ploited. Notifications posted at local universities are often swept into permanent offices, wisdom
can also lead to contacts with members of the aca- should be employed in their selection. It should
demic community, something which is a necessity. be taken into account that perhaps a more re-
The minimal effect from this public exposure is served, but highly motivated member, may actu-
the establishment of the organization's identity in ally be more of an asset than a more obvious, or
the community, an important first step in building even more highly qualified person, who is unwill-
it's credibility. ing to contribute.
The location for "a gathering of the minds,"
can also have more ramifications than are at first
apparent. Solicitation for a meeting to be held at a Development of the
specific dive shop or at the meeting place of an es- Constitution
tablished dive club can tend to alienate some mem-
bers of the community, so it is suggested that a Either the development of a constitution
neutral site such as an extension office, library, and/or a charter for a volunteer reef research diver
school or college campus, be selected for the in- organization can be an arduous process and, regret-
itial meetings. The meeting site selection should tably, a period with a high attrition rate among the
also depend upon the anticipated turnout, a central- general membership. Most recreational divers are
ized location, and at a time which avoids conflicts more motivated to dive than they are to spend
with other diving activities, hours discussing small points of contention in the
A friendly social atmosphere at the original formulation of
formulation of the organizational charter.
the organizational charter. Conse-
Conse-
must be
meeting must
meetring be tempered the knowledge
with the
tempered with knowledge quently, it is highly advisable that as many aspects
of this process as possible be delegated to commit-
that certain minimal business essentials must be ac- of this process as possible be delegated to commit-
vitally important,
omplished. Itis at this stage, tee action, thus limiting time consuming, rela-
complished. It is vitally important, at this stage, tively unproductive open floor debate during
for someone to take charge and conduct the busi-
ness at hand. In addition to providing a focal point isfoundbusiness
general meetings. A
iness meetings. model constitution
A model constitution
for audience attention, the chairperson acts as a is found in Appendix T.
moderator for group discussion and otherwise di-
rects the course and success of the meeting. An ex- Naming the Organization
perienced chairperson from some other O i t c f g
organization can even be asked to facilitate the . One item that calls for general participation
first organizational meetings. is the selection of an organization title or name.
The name alone can reveal as much, or as little, of
At an absolute minimum, a roster of atten- the nature of the group as its members wish. As
dance, with mailing addresses and phone numbers, an example, "Dive Research Group" has an air of
must be compiled during the first meeting. Most ambiguity that could lend itself to any locale or re-
importantly, before the initial meeting is over, a search purpose, while the "Alameda Marine Algae
date, location and commitment must be made to Analysts," reveals the limits to the location and ob-
meet again . The initial meeting is also a good jectives of the group. It certainly limits the scope
time to get new prospective members directly in- of activities of the organization and, consequently,
volved by assigning them a simple task. its attractiveness to a diverse membership. The
Secondary meetings should include briefings name should be specific about the groups interests
for new attendees and continued maintenance of and should clearly imply that it is a service group
rosters of attendance. The synthesis of a small and not a social club. A name such as "Reef Re-
cadre of dedicated workers will soon reveal itself search Society" sounds far more scientifically
and will provide a pool for the delegation of other, credible than "Rollicking Reef Raiders".
more involved administrative duties. Acronyms, the technique of using the first
An item to be pursued with expedience letter of the words in the title, can also be helpful
should be the election of pro tem officers for the in simplifying what otherwise might be a cumber-
organization. It is essential to fulfill what will be some title. Consider having to say National Aero-
found to be a rapidly expanding need for decision nautic and Space Administration every time
making and other administrative functions. A NASA comes to mind and the benefits of acro-
slate of officers, even in a pro tem capacity, is in- nyms is apparent.
strumental in maintaining the momentum of a Name selection is a very important aspect of
growing organization. organizational development and the implications
The selection and appointment of pro tem of- of the many possible choices must be carefully ex-
ficers would be pursued with no small degree of plored before a final decision is made.The applica-
caution. The success of the organization will de- tion for corporate status for the group could
pend upon the perseverance of these appointed disclose a conflict in names, so it may be wise to
members, especially during the often mundane have an alternate ready before a final decision is
ensuing period of organizational, structural and po- made.
litical development. Because the pro tem officers

87
 Once again, we see that a seemingly simple need special training in underwater mapping meth-
decision such as naming the group can be compli- ods, if the project needs demand it.
cated by a lack of foresight on the part of the or-
ganization. Once decided upon, it is highly
unlikely, and very inconvenient, to change the or- Duties of Officers and Committees
ganization's name. The astute participant in the Determining a slate of officers and a busi-
name selection process will realize that justifica- ness calendar should also reflect the specific
tions for particular name choices also provide needs, goals and projects of the organization.
clues to the key elements to be included in the char- While the officers' primary duties are to assume
ter and help define the purposes and objectives of the business activities, the committees and the re-
the organization. spective chairmen fill a more specific purpose. In-
corporating these positions into the structure of
organizational officers may make the election
The Charter process unwieldy. It is for this reason that the
The Charter should be distinctive enough to committee chairmen should be appointed to their
readily describe the functions of the organization, positions.
yet allow some degree of flexibility for future inter- The business duties of organizational offi-
pretation and adjustments. Just as a national con- cers is somewhat self-explanatory with the secre-
stitution is subject to changes of interpretation with tarial and treasury positions perhaps requiring
changing times, it is suggested that the organiza- more clerical expertise than the executive officers.
tional charter have enough flexibility to be effec- Often, unless the organization is quite large, mem-
tive for the foreseeable future. bers may be required to "wear more than one hat";
Role models may help. Even Thomas Jeffer- i.e., assume committee chairmanship in addition to
son relied upon examples of idealogy from such being an officer. It is the committee chairmen
philosophers as Locke and Rousseau for his contri- who will ultimately assume responsibility for the
butions to our national Constitution. Likewise, actual projects undertaken.
those involved in authoring a charter and constitu- The types of committees will necessarily re-
tion should avail themselves of the multitude of ex- flect the needs of the group as they change over
amples available. An example of the Jacksonville time. Appendix Q provides job descriptions.
Scubanauts Reef Research Team Constitution is There are some committees which are felt to be
found in Appendix Q. The use of role models does uniquely essential for an organization whose goal
not have to be limited to those of like character. Ex- is the collection and storage of data. One such per-
amples from both recreational and professional manent committee is the data and historical ar-
sources can be invaluable. The charter of a college chives committee. Too often the need for
fraternity could possibly provide insight into com- retrievable data storage and the collection of or-
mittee structures or election procedures. Business ganizational history or documentation is not real-
sections of the public library system can provide ized, except as an afterthought. Often, by that
numerous examples to follow, time, much of the information cannot be retrieved.
Current experience has shown the need for Old photos, news clippings, minutes of special
some basic provisions to be included in the consti- meetings and copies of dive logs and raw data
tutional body of a volunteer research divers organi- notes provide not only nostalgia for the member-
zation. Membership standards and qualifications ship but also valuable informational data for future
and the issue of funding prove to be the most hotly publications when documentation of past activities
debated issues, and a time consuming affair to re- is necessary.
solve. Membership qualification for those who Diver training and safety, while an overrid-
dive in a diving organization, for example, must in- ing consideration for all water activity, benefits
elude a provision for the evaluation of the individ- from a centralized permanent committee. This is a
ual's diving abilities and experience with some natural post for the members of the organization
provision for further training and even discipline who are scuba diving instructors. Their knowl-
when needed. The standards for these abilities nec- edge of safe diving procedure and equipment us-
essarily would vary relative to the tasks, projects age and their proven instructional talents in the
and diving conditions confronting the organiza- field are invaluable. The input from training and
tion. Thus, the organization should provide for safety personnel can also be valuable in the formu-
training and retraining its members, and should de- lation of membership ethics for diving practices
fine the related experience standards for its diving while working under the auspices of the organiza-
members, with respect to various projects needs, tion. This committee can formulate a program of
For example, a highly experienced freshwater standardized techniques for accomplishing the spe-
diver may not be ready to participate in a reef cific task at hand while taking into consideration
monitoring project 20 miles offshore in the ocean local diving environments.
and a highly experienced ocean diver may still

88
 With the precedent for organizational owner- The concept under consideration here (that
ship of equipment established in the constitution, of a volunteer research diver organization) is too
procedures for the usage, maintenance and storage new to provide a track record of experience with li-
of this equipment becomes a necessity. Conceiv- ability issues. Liability problems are not absolved
ably, the organization may be so small, or the with the establishment of corporate status. How-
amount of equipment so limited, that a committee ever, it is generally considered advantageous to in-
for this purpose may be unnecessary. But, as mem- corporate so that legal responsibilities can be laid
bership and inventory of organizational equipment to the corporation rather than individual members.
increases, it will be a requirement to know where By far, the most important aspect of liability
and in what condition the tools of your trade are to remember is the proverbial "ounce of protec-
when the occasion arises to use them. tion". The potentially dangerous nature of diving
The benefits of individual committee struc- requires the adoption of, and adherence to, ac-
ture and standardization of technique can also be cepted safety standards. When diving activities
seen when applied to data collection, charts and are combined with the logistics of boat transporta-
graphs, and photography. In each case, the best tion, exposure to risk is greatly increased.
available talents may be utilized and directed to Liability waivers may be comforting, but
provide standards of technique to be employed by very few, if any, will withstand intense legal scru-
the rest of the organization. The end result will be tiny. None are valid in the event of negligence on
a uniformity of procedure, lending itself to smooth the part of anyone involved.
operation and increased credibility of the organiza- To best avoid difficulties of this nature, con-
tion's efforts. sult with diving instructors, boat captains, the
Coast Guard and, if possible, an attorney. Their
Funding and Incorporation advice will lead to the implementation of operating
undig . procedures designed to minimize exposure to risk.
Provisions for funding a reef research organi- It is then the organization's responsibility to de-
zation involve more than the question of whether velop a consistency of technique which will lend it-
or not to levy dues upon the membership. Aspects self to the safety of the entire operation. In
of funds, accrual and disbursement towards vari- addition, the volunteer team should consider adopt-
ous projects should be addressed, and policies for ing the safety standards of the American Academy
the handling of organizational monies determined, of Underwater Sciences (AAUS) which have been
Provisions may also be included regarding organ- recognized by the Occupational Safety and Health
izational purchased and ownership and mainte- Administration (OSHA) for scientific diving (See
nance of property. The important issue seems to Appendix A).
be the need to set a constitutional precedent for the A
organization to handle money. A more easily recognized benefit of non-
iti o a t profit status is its application to state and federal
It is important that the financial status of the tax structures. While the particulars may vary
organization begin on a firm foundation. It is ad- from state to state, nonprofit corporate structures
visable to seek professional assistance in setting up enjoy varying degrees of tax exemption on earn-
organizational bookkeeping procedures, especially ings. In addition, other individuals or organiza-
if it decides to pursue a corporate or nonprofit cor- tions may have the privilege of tax benefits for
poration status. Present experience has shown in- items or services donated to the research group.
corporation to be a highly desirable avenue to This fact alone may well warrant the application
explore. Legal consultation is highly advisable be- for nonprofit status.
fore pursuing this step of development, but in
some states it is not a necessity to establish corpo- It must be remembered that the difficult part
rate status. If a prospective member is an attorney, of these affairs is following the various rules re-
he could be of great assistance at this point. quired of nonprofit organizations. The application
for this status is usually a relatively simple affair.
Corporate status can most readily be seen It is essential that the application be handled cor-
beneficial to the organization in its ability to some- rely, however.
what limit considerations of liability in the event
of a mishap during diving activities sponsored by Subsequent to acceptance of these articles,
the organization. many times a form letter type of procedure, the cor-
d ta ev o te poration is assigned an identifying tax permit num-
The complexities and the vagaries of the ber to be used in conjunction with organizational
ramifications of the financial and liability consid- business. It is this number which will be required
erations of corporate status dictate the need for for the validation of gifts to the corporation so that
proper legal referral. A professional legal consult- the donors may make proper tax claims.
ation at this stage may prove to save hours, if not
weeks or months, of frustrated effort in the future.

89
 (SGEP). The primary goal of the Sea Grant Exten-
Academic Liaison sion Agent is to act as a liaison between the gen-
Volunteers & Scientists As Partners eral public and those faculty in a position to assist
with marine oriented issues.
There has been a misconception that volun-
teer research divers had to work for a marine scien- Inquiries to your local Sea Grant Extension
tist to acquire credibility. The scientist would set Agent will probably result in a wealth of leads to
the agenda, direct the activities and take the bows. follow in the quest for a scientific advisor. The
This type of relationship may work in the short agent, in many cases, will also be a source for con-
term but is doomed to failure down the road. An nections with appropriate consultants from other
attitude of cooperation and mutual respect must re- private and public organizations, as well as serve
place intimidation. Volunteers and scientists must as a consultant to the reef research group isel
learn to work as partners with a common objective While this is not the definitive treatise on es-
and purpose and dispense with the "Overseer and tablishing a volunteer reef research group, it is
Field Hand" mentality. There should be joint own- hoped that some questions on organizational obsta-
ership of the data. cles have been answered. We are pursuing ave-
Contacts with academia are essentiaL To be nues for which there are no established directives.
assured that data gathered by the organization has As stated earlier, this formulative stage is
scientific value, the work must be performed under one often characterized by a high attrition rate
the guidance of a qualified scientific advisor. The among the general membership. This tendency
scientific advisor post will usually be filled by a may be countered, to some extent, by a commit-
doctoral level academic with interests and training ment to involve as many members as possible
similar to the intents of the research group. If the early in the process.
interests of the organization are varied, the posi- Liability issues should be satisfied before
tion may be occupied by one or more experts with conducting sanctioned diving activities. Alternate
different areas of expertise. Regardless of the field activities, such as training, equipment building ac-
of interest, the team's chief scientist is a necessary tivities, public education events or fund raising
connection to the academic community through projects can aid in maintaining membership in-
the scientific advisor. volvement.
The necessity of a scientific advisor is not a Once organizational duties have been accom-
detriment; it is the volunteer research group's plished to everyone's satisfaction and project pri-
greatest asset. It must be remembered that, unlike orities have been established, pursue them.
college days, the scientific advisor is no longer a Though it may be difficult to rein in the more am-
Svengali character, who directs every aspect of the bitious members, choose a primary task which is
organization's activities. Rather, his role will be well within the capability of the membership to
one of providing guidance and insight in the pur- achieve. An initial project, no matter how simple,
suit of projects chosen by the group and the data which is completed credibly will contribute
gathering and handling methods used. He is also greatly to the morale of the membership and en-
an invaluable educational source and a ready refer- hance the organization's standing in the academic
ence on proper scientific technique, whether he is a community. For the group of volunteers who sur-
diver or not. His endorsement of the data gathered vive the formulative period and accomplish their
can make, or break, the organization and its reputa- first goals, the accolades are appropriate. One
tion in the community. means for doing this is by making their efforts
The enlistment of a scientific advisor could public. This should also increase public support
be accomplished by a canvassing of academic per- for the team.
sonnel of nearby universities. But, this rather ardu- The collection of data may help fill the ar-
ous technique may be averted by taking advantage chives with valuable information that may assist
of some established government programs. The scientists and the community in their study, yet if
Cooperative Extension Program in Florida, for ex- the public cannot perceive a benefit, then support
ample, has designated personnel to serve as agents may be lacking.
of the Florida Sea Grant Extension Program

90
SECTION TWO
Underwater Research Method Summary

Title:
Date:

Contributed by:
Name:
Address:
Phone:

General Description of the Method and its Purpose

Data to be Collected (List specific parameters.)

Data Gathering Equipment (Add an attachment sheet, if needed, to include drawing

of special equipment.)

Minimum Dive Team Description (# Divers, Job Titles and Job Descriptions.)

Sources of Additional Information

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks (Use reverse side if needed.)

90A
Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks (Continued)

Please fold paper in half, staple and stamp.

* Please Place
* Stamp Here

Florida Sea Grant College Program

PO Box 110409
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL 32611-0409
ATTN: Scientific Diving Methods (Halusky)

90B
Excavation by Portable Couple Jet Blower
Contributed By
James S. Dunbar
Bureau of Archeological Research
Department of State, The Capitol Tallahassee, FL 32301
(904) 487-2333
3 April 1986

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

This is Equipment used for quick but not highly controlled excavation of relatively broad areas in open water
situations. The equipment is highly mobil and diver operated thus has great advantages of prop wash diverters
mounted on anchored vessels. The hand held blower becomes a diver propulsion vehicle between Excavation sites
and the surface pump can be floated on a floatation tube for maximum mobility

Data to be Collected
(list specific parameters.)
1. Stratigraphic testing for mapping and observe subsurface sediment sequences.
2. Cleaning thin sediment layers from hard surfaces such as ship structure for photographing and mapping.
3. Cleaning out crevices and cracks in bedrock or other wise excavating sediments to obtain an idea of artifact or fos-
sil frequency in subsurface sediments.

Data Gathering Equipment Digging Blast

(On Attachment Sheet include drawing of special equipment.) Populson jet
1. Water pump w/suction hose (intake)
2. Floatation device for pump
3. Jet hose, length as needed for job.
4. 3" couple-jet rigged with balancing nozzle and 1/4 turn ball balance.

Minimum Dive Team Description r Baani,aJe

(# Divers, Job Titles and Job Descriptions.) __ rtoI /
One to two depending on diving equipment " u

Sources of Additional Information

None given
S . Balance Jets

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

1. Rig pump with suction w/jet hoses and prime pump with water DIVER OPERATED PORTABLE BLOWER
2. Connect Jet hose into water-jacket of couple jet. Using a Couple-Jet
3. Start pump making sure jet hose allows unrestricted flow of water into couple-jet.
4. Turn OFF water flow to balancing nozzles with 1/4 turn ball valve to use one system as a diver propulsion vehicle
and travel to work site.
5. Turn ON water balancing Nozzles and point couple-jet discharge head at area to be excavated or cleaned of
sediment
6. Repeat setup 4 & 5 as needed.

91
Fish Assessment - Cinetransect
Contributed By
S. A. Bortone
Biology Department, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL
(904) 474-2647
10 April 1983

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

While swimming along a transect a diver shoots a roll of super 8 movie film to access the fish community on a
reef. The technique gathers a permanent record of the habitat as well as the fish community which can be examined
repeatedly at a later time to determine the fish community.

Data to be Collected
(List specific parameters.)
-A permanent record of the habitat.
-A record of the fish community which can be repeatedly examined for census information.
-Abundance estimates of species "seen" by the movie camera.

Data Gathering Equipment

(On Attachment Sheet include drawing.)
-A 100 m transect.
-A super 8 low light movie camera fitted with an underwater housing.
-Several rolls of movie film (Kodak ektachrome 50 ft.)
-An underwater movie light if filming is to be in water deeper than 30 feet or at night.
-A movie projector with stop and slow motion, and reverse capabilities.

Minimum Dive Team Description

A diver swims slowly along a transect shooting the roll of film while slowly (very slowly) panning the camera from
side to side.

Sources of Additional Information

Alevizon, W.S. and M.G. Brooks, 1975. The Comparative structure of two Western Atlantic Reef-fish assemblages.
Bull. Mar. Sci. 25(4):482-490.

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

1. Fish counts are obtained by exposing a roll of high speed Ektachrome film while a diver swims along a transect
about lm above the substrate and slowly panning from side to side to record within 4-5m of the transect.
2. After developing the film, slow, stop and reverse projection are used to determine the species and their abundance
as recorded by the movie camera.
3. To avoid errors, individuals are counted only if they occurred at less than 5m from the camera. Also, fishes too
close the camera are omitted from enumeration.
4. Species counts may be used directly for faunal comparisons or transposed to a scale of abundance as suggested by
Alevizon and Brooks (1975).
5. Several rolls (between 4 and 8) of film should be shot to act as repetitive samples so that effects of random
movement of fishes (or bad technique by divers) are minimized. Multiple sampling when using a movie film is
essential as the total sample time for a 50' roll of film is less than 3 minutes.

92
Fish Assessment - Point Count
Contributed By
S. A. Bortone
Biology Department
University of West Florida
Pensacola, FL
(904) 474-2647
10 April 1983

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

Assessment of fish is made at a point or place on the reef. The place or point can be determined by random
assignment or by choosing a point along a transect at fixed intervals. A diver simply sits back and observes the
"point" and area around it, determines the species present, counts the number of individuals and estimates the size as
well. The purpose is to obtain a point estimate of the fish community composition. By repeating the technique and
averaging the results a picture of the relative abundances of each species emerges.

Data to be Collected
-species identification
-abundance of each species
-size estimate of each species

Data Gathering Equipment

-writing slate or pad and pencil
-watch
-transect marked off in 10 m intervals

Minimum Dive Team Description

Diver positions him/herself about 5 m (or less depending on the visibility) away from the point and counts the indi-
viduals by species that pass through an imaginary 2m x 2m x 2m cube at the point. Later the diver approaches the
point and slowly inspects the point for any cryptic, diminutive or sedentary species missed doing the first part of the
inspection.

Sources of Additional Information

Slobodkin, LB. and L Fishelson, 1974. The effect of the cleaner-fish Labroides dimidiatus on the point diversity
of fishes on the reef front at Silat. Amer. Naturalist. 108(961)369-376.

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

1. A random series of points or places to conduct the survey's are selected or the points may be chosen at 10m
intervals along a transect line.
2. A diver moves away from the point (5m or less depending upon the visibility) and counts by species all the
individual fish that swim through or are located in an imaginary 2m x 2m x 2m cube located on the point.
3. Care should be taken not to count any individual twice.
4. If part of a school enters the cube then the entire school is included in the count.
5. The count is conducted for a specific time internal. Twenty minutes has been suggested as a good length of time
by the authors of the method. Experience indicated that 5 or 10 minutes may be more realistic on artificial reefs.
The important thing is that the amount of time be kept consistent.
6. At the end of the sample time, the diver swims up to the point to locate and count cryptic or diminutive
individuals not noticed during the first part of the survey.
7. The technique is repeated at least twenty times at different points to obtain an overall picture of the fauna
composition of the area.
8. Notes should be taken on the physical factor at each point.
93
Fish Assessment - Rapid Visual Technique
Contributed By
SA. Bortone
Biology Department
University of West Florida
Pensacola, Florida
(904) 474-2647
10 April 1983

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

A general census technique for assessing the qualitative and relative abundance of fishes. A diver records spe-
cies in the order in which they are first observed. The basic premise is that species which are most abundant are
more likely to be seen first and most often while those that are least abundant are likely to be observed last or least
often. By repeating the technique and scaling the results according to when they were observed species can be
"scored" as to their relative abundance on an artificial reef.

Data to be Collected
-A list of species is obtained.
-The order of which is determined by the time when they are initially observed in a sample.

Data Gathering Equipment

-a slate or writing pad and pencil
-a watch

Minimum Dive Team Description

A diver swims more or less randomly over the reef site and records all the species in a 50 minute interval in the order
in which they were observed.

Sources of Additional Information

Jones, R.S., and MJ. Thompson. 1978. Comparison of Florida Reef fish assemblages using a rapid visual
technique. Bull. Mar. Sci. 28(1):159-172.

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

1. Within a prescribed area or over the entire artificial reef a diver swims "randomly" over the reef structure.
2. On a slate or writing pad the diver records all the species observed in a 10 minute period. During the next 10
minute period the diver records all species seen by does not include or repeat any observed in the first 10 minute
period. The technique is repeated for a 50 minute period so that in the 5th 10 minutes a diver lists only those species
not seen in the previous 40 minutes.
3. Shorter sampling intervals such as 5 five minutes maybe effective.
4. The 50 minute sampling time is repeated at least 8 times.
5. Species are given a score of 5 if they were observed in the first 10 minute time interval, 4 in the second, 3 in the
third, etc.
6. A species total score (or score of relative abundance) is obtained by adding up the score for a particular species
over the 8 sample periods. For example, a species observed in the first 10 minute time interval are each of the 8
repetitive samples which have an abundance score of 40 (8 x 5). A species observed only once in the last time
interval would receive a score of 1.
7. For within and between reef comparison abundances scores can be treated as relative abundance data as in fish
counts and analyzed accordingly.

94
Fish Assessment- Species/Time Random Count
Contributed By
Scott Andree
Marine Advisory Program
P.O. Box 820
Perry, FL 32347
(904) 584-9350
23 May 1983

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

The species/time random count technique is a visual censusing method based upon the rate at which fish spe-
cies are encountered by a free swimming observer. The technique is taken from the basic concept of species-area
used by most ecologists. However, in this case time is substituted for area. Species composition, species diversity
and relative abundance of fish species can be generated by this method. This technique uses very little equipment
and can be accomplished easily by two member dive teams. Reliability of the data collected is dependent upon visi-
bility, experience of the observer, number of repetitions, depth and time of day. This method is limited too the more
ubiquitous fishes and cryptic or secretive fish are missed; therefore, the "state of the community" as measured by this
method is accurate, but relative only.

Data to be Collected
-Visibility, depth, current and temperature (optional)
-Location of starting point (Loran C coordinate, reef landmarks or quadrant)
-Start and stop times of observation period
-10 minute time intervals
-Fish species encountered (recorded only once)

Data Gathering Equipment

-Plexiglass writing slates with attached pencil
-extra pencil
-watch
-fish identification guide (waterproof)
-mimeographed data sheets/vellum sheets (optional)

Minimum Dive Team Description

One two-member dive team with each diver acting as an observer. Caution must be exercised that each diver main-
tain visual contact with his partner.

Sources of Additional Information

Jones, Robert S. and M. John Thompson. 1978. Comparison of Florida reef fish assemblages using a rapid visual
technique. Bull. Mar. Sci. 28(1): 159-172.
Thompson, M. John and Thomas W. Schmidt. 1977. Validation of species/time random count technique sampling
fish assemblages at Dry Tortugas. Proceedings, 3rd International Coral Reef Symposium, University of Miami, FL
pp. 283-288.

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

1. Following entry, dive team leader should record location on the reef (prominent landmarks, reef quadrant, etc.)
depth, temperature (if possible), visibility and current direction.
2. Both divers should record the time that the census begins.
3. Both divers should swim randomly into the current maintaining safe visual distances with the partner. All habitats
within the reef are available to the observers; it is only necessary that each diver stay within the physical confines of
the specific reef being studied. There is no requirement to stay on a transect or within a quadrant.
95
 4. The search time is 50 minutes long (can be modified due to depth and bottom time), broken up into 10 minute
intervals. Species are recorded only once and credited to the specific 10 minute time interval in which they are
first encountered. (see attached data sheet). A total of five 10 minute intervals are used.
5. This procedure is repeated to achieve the desired number of replicated surveys. Eight replicates are generally
considered a minimum.

ATTACHMENT SHEET
SAMPLE DATA SHEET

Location Time Start Date

Current Time End Census NO.

Temperature
TimeSpecies Time Species Time Species

NOTE: To determine relative abundance, species are given ranks based on the time interval encountered, e.g, 0-10:
5, 10-20: 4, 20-30: 3, 30-40: 2, 40-50: 1. The ranks are totaled over the number of replicates and these cumulative
values are statistically valid (see Jones and Thompson, 1978). The most abundant species will have the highest rank.

96
 Fish Assessment - Transect
Contributed By
S. A. Bortone
Biology Department, University of
West Florida, Pensacola, FL
(904) 474-2647
10 April 1983

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

To assess or estimate the relative abundance of fishes on artificial reef a transect or length of rope is estab-
lished on or over the reef structure. Two divers swim side by side, one on each side of the transect line and identify,
count and estimate the sizes of fishes encountered. The transect method may be used to gather relative abundance
data on all species or only a few "target" or economically important species. Length of the transect line and swim-
ming speed should be kept constant for within and between reef comparisons of abundance.

Data to be Collected
-Identification of species present.
-Estimate of numbers of individuals for each species.
-Size estimates of individuals.

Data Gathering Equipment

-100 meter transect line (marked off at 10m intervals for reference).
-stop watch to determine elapsed time of transect assessment.
-underwater slate or writing pad and pencil.

Minimum Dive Team Description

Transect is set in either a predetermined straight line, or random pattern. Divers swim on either side of transect and
count, identify, and estimate size of fishes encountered. Census data are recorded on slates or writing pads.

Sources of Additional Information

Brock, V. 1954. A preliminary report on a method of estimating reef fish populations. J. Wildlife Management 18
(3):297-308.
Chance, E.H. and D.B. Eckert. 1974. Ecological aspects of the distribution of fishes at Famming Island. Pacific
Science 28(3):297-317.

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

1. Establish the transect line in a reef area over the type of substrate to be surveyed. Depending upon the question to
be answered by the data it might be preferable to set the transect line over the same type of habitat or to set it over
many different kinds of habitat.
2. A transect line length of 100 m has been used as a "standard" however shorter length may be preferable especially
if the artificial reef is not that extensive. The length of the line is not as important as using the same transect length
for all studies by the dive group.
3. The dive team consisting of two divers note the time and slowly swimming down either side of the transect line
each diver records and counts the number of individuals of each species seen and tries to estimates their size.
4. The abundance of fishes will occurring in schools may have to be estimated. If part of a school swims in front of
a diver the entire school is included in the count.
5. Occasionally fishes will swim around a diver. Care should be taken for counting each fish only once.
6. If a fish swims from one side of the transect to the other it should be counted by both divers.

97
7. The transect method should be repeated at least 4 times with divers alternating sides.
8. Data are in the form of relative abundance but may be converted to absolute abundance if an estimate of the area
surveyed is made.
9. The time at the end of each transect swim should also be recorded as it has been observed that the amount of time
spent surveying a transect affects the census results. It should take about 20-30 minutes to swim and record data
on a 100 m transect.

98
Mapping - Circular Strip Map
Contributed by
Joseph G. Halusky
Marine Education Center
233 Marine Center Drive, A1A South
Marineland, St Augustine, FL 32086
(904) 471-0092
21 September 1982

General Description of the Methods & Its Purpose

This is a method for constructing a crude scatter map of artificial reef material in a circle of up to 100 meters
in diameter. Generally a team of two divers could accomplish this (depending on current and visibility in approxi-
mately 1 to 2 hours on the bottom. For a 100 meter diameter circle, the divers would swim a total of approximately
479 meters. It is assumed that the area to be surveyed is relatively clear of bottom obstructions, which could tangle
measuring lines, and that accuracy is not terribly important (the map is less accurate, as one moves away from the
center bench mark). Its good for constructing a hasty map of reef scatter and searching for large obstructions, when
visibility is a problem.

Data to be Collected
-Precise location of Center Bench Mark (usually Loran C numbers).
-Dive team heading in degrees to or from the center bench mark.
-Distance from center to object to be mapped.
-Description of object (photograph when possible) to be mapped.
-Visibility, depth and current information.
-Date, time of mapping.
-Dive team names.

Data Gathering Equipment

(On Attachment Sheet include drawing.)
-50 meter Fiberglass measuring tape, with snap clip on end.
-Anchor or some bench mark too fasten end of tape to, while on bottom.
-Underwater slate and pencil.
-Compass
-Watch

Minimum Dive Team Description

-Compass and tape bearer (CTB)- makes fast the end of the measuring tape to the anchor and swims the proper
compass headings while reeling the measuring tape.
-Recorder- carries slate and describes objects to be mapped by noting distance and heading of the object, from the
center bench mark.

Sources of Additional Information

Miller, James N. 1979. NOAA Diving Manual - Diving for Science and Technology - 2nd Edition. U.S. Dept. of
Commerce. Superintendent of documents. Stock No. 003-017-0046806.
Woods, J.D. & J.N. Lythgoe. 1971. Underwater Science, an introduction to experiments by divers. Oxford Uni
versity Press. London.

99
Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks
1. Establish a Bench Mark (BM) using the support anchor, some anchoring device, or a fixed feature on the bottom
which can easily be found again. Record Loran coordinates of the BM, if possible.
2. Compass & Tape Bearer (CTB) attaches end of measuring tape to the BM and begins to swim in a fixed compass
direction, away from the BM, while unwinding the tape.
3. Recorder follows the CTB, while recording the compass heading distance, and description of objects found along
the bottom, within range of view on either side of the measuring tape.
4. On reaching end of the tape, or previously determined distance from the BM, the CTB stops until Recorder
completes sampling, then the two swim an arc until their compass heading back to the BM reaches a previously deter-
mined back-azimuth to the BM. (see illustration).
5. Then, the recorder swims ahead of the CTB, along the measuring tape while sampling. The CTB follows, while
rewinding the tape, and maintaining the proper compass heading.
6. Upon reaching the BM, the next compass bearing is selected, and steps 1 through 5 are repeated until a full circle is
sampled.
7. The rough notes, recorded on the slate, are then later, transcribed onto circular (Polar Co-ordinate) graph paper,
from which, a final map is produced. (See example - Attachment 2).
Attachment Sheet
Attachment I

0"

-T0270
TO
0 480o ->
EP700

to

EXAMPLE:
Swim arc until appropriate compass heading back to BM as sighted along the tape is reached. (In this case, it
would be to 225°). Then swim towards it, with recorder leading.
The radius of the pattern can be any pre-determined length depending on the area to be surveyed, visibility
and current condition. Two dive teams may also work off the same BM simultaneously. Use caution while swim-
ming the arc, since the extended measuring tape may become entangled with obstructions, between the divers and
the BM.

100
Attachment II
Post Deployment Map: POP WARNER REEF
St. Augustine, FL
June 29, 1980 Loran 7980
14585.5
44960.0
Approx. 9mL at 90 one from Sea Buoy, St. Augustine, FL
This map shows the approximate distribution of artificial reef material as observed by divers,
within hour of completion of reef drop. The survey was conducted by teams of divers swimming along a
50 meter tape measure in the direction indicated on the map (azimuth lines). All debris observed in a 10
meter wide path along the azimuth were charted. Bottom flat, with slight current from the south. Center
of chart is an autobody, aprrox. 100 meters due North of buoy.
o'
OT

315 T S'

T qo
TT T
T

225" T

T -Tires 180
F - Fiberglass
A - Automobile
C - Can filled with concrete --- Scale:
BT - Boat Trailer Tss Io
BC - Beer Can

100A
Mapping - SmallArea Survey Grids
Contributed By
Catherine M. Guinon
803 E Park Avenue
Tallahassee, FL 32301
(904) 222-9291
6 April 1986

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

This method is for mapping a small area such as a small reef. It is done in increments of approximately 25
square feet square grids. The task can be accomplished by a two diver team (speeding up process can be dome with
additional divers).

Data to be Collected
-Location of reef (Loran C or lines of position from known marks).
-Degree angles of measurement from center datum.
-Distance of objects along measurement lines.
-Coding of objects type
-Depth and orientation of reef.
-Date and time of sample.
-Description of bottom.

Data Gathering Equipment

-Datum or identifiable Bench Mark. - or Rebar Stake.
-Tape measure
-Data slate
-Compass
-Grid lines or lengths of line, 500 feet.
-Rebar for stakes - need 13.
-Hammer

Minimum Dive Team Description

-Datum recorder
-Tape and slate bearer
-Safety diver
-Boat operator

Sources of Additional Information

None given

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

1. Run 100 ft lines with a compass, placing a stake every 25 foot.
2. Establish quadrants by tagging the rebar at each corer of the grid.
3. Set up quadrant 1 datum pt and pound it in.
4. Run tape line at pre-established angles and record.
5. Record finding along tape lines and about 10 feet on either side (depending on visibility) and put on data board.
6. Repeat for each quadrant.

101
Position Finding
Contributed By
Dennis C.E. Petty
6 April 1986

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

The responsibility of getting precise location data of a project will be that of the Chief-scientist. Also follow-
ing a proper grid pattern will be the responsibility of the Chief-scientist; in that he must assure the proper coordinates
for each pass are with in the tolerances of the planned procedure.
Accomplishing this task will be dine by balancing several different navigational techniques, to acquire the nec-
essary base information to design a project grid that is reliable. The first procedure is to set out at least four buoys on
the boundaries of the planned area to be worked. Taking Loran readings on at least one buoy (to be labeled buoy #1.)
and then two compass and radar in line shots on two known permanent navigational objects relative to buoy number
one. Radar ranges and bearings will be taken of the other buoys relative to buoy one (#1).
A grid reflecting proportional units will be designed so that entrance points to the operating grid can have radar
ranges and bearings relative to buoy one (#1) as a mainstay to the world location; but two other buoys will also be in-
volved in shooting precise angles in locating an entrance to the grid or a object of interest within the grid. Using this
method of three buoys (or two buoys and magnetic North) and three angles relative to each other will insure the abil-
ity to accurately relocate aspects of a project. All this is to be done with Loran bearings of latitude and longitude, ra-
dar ranges and a three arm compass that will fit on the radar's screen.

Data to be Collected
-Precise location of buoy one (#1) relative to known permanent navigational objects.
-Precise location of all other buoys relative to buoy one (#1). Including distance and bearings by radar.
-Designed grid used in the project.
-Names of all persons in each job and the times performing them.
-Any abnormalities seen. (estimated angle to two buoys, with buoy #1 being one of the buoy's sighted on, and the
grid line.)
-Visibility, depth and current information.
-Date and time of the project.

Data Gathering Equipment

-Radar, variable distance formatted.
-Loran navigation unit.
-Large plotting board, plastic film covered, and sliding parrell bar.
-Transparent plotting compass with three adjustable arms that will fit on the radar's screen.
-Log book with some blank pages for grid design and information transfer.
-Full set of plotting instruments for the plotting board.
- A good ship compass.
-At least four buoys with six foot (6') aluminum pipe mast, line and anchor.

Minimum Dive Team Description

This method does not involve diving.

Sources of Additional Information

-Lecture on prevenience in 4135 and 4135R classes.
-Lecture specifically on the H.M.S. Foey in 4135.
-Lecture on the survey in Byscane National Park, by the National Park Service.

102
Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Task
1. Equipment function check out at the shore base.
2. Once the boat is on station the desired spot two anchors will be let out, (fore and aft) the lines drawn taught and
secured.
3. Now Loran bearings will be taken and recorded on the big plotting board.
4. Radar ranges will be taken on at least two permanent navigational objects to give distances to the angle legs that
the three arm compass will give relating the boat to the navigational objects, and the third leg will be placed on the
ship's compass reading. All this data will be recorded and labeled buoy one (#1).
5. Now buoy #1 will be placed over the stem and as close to the stem of the boat as seas will allow.
6. Anchors will be brought in and the boat turned ninety degrees (90) to proceed to buoy #2's position. This will be
done by following the new compass heading or plotting the heading into the Loran unit and then watching the
compass for insurance.
7. By using the radar's range finding ability the distance can be determined fairly close to exact. Once on station the
same procedure for buoy #1 will be followed with the exception that one the angles that the adjustable arm compass
will be set on will be that of buoy #1.
8. Buoy two (2) will now be placed over the stem and the position by bearing and distance to buoy one will be
recorded. The boat will then make a ninety degree (90) turn and run in that heading until the preplanned distance to
buoy three is achieved, then a bearing will be taken relative to buoy one and two. Proof of proper position for buoy
three will be attained be trigonometric (see figure 3a) using data from the radar set-up. After proper positioning is
achieved buoy three will be placed over the stem. This procedure will be repeated for buoy four except that the buoy
will parallel to buoy three and one, making sure a ninety degree angle (90) exists between legs 3-4 and 4-1. Also
recorded will be the angles made by the three arm compass relative to the other three buoys.
9. After the buoys are set and recorded a grid must be designed relative too the size and needs of the project. While
a grid one meter is desirable it may not be practical or necessary. Once a grid is designed the decision to saturate
only portions on the design grid may prove a solution to an old problem: too much ground to cover in too little time.
10. In the case that only portions will be studied it would be necessary to plot angles trigonometrically relative to
three of the four buoys. Also radar ranges will provide the distances that will help to prove correct location within
the grid pattern.
11. All entrances will have a three way angle code related to a distance from the grid border (see figure 5a) to give
conformation that the approach is correct.

103
Sediment - Bioturbation Rate
Contributed By
James Grace
533 Bryan Street
Tallahassee, FL 32304
(904) 224-9532
3 April 1986

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

This is a method for measuring the rates and amounts at which newly deposited sediment is reworked by bio-
turbators. It should be located in a bay or lagoonal area which is currently depositing very fine sand, silt or clay.
Two divers could set up this experiment in one hour bottom time. Setting up would consist of placing a layer 10' by
10' square area of fine colored sand gridded every two feet Core samples taken every one to two days will be used
to determine the time it takes bioturbators to convert regular layered sediment into irregular layered sediment, mot-
tles or homogeneous sediment.

Data to be Collected
-Date and time of sampling.
-4 core samples from one square on the grid each time sampled.
-Examination of cores at the lab to determine the amount of movement sand has undergone, based on the amount of
mixing.

Data Gathering Equipment

-a ten foot measuring tape
-4 stakes to secure the square
-130 feet of line
-20 to 30 pounds of colored sand or fluorescing mineral sand
-soft sediment coring device (vibracore)
-one floating marker
-low powered microscope for examining the cores in the lab
-slate and pencil and a fine screen sieve

Minimum Dive Team Description

Two divers are needed to set up the experiment. One diver is needed to take cores and record location.

Sources of Additional Information

None given

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

1. Measure a 10' by 10' area and rope it off. Grid the area in increments of 2'. Secure a flotation buoy to make the
site visible from the surface.
2. Wait 24 to 48 hours to allow the biological activity to return too normal Using a fine screen sieve, evenly
distribute a layer of colored sand over the gridded area approximately 1/4 to 1/2 centimeter thick.
3. Return to the site every 2 days taking 4 core samples from one square marking the squares that have been cored.
4. The core samples should be taken to the lab and examined under a microscope closely noting the lateral and
vertical displacement of the sand.

104
Sediment - Sand Transport
Contributed By
Catherine M. Guinon
803 E. Park Avenue
Tallahassee, FL 32301
(904) 222-9291
12 April 1986

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

This is a method for determining the rate and direction of sand transport in a given
area. Its purpose is to record the erosion factors of the area for future reference.

Data to be Collected
-Location of study site - coordinates or Loran C.
-Rate at which sand is moving, based on date and time from initial placement.
-Direction of transport in degrees.
-Amount of sand deposited.
-Surface area covered by initial placement.

Data Gathering Equipment

(On Attachment Sheet include drawing.)
-Survey sled or Diver Tow device.
-KMB with communication
-Record slate
-Load of colored sand
-Measuring tapes
-Compass

Minimum Dive Team Description

-Sled operator
-Tender
-Boat operator
-Communications/data recorder

Sources of Additional Information

None given

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

1. Run initial survey of area to document existing environmental conditions.
2. Deposit sand at dump site and measure area covered.
3. Run survey along coast on the next day (depending on current rate, it may need to
be within a few hours).
4. Record sand transport distances and direction for deposit site and time.
5. Map in areas of deposition.
6. Repeat process at appropriate time intervals, continuing to also run the sled
survey further off the coast.

105
Sediment - Settlement Rate
Contributed By
Jim Grace
Florida State University
Tallahassee, Florida
April 1986

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

This is a method designed for measuring the rate at which sediments (mostly silts and clays) are deposited. It
consists of securing a sediment collecting tray calibrated in mm to the bottom and periodically checking the amount
of sediment that has accumulated.

Data to be Collected
-Date, time, depth, location and millimeters of sediments accumulated per unit of time.
-At termination of project, sediment sample is take from the collecting tray for later lab analysis.

Data Gathering Equipment

-Sediment collecting tray (old wash tub, sink, etc.) io-traq .d5
-Two rulers or measuring scales (mm) ,a JIrP '
-Piece of wood or wire to support the measuring sticks
-Concrete blocks or brick to secure the sediment tray
-Weight (concrete block) and marker buoy
-Pencil and slate

Minimum Dive Team Description LikA 7d)

-Two divers could easily preform all operations

Sources of Additional Information

None given gaic.rA .bloc(s

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

1. Find a suitable location. Somewhere in the bay away from heavy boat traffic and at least one meter below mean
low tide. Be sure to check and monitor compass heading on the way out or record Loran C readings to make
relocation easier.
2. Two divers carry down the collecting tray sinking it into the bottom until it is stable and making sure it is
horizontal. Secure the tray by placing bricks around the outside.
3. Secure a marker buoy so site can be found easily
4. Visit the site on a regular basis to measure the amount of sediment accumulation. Measurement is made by
observing the level of sediment deposit against the scale.

106
Stone Crab Reef Module - Current
Contributed By
Catherine M Guinon
803 E. Park Avenue
Tallahassee, FL 32301
(904) 222-9291
DATE: 8 April 1986

General Description of the Method & Its Purpose

This is a method for developing a modified version of a stone crab module. Its purpose is to study the vari-
ables of current on the individual module and how this variable effects the stone crab.

Data to be Collected
Orientation of module
Direction of current
Hole in which crab is habituating
Size of crab
Sex of crab
Date and time filled in with
Water depth and temperature concrete
Location coordinated of test site

Data Gathering Equipment

(On Attachment Sheet include drawing.)
Stone crab module
Current meter concrete fill
Compass for support & weight
Data Slate
Ruler

Minimum Dive Team Description

Current and direction recorder
Crab data recorder
Surface support

Sources of Additional Information

None given

Outline of Dive Procedure in Sequence by Tasks

(after modules have been deployed).
1. Find pre-recorded drop sight.
2. Dive on modules and record their orientation on a grid slate.
3. Record current direction to and velocity.
4. Measure carapace of each crab.
5. Record which hole the crab inhabited, with respect to direction.
6. Record sex of crab.
7. Record process for each individual module.
107
~t~a~
~
Appendix A

For more information on scientific diving write to:

American Academy of Underwater Sciences
947 Newhall Street
Costa Mesa, California 92627

For a copy of "Scientific Diving: a general code of practice", a book published by the
Florida Sea Grant College Program, write to:
Florida Sea Grant College Program
Building 803
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32611

109
 ~

Cg~,·,~~~
Appendix B

111
 )r`

'c~)~S3rtrlr
REEF RESEARCH TEAM Name
TIME AND EXPENSE LO G Time Period thru

DATE/ PROJECT ACTUAL EXPENSES

PERSONAL
Boat
at e
ther
DIVE LOG Description Wunteer Travel
Hours Boat
Hours Odometer
STOP/START Meals,
Lodging Gs
Ga
Bo Oth
SO_____Description______Hours

S Dive
O Other
# Site Desig.
/ Dive
O Other
# Site Desig.
/ Dive
O Other
# Site Deslg.
S Dive
0 Other
# Site Desig.
/ Dive
o Other
#f Site Desig.
S Dive
O Other
# Site Desig.
S DDive
D Other
f# 0 eSite Desig.
0 Dive
D Other
# Site Desig.
/ Dive
O Other
# Site Desig.
/ Dive
0 Other
# Site Desig.
S Dive
O Other
# __ Site Desig.
/ 0 Dive
-I.- 0 Other --- Sitee ig.--------------------------- ---------------
# Site Desig.
/ Dive
0 Other
# SSite Desig.
S Doive
O Other
# Site Desig.
0 Dive
0 Other
# Site Desig.
0 Dive
0 Other
f# Site Desig.
S Dive
/ Other
f# 0thSite Desig.
/ DDive
0 Other
f# Site Desig.

TOTALS
-3 -0-1991 ART MB &BD
113
SCUBANAUTS NOT FOR PROFIT, INC. Project
REEF RESEARCH TEAM Date Dive No.--
Project Leader_
DIVE L Boat Name_

DIVERS: (author) Team Role

(buddy) Team Role

DIVE: . Time IN OUT_ Bottom Max. Depth Safety Stop_ ft

Site Designator: Placement Name:

PURPOSE: 0 Photo O Map 0 Sediment O Survey O Fish Counting D Other

TERRAIN: 0 Ledge D Culverts 0 Wreck, _ Other

TEMPERATURE CURRENT VISIBILITY

Air * Surface _ Bottom _ (TOWARD) - ft
Thermocllne * at depth (ft.) 0 Slight D Moderate 0 Strong
O NIII 0 Measured O Estimaed

AUTHOR'S NOTES BUDDY'S NOTES

ADDITIONAL DATA ON REVERSE

114
 300'

27 --

240'

210'

1870

15 - -

127

90'

60' - -

30 -

^DhtOD
' 5L^f

Q STACtK< 0'
STO__
115
SCUBANAUTS NOT FOR PROFIT, INC. Project
REEF RESEARCH TEAM Date Dive No.

WATER QUALITY Project Leader

P I G N
Boat Name_ _L
_E _

DIVERS: (author) Team Role

(buddy) Team Role

DIVE: Time IN_ OUT_ Bottom_ Max. Depth Safety Stop ft

Site Designator: Placement Name:

PURPOSE: O Photo 0 Map 0 Sediment 0 Survey O Fish Counting 0 Other

TERRAIN: O Ledge O Culverts O Wreck, _ Other

I. Water Sample Thermometer No. III. Salinity

A. Fifteen (15) feet below surface OF O Refractrometer
B. Three (3) feet above bottom *F O Hydrometer Surface Sample Bottom Sample

C. Thermocline Specific gravity

Depth - to - Temp - F Temperature of sample* _ F *F
Time of Day 'Temperature recorded Ifusing a hydrometer

IV. Visibility Diver 1 Diver 2

White/Black White'Black
II. Current
Direction to: A. Distance in feet from secchi
Speed ft./sec. B. 1800 d. in feet from secchi

Calculated: (1 white
white hite) + (1 black + 2 black)
= Reported vis. ft
4

AUTHOR'S NOTES BUDDY'S NOTES

Rvy.33l 1991 RRBMS&B

116
 DIVE LOG & DATA SHEET

EXACT LOCATION & PURPOSE: DATE:

OBSERVATIONS

NAME(S)

PLAN ENTRY TIME

SURFACE INTERVAL

NEW REPET. GROUP

INTENDED MAX. DEPTH

RES. N2 TIME(RNT)

PLAN BOT. TIME

SB. TIME END DIVE

A. TIME BEGIN DIVE

IN WATER TIME(B-A)

PHYSIOLOGICAL
BOT. TIME (+RNT)
ACTUAL MAX. DEPTH

REPET. GROUP

DECOMPRESS STOPS

117
 UNDERWATER'COMPASS SKILLS TRAINING

TRIAL
NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

START
TIME

START
PRESSURE

HEADING

ARRIVAL
TIME

ARRIVAL
PRESSURE

POINT OF
ARRIVAL

# OF RIGHT
LEG STROKES

SWIM
TIME

SWIM RATE
METERS/SEC.

PRESSURE
CHANGE
PRESSURE
RATE
LBS/MIN.
DEVIATION
FROM TARGET
(+ OR -)

METERS7
LEG STROKE

118
Appendix C

119
 ~
~isJI~
cg~,l,~SIrl!
$ ~S(D
~ C"o

(D

121

I 01>C\
0~

Cf)

(D

~~ r-

Ns,,

121
3ct,
Appendix D

Nitty-Gritty Sand Facts

Sand size:
GRAVEL---------------------above 2mm
SAND------------------------0.05 - 2mm
SILT--- --------------------- 0.004 - 0.05mm
CLAY ----------------------less than 0.004mm
Sand shape:
Angular:
The result of mechanical (physical) action.
Rounded:
The result of water and/or chemical action.
Causes of shape:
Water.
Rocks worn down by the force of the water against them.
Chemical:
1. The slow dissolving of certain rocks such as coquina and limestone which react with the normally
slightly acidic rain.
2. The more rapid destruction of rocks which occurs in acid rain conditions and/or industrial pollutant
environments.
Wind:
500 - 1,000 times more effective in wearing down rocks and sand than is water.
Abrasion:
The action and movement of rock and sand grains tumbling and crushing against each other.
Color and content:
QUARTZ----------------clear or glassy grains
FELDSPARS-------------milky grains, many colors
MICAS-----------------flakes, shiny, not rounded;
Muscovite-------white mica
Biotite--------black mica
HORNEBLENDE-------dark minerals
SHELLS, BROKEN------milky or light tinted pieces
Origin of Florida East Coast sand:
Virginia and the Carolinas. 500,000 cubic yards a year are transported by wave and
current action from the above states and into our area.
Loss of sand grain size (water action and abrasion):
0.02% weight/100 miles/in water/per, medium grain
Moh Hardness Scale:
1. talc 4. fluorite 7. quartz
2. gypsum 5. apatite 8. topaz
3. calcite 6. feldspar 9. corundum
10. diamond
(a fingernail = #2 hardness, a penny = #3, a pocket-knife = #5 1/2)

123
 Ir`
~t~ar~
`1~~-r~ ---- - -
Appendix E

125
C~,''~S Ilr L
 Nov85 85-23

NCL
NE L Determine Seafloor Soil Properties
With Diver Operated Geotechnical Tools
Techdata Sheet

This Techdata Sheet is primarily directed to ocean engineers who

are tasked with determiningthe geotechnicalpropertiesof seafloor
soils. It reports the development and stocking of six new diver
operated tools: an Impact Corer, a Miniature StandardPenetration
Test tool, a Vane Shear device, a Rock Classifier,a Jet Probe, and
a Vacuum Corer.

A set of six geotechnical diver tools has engineers for site selection; calculating object
been developed to provide military divers embedment depths and breakout forces;
with the capability to gather marine geotech- designing anchoring systems and calculating
nical (seafloor soil) data. Up to now,. ivers anchor holding capacities; designing founda-
have had to use makeshift methods to try to tions for structures in the marine environment
gather information on seafloor soils. The data such as piers, sewer outfalls, pipelines, and
that can be gathered with this new set of various other structures; and the design of any
tools can be used by military divers and device that will interact with the seafloor.

NAVAL CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY PORT HUENEME CALIFORNIA 93043

Approved for public relese; distribution unlimited.

127
 The set of geotechnical diver tools is a The kits contain spare and repair parts,
self-contained system consisting of the support equipment, and an operation and
following six tools packaged in four kit maintenance manual. Only gasoline (fuel for
boxes: the jet probe/vacuum corer pump) and a
source of fresh water for after use tool
cleanup are needed at the site. Two complete
Box 1: impact corer kit sets of the geotechnical diver tools are avail-
(265 Ib, 16 ft3 ) able for check-out from the Ocean Construc-
Box 2: MSPT (Miniature Standard tion Equipment Inventory (OCEI) maintained
Penetration Test) tool kit by Chesapeake Division of NAVFAC.
vane shear tool kit The geotechnical diver tools are designed
(146 lb, 11.3 ft 3 ) to be hand-operated by divers wearing wet-
Box 3: rock classifier kit suits and three-fingered wetsuit gloves. The
(147 Ib, 11.3 ft 3 ) tools can be operated from a beach, pier, or
Box 4: jet probe kit diving support craft. The tools are con-
vacuum corer kit structed of materials that are compatible with
(450 lb, 32 ft 3 ) the seawater environment and they can be
operated in water depths from 0 to 130 feet
and water temperatures from 28 to 90 0 F.
These kit boxes can be transported by mili-
tary or commerical aircraft, truck, or ship. Each tool is briefly described below.

IMPACT CORER - This tool takes a soil sample (core) up to

30 inches long and 1.5 inches in diameter in a clear Lexan impact
plastic core tube. This core tube is supported by a frame hammer
which also contains a built-in impact hammer to drive the head
core tube into the soil. This corer has a piston in the core head nut -
tube designed to stay at the seafloor surface and create a ' ;'
suction in the tube to help retrieve a relatively undisturbed re-tub guide frame
soil sample. The core is sealed in the core tube and can be
shipped to a geotechnical laboratory for testing. The tool is pi-sto (isde
47 inches long and weighs 16 pounds in seawater. core tube)

MSPT (Miniature Standard Penetration Test) - This tool

takes in-situ geotechnical data in cohesionless soils (sands). handle
The tool consists of a shaft with a cone tip at the bottom and hammer
guide
a hammer on a guide shaft on the top. The cone tip is set on shaft
the seafloor and the hammer raised to the top of the guide hammer
shaft. The hammer is then allowed torree-fall. The number drive had
of such hammer blows per 3-inch increment of penetration is
counted. The hammer blow counts can be related to relative core
shaft 4
density. Data can be taken to a depth of 30 inches. The tool sh 3.
is 39 inches long (stored), 68 inches long extended, and t
cone
weighs 14 pounds in seawater.

128
 VANE SHEAR - This tool takes in-situ data in cohesive '
(day-like) soils. The tool consists of three sizes of vanes
attached to 30-inch shafts and a torque wrench that attaches =
to the top of the vane shafts. The torque wrench is used to torque wrench
rotate the vane in the soil until the soil fails in shear. The -T socket
torque (in.-Ib) required to cause this failure is measured -i-
and converted to vane shear strength (psi) through an equa- -vane shaft
tion. Data can be taken to a depth of 30 inches. The tool is
34 inches long and weighs 10 pounds in seawater. vane--

ROCK CLASSIFIER - This tool produces data on the underwater

surficial strength of rock. The tool is a standard rock classi- housing
fier used on land that has been fitted into an underwater
housing. The rock classifier works by pressing a plunger scale
against the rock surface; an internal hammer strikes and • / rock classifier
rebounds from the plunger. A rebound number is read off the
classifier's scale and is related to axial compressive strength plungerho
and the tangent modulus of the rock through charts. The tool housing
head
is 19 inches long and weighs 3 pounds in seawater.

on/off
JET PROBE - This tool is used to determine sediment vve water hose
thickness by probing the seafloor to locate bedrock or other
hard layers. It can also be used to verify subbottom profiler I
data. The tool consists of a 10-foot length of pipe with an L Lwater pump
on/off valve attached to a waterpump by 150 feet of water-
hose. The tool is 11 feet long and weighs 15 pounds in _jet probe
seawater. The waterpump weighs 43 pounds. - 10 ft pipe intake

VACUUM CORER - This tool takes an 8-foot core, "

1.5 inches in diameter, that is fairly disturbed (due to the waterhose
effect of the vacuum). The tool consists of an 8-foot clear
Lexan plastic core tube and corer head attached to an~duic- - water pump
tor by a vacuum hose. Water is pumped through the eductor i
to create a suction in the vacuum hose and core tube. Theint
vacuum helps the core tube penetrate the seafloor and allows corer head with
divers to take an 8-foot core. The core can be sealed in the eductor- control valves
core tube and sent to a geotechnical laboratory for analysis.
The type of analysis that can be done is limited by the
amount of disturbance. The tool is 9 feet long and weighs -8 ftcoretube
18 pounds in seawater.

129
/
Appendix F

131
)r` I))

;1= 1111111111111111
--L
 FLORIDA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE

Marine Advisory Program

A FLORIDA SEA GRANT PUBLICATION AUGUST 1979 MAFS-20

ARTIFICIAL REEF SITE

SELECTION AND EVALUATION
By: Heyward Mathews*

INTRODUCTION

One of the most exciting marine fishery manage-

ment tools in the last few decades is the artificial
reef. When properly built in optimum locations, |
these reefs can create an oasis of fish on what was
formerly a biologicaldesert.
In recent years coastal communities around the
country have started artificialreef building projects.
Unfortunately, some of these projects were failures -
or did not realize their full fish habitat potentialdue
to improper site selection at the beginning of the
project. With proper'site selection an artificial reef
can last indefinitely. Improperly sited it may last
less than six months.

PHYSICAL LOCATION

One of the main reasons for building an artificial In locating an artificial reef directly offshore
reef is to attract food and game fish to a location from the channel or inlet, care must be taken to
easily accessible to fishermen and sport divers, avoid interference with navigation. If the area is
With this in mind, planners should find a site that frequented by large ocean-going vessels, there is the
is easily located, with a minimum of travel time hazard of small boat anglers being run down by a
and fuel consumption. large ship during fog or on a dark night. Such a
Wherever possible, a reef should be located location requires a lighted buoy greatly increasing
directly offshore from the channel or inlet where the original cost and maintenance. Once the reef is
most fishermen will be departing. Many anglers constructed it probably will have many small boats
utilizing an artificial reef will have small inexpen- anchored over it both day and night.
sive compasses, seldom corrected or even checked. Another important consideration is the com-
For this type of angler, a compass course such as mercial fishing activity in the area. It is best to
147* or 2190 will decrease the likelihood of his avoid an area used for purse seining, drift netting,
finding the reef if it is more than a few miles or trawling to avoid conflict with commercial
offshore. A reef that is due south, east, or west fishing interests and possible net damage. In most
from a sea buoy is usually best. However, a bearing areas the local commercial fishing interests will
like southwest or other major compass point is still cooperate and point out which areas they do not
much easier for small boaters than some odd fish. Many areas will already have some existing ob-
number. structions that prevent net use anyway, and such

*Professor of Oceanography, St. Petersburg Junior College

133
obstruction areas make ideal reef locations (assum- begin to "drag" the bottom at a depth of approx-
ing the substrate is firm). imately ten meters. This not only stirs up the
A final consideration is to avoid areas with bottom sediment around the reef but can actually
strong tidal currents. A tidal current will cause shift low density reef materials about and even
erosion along alternate sides of the reef. This can move them off the reef site entirely. Several
cause reef materials to slowly work down into the artificial reefs have been built, only to discover a
substrate. A constant current from the same year later that the entire reef was scattered out of
direction is usually not a serious problem. Since the original drop site and, in one case part of the
many of the benthic invertebrates on an artificial reef ended up on a public beach. This type of
reef are filter feeders, a reef with its long axis failure could seriously hamper future reef building
running at right angles to the prevailing current projects in a given area and elsewhere.
would be more productive. Early in the project, planners should determine
the average wave length for a range of storm waves,
and some estimate should be made of what length
DEPTH VS DISTANCE OFFSHORE waves probably would occur during a ten year
storm cycle. This information can be obtained
A very important consideration in reef site from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
selection is water depth. In coastal areas water Administration (NOAA) hydrographic offices. If
depth is normally a function of the distance the average wave length in such a storm is 50
offshore. Therefore, water depth and distance meters, high density reef materials such as concrete
offshore must be considered together. and steel hulls should be used since the reef would
As a general rule, a shallow water reef in depths be only 25 meters deep or less.
of 10 to 15 meters* will not attract the large With high density reef materials, the wave
benthic species common to reefs in 20 to 40 energy problem is not as serious, and in most
meter depths. Shallow reefs will often support a coastal areas, depths as shallow as ten meters are
larger total fish biomass, but most anglers are more safe. An exception might be some exposed Pacific
interested in catching a single ten pound fish than coastal areas like in California or Hawaii.
ten one pounders. Auto bodies would normally be considered low
An ideal site is one with 30 to 40 meter depths density reef materials because the major portion of
only a few miles offshore from the inlet or harbor. the car body is very thin metal. The auto frame
However, in areas with a wide continental shelf, 30 itself is high density, but tends to separate from
to 40 meters of depth is seldom found less than 75 the body sections after a few years in sea water.
to 100 miles offshore. For that reason, some type P.V.C. tubing used in structures such as the
of compromise between depth and distance off- "Prentiss" reef is also considered low density
shore is required. This is best solved by building material as well as automobile tires and wooden
several reefs to accommodate different user groups. hulls. One way to utilize a variety of reef materials
Deeper reefs farther offshore provide larger indivi- is to build several reefs at varying depths simul-
dual fish for larger boats. Shallower reefs closer to taneously. On the deeper water reef (30-40 meters)
shore attract smaller fish for smaller boats. Wher- use low density materials like auto tires, and on
ever possible the small boat reef should be in sight shallower reefs use high density materials like
of land. culvert and concrete rubble.
The depth of the reef site is also important in
the choice of reef building materials. In this
respect, however, the average wave energy as SUBSTRATE
a function of water depth is of primary impor-
tance. Once the above factors have been considered the
In the open ocean a wave travels free of the next step is to go out to the selected area and make
bottom when the depth of the water is greater than an underwater survey of the bottom. A diver/biol-
one half the wave length. Once a wave enters water ogist can make a general biological assessment of
less than %hthe wave length it begins to interact the benthic communities present, but if a biologist
with the bottom and any structure on the bottom. is not available, then an experienced diver would
For example, a wave with a 20 meter length will be the next best choice.
The types of substrate to avoid are mainly soft
sediments (clay or silt size particles) and bottoms
*1meter = 39.37 inches or 3.208 feet that are already biologically productive.

134
 To determine the bearing capacity of the bot- EXACT LOCATION
tom a diver should probe the substrate either by
hand or with a metal rod. As a general rule, a Once a suitable reef site has been selected it is
suitable bottom is one where the hand will not vital that the spot be precisely fixed. All the
push down into the bottom past the wrist in a careful steps in site selection can be totally negated
single push. If the hand penetrates beyond the by being a few hundred yards off when actual
wrist (with fingers extended) the bottom is proba- construction begins. In most states the necessary
ably too soft and will result in much of your reef construction permits must show the exact location,
effectiveness being lost soon after construction. In as do permits from the U. S. Army Corps of
one case off the Florida east coast, a group buila Engineers and Coast Guard.
reef in such a soft substrate that one year later no Time and distance runs from a known location
trace of the materials remained about the bottom, are never accurate enough for reef site selection,
In most areas the bottom will be fairly firm for nor are Loran A coordinates. If the reef site is
long distances with only an occasional soft spot. within site of land with prominent landmarks, then
In other locations one may spend several days horizontal sextant angles will give enough accuracy
locating a suitably firm bottom, for site location. If the site is farther offshore, then
The idea of selecting a site without existing Loran C is the only alternative. The same Loran C
productive benthic communities may seem strange set should be used for the original site selection
d v es a n d t h e a c t u a l buoy placement prior to the
It would seem logical to try to improve on a
productive area. However, while an artificial reef first drop.
can provide more niches and habitat than a natural
reef, the improvement will not be that significant
in most locations. If a bottom area is already REEF PERMITTING
productive, then leave it alone, and select a barren
sand or shell bottom where the improvement and Permission must be received from both the U.S.
additional habitat will add to the existing situation. Army Corps of Engineers and the appropriate state
A grass bed or rock outcrop already provides permitting agency to construct a marine reef.
habitat, while a barren sand bottom has almost Regulations of each agency are available upon
none at all. So the .total habitat and, therefore, request.
the total fish biomass of a given bottom area can
be improved best by adding habitat where it does
not exist or is scarce, rather that slightly improving
an already productive location. INITIAL BIOLOICAL REPORT
In many areas there may be rock or hardpan
strata that will intersect the bottom surface at Most permitting agencies will expect a biological
given points offshore. Where this occurs, a good report on the reef site as a part of the original
practice is to move up slope from such an outcrop permit application. This report also provides a
and locate a site with 10 to 30 centimeters of sand good record of productivity of the site prior to reef
or shell over a rock foundation. This will assure construction for later comparison.
that reef materials can sink no more than a short The initial survey should include a list of both
distance into the bottom, and often the current invertebrates and fish species and some measure of
action around the reef materials will expose the abundance. If the above suggestions are followed,
rock itself, making additional habitat. the initial biological report should be simple
In one case of poor site selection in the Florida because the ideal reef site will have only a minimal
Keys, a tire reef was dropped on a grass bed plant and animal population prior to construction.
adjacent to a coral reef. The unsecured tires Once the reef is built, a series of fish counts
not only damaged the grass beds, but some shifted should be conducted to evaluate the reef's effec-
and began to batter down the coral heads, tiveness, and if personnel and funds are available,
Firm sand or sand/shell combinations are the primary production and invertebrate populations
most suitable substrates for high and low density should also be measured. If the reef is sited and
reef materials. Low density materials like car built properly, the "before" and "after" compari-
tires often only become relatively stable on the sons should be so impressive as to warrant addi-
bottom when they become imbedded in the sand. tional reef building projects.

135
 The State University System of Florida Sea Grant College Program is supported by award of the Office of Sea Grant,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, grant number04-8-M01-76 underprovi-
sions of the National Sea Grant College and Programs Act of 1966. This information is published in cooperation with the
Florida Cooperative Extension Service, John T. Woeste, dean, in conducting Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture,
Home Economics, and Marine Sciences, State of Florida, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Commerce,
and Boards of County Commissionerscooperating. Printedand distributedin furtheranceof the Acts of May 8 and June 14,
1914. The Florida Sea Grant College Program is an Equal Employment Opportunity-AffirmativeAction Employer authorized
to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without
regardto race, color,sex or nationalorigin.

Copies available from: Marine Advisory Program, G022 McCarty Hall

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611

This public document was promulgated at a cost of $22.05, or 4.4 cents per copy, to provide information concerning
artificial reef site selection and evaluation. Cost does not include postage and handling.

136
Appendix G

137
~4
 MAP-29

ARTIFICIAL
FISHING REEFS
Materials And Construction
Dr. Heyward Mathews

INTRODUCTION began in the late 1950's and early 1960's. Tires

once worn past the recapping point are readily
Artificial reefs, when sited and built correctly, available and generally can be obtained in large
have long been known to attract food and game quantities at no cost other than transportation and
fishes into areas easily accessible to fishermen. preparation. They are almost impervious to decay
The effectiveness of reefs, however, depends in sea water, so the life expectancy of a tire in sea
greatly on the site, the type of materials used, water is probably hundreds of years.
depth, configuration, and local oceanographic Scrap tires have been used in a wide variety of
conditions. In some instances, considerable amounts configurations throughout the country, but they
of time and money have been spent only to have have become probably the most troublesome of
the reef later destroyed or become less useful than reef materials. A car tire weighing some thirty
expected. pounds in air will often weigh only five to eight
The purpose of this publication is to survey the pounds in water. Consequently no matter how
more common types of artificial reef materials in many tires are put together in a bundle, the whole
use today and to discuss some of the advantages structure will still be very easily moved by wave
and disadvantages, surge or bottom currents. As a result, tire reefs
Artificial reefs can be divided into three general have caused some problems in Florida and on the
categories: 1) Bottom reefs; 2) Mid-water reefs; Pacific Coast when built where storm surges can
and 3) Surface attractors. dislodge the units.

Bottom Reefs

Artificial reefs built directly on the sea floor are

by far the most common type of reefs built in the
United States today. These reefs can be subdivided
into two main categories: low density and high
density materials.
Low density materials, have low mass to volume
ratio such as scrap tires; white goods, such as old
stoves and refrigerators; and car bodies. High
density materials include concrete, heavy fiberglass,
steel, and other dense materials that generally do
not need additional ballast to remain in place on
the sea floor.

Low Density Materials

Scrap Tires: The use of scrap car and-truck tires
for artificial reef building in this country probably Fig. 1 Tire Cutter

Florida Cooperative Extension September 1983

Marine Advisory Bulletin
139
 In addition, a single passenger car tire will trap low profile habitat which is not as effective as one
enough air to hold up to twenty-five pounds of with a higher, profile. To achieve maximum effec-
concrete if some type of vent is not cut into the tiveness, these units should be dropped as close to-
top. Venting of trapped air has been done by using gether as possible. The dropping vessel should be
a hole saw, chain saw, hydraulic or pneumatic anchored, or a float dropped, and all units dropped
punch, or by splitting the tire completely in half around the float. If possible, the vessel should be
with a tire cutter (Fig. 1). anchored fore and aft to avoid scattering the units.
Once all air is allowed to escape, the tires must This type is most stable when positioned on sand
then be bound to provide a profile up off the bottom so it can sink six to ten inches into the sub-
bottom as well as inside hiding places. Single tires strate.
produce very poor results. On a hard bottom,

of heavy bottom surge or strong currents.

One of the earliest and most common tire units
consists of three or four tires standing upright with
a reinforcing rod through the bottom and concrete
poured into the bottom to cover the rod completely
(Fig. 2).

Fig. 3 Ft. Pierce Tire-Concrete Unit

S1 DE FROM
An effective modification is one developed by
the Ft. Pierce Recreation Department, Ft. Pierce,
Florida. Twelve tires were positioned upright in a
" wooden form. Approximately one-half cubic yard
Sof concrete was poured around and inside the tires
to form a 3-by 9-foot concrete slab from which the
S \\tires project upward (Fig. 3). Individually, this unit
does not offer much advantage over the single four-
- -- tire unit, but it does lend itself well to multi-unit
- - structures. In depths of 50 feet or more, this type
of multi-unit appears to be rather effective. It
would probably not be very cost-effective, how-
Sever, if the concrete had to be purchased.
The cost of this particular unit was kept down
by placing the forms at a concrete plant and filling
them with leftover concrete from returning trucks.
Pinellas County, Florida, has obtained numerous
buoy sinkers in a similar way by placing a mold at
a concrete plant.
- Other multi-tire units have been used around the
country, some standing up three and four tires
high. These have had limited success in fresh water
lakes without long wave action but tend to fall
over in coastal waters and lose much of their effec-
tiveness. They are not very cost effective when the
Fig. 2 Typical 4-Tire Unit (Drawing: S. Thomas Moore) labor costs are added and have a limited life span
when reinforcing rods are used to hold the struc-
Two people can easily load it onto a barge or ture upright because the rods eventually rust and
similar vessel using a 4-foot section of 1-inch pipe the unit falls apart.
as a handle. This type of tire unit requires a consid- White Goods: Discarded stoves, refrigerators,
erable amount of time and labor as well as the cost bath tubs, commodes, washing machines, and
of the concrete and reinforcing rods. Also, since similar appliances, at first seem like good reef
these units do not pile up well, they offer only a materials because they are readily available in

140
moderate quantities and the porcelain does slow Additionally, fish tend not to go down into such a
down the destruction.by rusting in sea water. blind alley. Consequently, when culvert is dropped
The problem is, however, that stoves and refrig- from a barge, it should be released so it will land at
erators have large amounts of insulation that pro- an angle or horizontal. This is particularly a problem
vide air traps. If concrete ballast is used, then much with short sections of 48-inch and larger diameter
of the inside space is filled. White goods also pro- pipe.
vide rather limited hiding spaces for fish, even If the unloading vessel cannot be anchored fore
when the doors are removed, because fish will gen- and aft, then a marker buoy should be used to
erally avoid "dead-ends." At one time, it was insure the entire load is placed in a pile. Even a
thought that the encrusting organisms would small swing of the vessel at anchor will result in
establish a firm base that would remain even after considerable scatter and a drop in effectiveness. A
the metal rusted away. This may be true in tropical successful configuration built in Pinellas County,
areas where coral growth is very rapid, but even in consists of circular clusters 30 to 50 feet in diame-
south Florida, the entire profile is lost in two to ter spaced 50 to 70 feet apart. Culvert reefs are
four years when the thin metal deteriorates. Exper- permanent and require relatively limited amounts
ience has shown that white goods are not worth of labor; however, they do require heavy equip-
the labor involved in their collection, preparation, ment to load and unload.
and transportation to the site in terms of years of In Pinellas County, an artificial reef construction
use and fish habitat produced. Some states, like program has become a permanent municipal func-
Florida, have simply refused to permit white goods tion. New road construction bid specifications
for artificial reefs. require that all old culvert removed be made avail-
Car Bodies: Some of the first artificial reefs in able to the reef project. The contractor provides
the United States were made using old car bodies, the loading at the construction site, and county
Alabama and Florida once had several large car trucks transport the culvert to the waterside staging
body reefs that for some years were very effective area. In heavily urbanized areas where landfill
fish attractors. Unfortunately, the metal in these space is limited, construction companies are often
car bodies was thin and often already badly rusted willing to transport old culvert to a staging area
even before they were placed in the ocean. These free of charge. Concrete culvert is probably one of
reefs soon rusted away to small sections that sank the most effective reef materials in use throughout
into the substrate, often leaving no trace whatsoever Florida and elsewhere around the country.
after five to seven years. Bridge Rubble: One of the least expensive types
Recent changes in the pollution laws require of artificial reef material is concrete and steel
that prior to dumping, the rear ends, transmissions, rubble from bridges. This material is not always
and engines be de-greased. In addition, all seats and available but whenever a large bridge is slated for
headliners must be removed, so the labor cost soon removal high priority should be given to making a
becomes excessive. Also, car bodies have thinner reef from the rubble. Often building a reef from
metal than in the early 1960's, so modern car the old bridge is the most economical means of
bodies have an even shorter life span in sea water. disposal because it can be removed directly from
As with white goods, it has been proven that the the bridge site and dumped by barges in larger
idea that marine growth over the metal prolongs sections than would be possible with truck trans-
the life of car bodies is in error. Car body reefs are ported land disposal. As with culvert, the key is to
simply not cost effective and are very short lived, achieve a high profile by careful off-loading on the
reef site. When possible, it is advantageous to have
High Density Materials reef building personnel on board the vessel to
insure that the material is off-loaded in a way that
Concrete Culvert: The use of concrete culvert insures maximum profile. If the materials are
probably began in the mid and late 1960's. It can scattered on the bottom, then most of its effective-
be obtained in most urban areas where road con- ness as a fish habitat will be lost.
struction is common, and broken or chipped With concrete materials, this type of reef has an
sections of concrete pipe can often be obtained at infinite life span when built on an appropriate site.
no cost from manufacturing plants. It can be built off high energy shorelines, but
Concrete culvert has a very long life span in sea should not be combined with any breakwater or
water. So, if properly sited, a culvert reef will erosion control structures because the shallow
remain effective for several thousand years at least. depths required for erosion control are less than
For best results, the culvert should be piled up as optimum for fishing reefs. Steel bridge structures
high as possible, preferably 8 to 12 feet above the are also very effective as reefs but have a shorter
bottom. Often the effectiveness of culvert can be life span in sea water. The heavy steel used in
increased by placing a smaller diameter culvert bridges generally has a life span of twenty to thirty
inside a larger one. Care must be taken to avoid years, long enough to justify its transport cost in
placing solid culvert up on end; this will provide a most locations. Wooden bridge pilings, however,
stagnant water area that will collect only silt. are normally not recommended for reefs because

141
of their low density on the bottom and a tendency material appears to be stable in sea water and can
to shift during periods of heavy wave surge, probably be formed into a variety of structures;
however, the initial tests have been with solid
Pre-formed Designs: Several pre-formed concrete square and rectangular shapes (Woodhead, 1979).
reef structures have been used with some success This material offers some exciting possibilities for
around the country. Back in the mid-1960's, a the future because construction costs can be kept
common reef structure was the "Japanese Pill Box" down and a waste product recycled.
design. This structure was a copy of some early Fiberglass/Reinforced Plastic: This material has
designed units built in Japan and consisted of a been used extensively in Japan and was recently
concrete box 4 feet wide, 10 feet long, and 3 feet introduced into the United States by Aquabio, Inc.
high with large diameter holes in all sides (Fig. 4). Presently it is being evaluated by Aquabio, Inc.
under a grant from the National Marine Fisheries
Service.
- The fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) material
has the advantage of being impervious to sea water
': . and possesses very high strength. A variety of de-
Ssigns use this material. The most common is a series
, ..Cof " open weave cylinders stacked up in a pyramid
. ' -- ,'. structure four cylinders high (Fig. 5). The whole
- pyramid is fiberglassed together into a single unit
-.
' and then concrete is poured into the bottom
cylinder for ballast. Air bags are used to provide
flotation for the units during towing out to the site
where the air is released and the whole unit sinks
to its place on the sea floor. The "open space"
aspect of this unit makes it very effective as a fish
attractor and apparently will have an infinite life
span when sited correctly. Since it is presently only
Fig. 4 Japanese "Pill Box" Unit manufactured in Japan, it is not yet readily availa-
(Photo courtesy Dr. Dan Sheehy) Copyright - ble in Florida.
Aquabio Inc. 1981.

These units were not only rather expensive to

construct, but they also required careful handling
in both on-loading and off-loading at the reef site.
Since they were rectangular in shape, they could,
in theory, be stacked up to provide excellent pro-
file. In actual practice, however, this ideal configu-
ration was seldom achieved. Modem equivalents to
these custom built units can often be found at a
construction site as junction boxes for large diame-
ter culvert. Similar units have been used with pyra-
mid or dome shapes. At present prices for concrete
and labor, these units are expensive and probably
not cost-effective when compared with other
materials.
A six-pointed concrete unit, similar to a child's
jack, has been used off south Florida. However, this
unit was only effective when interlocked into some Fig. 5 Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Reef Unit
type of structure that extends some distance off (Photo courtesy Dr. Dan Sheehy) Copyright -
the sea floor. Actually placing these on the bottom Aquabio Inc. 1982.
into such a configuration requires careful planning
and specialized equipment. Discarded Fiberglass Structures: In Florida,
In Japan, where most of these designs originated, there are numerous boat building firms that
very large barges are used with enormous cranes construct fiberglass hulls. One part of this industry
capable of placing whole structures on the bottom involves large fiberglass molds to cast the hulls.
in one lift. When the hull design is changed, the old mold is
Mineral Waste Aggregates: This is a relatively disposed of, and can often be obtained free for reef
new type of reef material utilizing fly-ash from materials. These have been used very effectively in
coal fired power plants. Using a patented process, Pinellas County and, again, they should have a very
chemicals are mixed with the fly-ash to produce a long life span in sea water. Often these hull molds,
substance that hardens much like concrete. This and used or damaged fiberglass hulls, can be greatly

142
improved by cutting various size holes all along the structure should be left intact. If this is not possi-
structures while maintaining their overall strength, ble, then often a superstructure can be constructed
P.V.C. Reefs: The use of polyvinylchloride pipe using tires on chains extending up from the deck,
is not a new idea. In Destin, Florida, commercial much like the mid-water attractors discussed in the
fishermen collect scrap plastic pipe sections which next section.
they put together in the form of "Christmas trees" If the drop site has a strong current, tidal or
and set into concrete bases. These units can be otherwise, the hull should be oriented at right
easily transported by small boats, and, if they are angles to this current. This positioning allows the
arranged properly in water deep enough to avoid reef to provide some shelter for smaller fish in the
wave action, they can be very effective fish attrac- lee of the hull; and, since most of the fouling
tors. organisms are filter feeders, allows maximum expo-
Another design, the "Prentis Reef," has been sure to plankton drifting past the site.
patented but as yet, not adequately tested. It Sinking of hulls by explosives has, in the past,
involves a six-sided PVC junction in the 3-4 inch provided a spectacular show for the press and TV
diameter range from which a large "tinker toy" de- reporters and does have the advantage of opening
sign can be constructed above water and then placed up hulls below the water line. The disadvantage is
on the bottom. This "open space" design has that liberal use of explosives can often damage a
worked well in Japan, but so far, this particular hull structurally to the extent that it soon falls
unit has not been tested regarding its durability. A apart. Explosives should be used sparingly. If a hull
small PVC unit has been used off Destin, consisting can be opened up with cutting torches prior to
of a 6 to 10-foot tall "Christmas tree" of scrap sinking, it can be sunk by pumping or opening up
PVC pipe set in a 5 gallon bucket of cement. These the sea cocks.
units can be easily dropped from small boats and, Coast Guard regulations require all oil and other
if dropped close together in a cluster, can be very hydrocarbons be removed and inspected prior to
effective. They can, however, be easily damaged by the actual sinking. The hull should be anchored
boat anchors. securely at the site to prevent its moving during the
Ships and Barges: These are undoubtedly the sinking, which often takes longer than expected.
oldest type of artificial reef material and still very Oil Platforms: Oil companies have long adver-
effective and popular. Steel and fiberglass hulls are tised their offshore platforms as great fish attrac-
the most durable and effective, while wooden hulls tors, and they do attract fish because they have the
have a shortened life span and require more ballast "open space" aspect that the Japanese have long
to remain in place on the sea floor, ago proved to be best for most food and game fish
Surplus Liberty ships were once readily available species.
but that source appears to be nearing an end. Early These steel platforms will probably last thirty to
use of Liberty ships, however, were not all successes fifty years, but are rather large, so they must be
although these experiences contributed to better used in waters with depths in excess of 100 feet,
reefs later on. For example, the Florida Depart- which may exclude some areas of Florida's gulf
ment of Natural Resources (DNR) was in charge of coast. Once they have become obsolete, they must
sinking five Liberty ships in the mid 1970's. They be removed from the sea floor. The first of these
contracted with salvage firms to cut the hulls down was sunk in 170 feet of water off the Florida pan-
to 12 feet above the keel prior to sinking. The handle in September, 1982 (Fig. 6).
result was a "400+ foot long steel bathtub." Once
the ship hulls had collected sand, they resembled
low steel walls in a sea of bare sand. The fish
attraction effectiveness from these early sinkings is
minimal. Later in the 1970's, Florida DNR sank a
single Liberty ship with the hull intact and with
some holes cut in the sides for open space. While
this was not as effective as several Liberty ships
sunk by the Texas Game and Fish Commission, it
was a great improvement over those first failures.
Most fish species will not venture into a dark ...
closed compartment, particularly one with only a
single exit. For this reason, all ships and vessels
should be opened up prior to sinking. If possible,
all compartments should have as many holes cut as
possible without removing the structural strength
members to allow free movement of water and
light into the hull. The location of the stringers and
support beams will determine the size and shape of Fig. 6 Tenneco Oil Platform Offloading off Pensacola, FL.
such openings. Where possible, the entire super- (Phto ourY DrDan Sheehy)Copyright-

Aqua143o Inc. 1982.

143
Mid-Water Attractors The main purpose is to attract schools of
This type of artificial reef is a relatively new idea bait fish, mainly sardine-like fish, which in turn
pioneered along the Atlantic Coast by the South attract large numbers of pelagic fish. The original
Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Depart- design used off South Carolina was a series of
ment. passenger car tires suspended on a stainless steel
cable. A concrete anchor at the base of the string
held it in place, and a float at the other end held
the five-tire unit upright off the bottom (Fig.7).
22.2 Liter Steel These units were then placed approximately 50 to
Flotation Element- - - - 100 feet apart in a long line or "trolling alley"
(Fig. 8). Fishermen could then troll down the line
of attractors by lining up the two buoys at each
end of the line (Hammond, 1977).
Later modifications of this design used scrap
dragline cable obtained free from construction
contractors and crane companies. A car tire filled
with concrete makes an excellent anchor with a
ring or reinforcing bar loop protruding up from the
center. The use of a car tire for the mold of the
sinker allows it to be rolled up a plank onto the
deck of the barge or even a small boat. The cable is
Automobile Tires- - - - then clamped to the sinker and three to seven tires
are strung along the cable using holes cut in top
and bottom with a hole saw or knife. The float at
the top is a pair of old 20-pound freon bottles
obtained free of charge from air conditioning
contractors (they cannot be reused). These metal
containers, when painted, will last from 18 months
6.3mm Polypropylene_ _ - - . to two years in sea water. This is a deliberate "weak
Rope link" in the system to prevent the tires from ever
floating to the surface and becoming a navigation
hazard. Long before the cable rusts through, the
freon bottles will rust enough to let out the air and
sink to the bottom. Once on the bottom, the unit
becomes a benthic fish attractor. Relatively inex-
pensive to build, they can be replaced every two
years.
When used in a "trolling alley" these units have
had great success in offshore waters, particularly
for such species as mackerel, amberjack, cobia, bar-
racuda, and other pelagic species. The number of
6.3m Galvanized tires used and the length of the cable depends upon
6.3mm Galv ed the depths of water available. In general, they
Steel Coable should extend up off the bottom approximately
one-half the depth, if possible, without creating a
hazard to navigation.
Often ship hulls or other types of bottom reefs
can be greatly enhanced by addition of several
dozen mid-water units.
"Fish Aggregating Devices" (FADs): This type
of mid-water attractor is made of light-weight
Sstructures suspended up from the bottom on nylon
135 kg Concrete_ _ ropes. These devices have been successful in Japan
Anchor and are presently being tested in this country. Like
the mid-water units used off South Carolina, these
reefs attract large schools of bait fish; in turn,
pelagic fish feed on these large concentrations of
bait fish. FADs probably do not have the long life
Fig. 7 Tire Mid.water Reef (Hammond, 1977) spans of bottom reefs, but they are cheaper and
easier to deploy.

144
 Marker Marker
Flooa
Floar Mean Low Water Float

.0

. ..
.SA . A
.........................
..

BOTTOM .:'i.:i.'..
'.:'.
W t

(Hanmond, 1977)

LENGTH SCALE ---- DEPTH SCALE ---

*90 meters =13.5 meters

Fig. 8 Mid-water Trolling Alley

Surface Attractors bottom reefs, but have proven very effective in

In areas where the lack of a substantial conti- attracting bait fish and pelagic game and food fish
nental shelf limits the use of bottom and mid-water (Matsumoto, 1981).
reefs, surface aggregating devices have been used. One maintenance problem with surface attrac-
Hawaii has experimented with several types of tors is that they must have both lights and radar
these units. (Those pictured in Fig. 9 were devel- reflectors. They are also more vulnerable to storm
oped by the National Marine Fisheries Service.) damage. Florida waters generally have adequate
These units do not have the long life spans of most shelf areas so the surface attractors may prove

rVii

'*j ,1
"- 1 tot 2*

The aggregating
mad ol devices consisted of a /bu
buoy
buoy made
made of
of two
two 55-gal
55-gal oil drums which
which i
'.A I
battery pack, a radar reflector and light,
and a 45-ft long rope netting suspended
beneath the buoy. Later improvements

aisted of 50-ft chain lengths at the anchor

and buoy, a 1,200-lb concrete block
anchor, an anchor line of 5/8-inch poly- i / '
propylene rope, and sufficient weight at o \
the top third of the anchor line to keep
the line submerged at all times. . .
*IWUS COWCM
1ISt MT - -*
21C

Fish .ggregati.n derie·, MidtL II.

Fi.h agftFatin g dervie. adl IZ. (Ntsumoto, 1981)

Fig. 9

145
 more expensive to maintain and not as cost effec- channels and if well-marked. These shallow reefs
tive when compared with bottom and mid-water have less maintenance cost because they can be
reefs. marked with permanent concrete pilings rather
Inshore Reefs: Most artificial reefs in Florida than buoys that must be repaired and replaced
waters have been located offshore in areas accessi- every few years. Great care, however, must be used
ble only to medium and larger size pleasure craft. in site selection on these shallow water inshore
Inshore reefs to provide benthic fishing for small reefs to avoid disruption of existing estuarine
boat and pier fishermen have been constructed in communities.
several parts of Florida with limited success. Inshore
reefs attract smaller individual fish than an offshore
reef, and the total fish populations attracted to LITERATURE CITED
these shallow estuarine reefs do not equal those H nd, Dn ., . , n
offshore. Hammond, Donald L., Dewitt O. Myatt, and David
In areas where a large uerr group does not have M. Cupka. Evolution of Midwater Structuresas a
the type of boats necessary to venture offshore, PotentialTool i the Management of the Fish-
inshore reefs may provide an important addition eies Resources of South Carolina'sArtificial
to
to existing fishing resources. In Miami's Biscayne Fishing Reefs. South
Center Technical Carolina
Report NumberResources
Series Marine 15, Feb-
e n t er ca l R ep o r t e s N u m b er 1 5 F e b -
Bay, for example, a fishing pier was constructed
and then an artificial reef of old culvert was added u 1 .
around the end of the pier. Due to poor site selec- Matsumoto, Walter M., Thomas K. Kazama, and
tion, this particular project was not a great success; Donald C. Aasted. Anchored Fish Aggregating
but, if done properly, this can be an effective way Devices in Hawaiian Waters. Marine Fisheries
to return some limited fish habitats to an estuary Review, Vol. 43, #9, September 1981, pp. 1-13.
already damaged by dredge and fill activity.
Due to the lack of wave surge, car tires can often Woodhead, Peter M.J., Iver W. Duedull and Neal F.
be utilized in these inshore reefs if adequate ballast Lansing. Coal Waste Artificial Reef Program.
is used. These reefs can be built in waters as Phase I. Project #1341-1 Interim Report, Elec-
shallow as 5 to 7 feet when not adjacent to boat tric Power Research Institute, November 1979.

Dr. Heyward Mathews is a Professor of Oceanography, St. Petersburg Junior College, Clearwater, FL

Project No. M/PM-2

SES4
Grant No. NA80AA-D-00038 6 _i

Copies yvalable at:

Sea Grat Marine Advisory Program
G022 McCarty Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL 32611

The State University System of Florida Sea Grant College is supported by award of the Office of See Grant. National Oceanic endAtmospheric
Administration, U. S Department of Commerce, grant number NA80AA-D-00038, under provisions of the National Sea Grant Collge and
Programs Act of 1966. This information is published by the Marine Advisory Program which functions as a component of the Florida Coopera-
tive Extension Service, John T. Woeste, dean, in conducting Cooperative Extension work In Agriculture. Home Economics, and Marine Sci-
ences, State of Florida, U. S. Department of Agriculture, U. S. Department of Commerce, and Boards of County Commissioners, cooperating.
Printed and distributed In furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 14, 1914. The Florida Sea Grant College is an Equal Employ-
ment Opportunity-Affirmative Action employer authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals
and Institutions that function without regardto race, color, sex, or national origin.

This public document is promulgated at a cost of $560.75, or 22.4 cents per copy, to provide informa-
tion on the materials and construction of artificial reefs. Cost does not include postage or handling.

146
Appendix H

147
)r`

~
2-
;1rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr
 SGEB-4
FLORIDA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE

SEA GRANT EXTENSION PROGRAM S

A FLORIDA SEA GRANT PUBLICATION October 1984

ARTIFICIAL REEFS:
Permit Application Guidelines
By: Dr. Heyward Mathews

INTRODUCTION (2) Shallow Reefs: There is actually no set mini-

mum depth for an artificial reef, but the general
Back in 1977, the artificial reef permitting rule has been to allow reefs to extend up to depths
process in Florida was still quite complicated, but a equal to shoals or reefs found in the area. For
comprehensive conference on Florida reefs was example, if a coastline has shoals that project up to
held June 10-11, 1977, at which time this problem within 20 feet of the surface in an area, then the
was addressed. Organized by Florida Sea Grant, artificial reef could be allowed with only a 20-foot
every major agency, academic and private group clearance over the top. In general, the U.S. Army
having any interest in, or responsibility for admin- Corps of Engineers would prefer a minimum clear-
istering artificial reefs, were involved. Following ance of 55 feet over the top of artificial reefs in
this Conference, a single inter-agency permitting most Florida waters. However, the location and
process was established. This publication is written type of reef is the determining factor. More or less
to aid those interested in obtaining the forms and clearance may be required depending on water
following the proper procedures to secure such a depth and the type of reef being constructed.
permit. (3) Unstable Materials: Unfortunately, car tires
and car bodies have created some problems along
Site Selection high energy coastlines and, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers has stopped permitting tire reefs alto-
The first, and probably most important, step in gether. Also, the use of wooden vessels, or other
any artificial reef building project is selecting a structures containing wood, is discouraged because
suitable site (see Florida Sea Grant publication, of eventual navigation hazards and beach littering
MAFS-20, Artificial Reefs: Site Selection and Eval- caused by distintegration due to decomposition
uation). Factors to consider include the location, and storms.
the reef material to be used, local oceanographic
conditions, and expected user groups. Because of (4) Commercial Fishing Conflicts: All U.S.
these special considerations, any person or group Army Corps permits provide a period of not less
interested in building an artificial reef is required than 21 days for interested parties to comment on
to obtain a permit from the U.S. Army Corps of a new reef site. If the site selected causes a serious
Engineers and the Florida Department of Environ- conflict with commercial fishing interests, the per-
mental Regulation (DER). (See Appendices C & D mit could be denied or held up by lengthy public
for locations). hearings. In most instances, this can be avoided by
proper site selection prior to filing the permit
Guidelines toward expediting the permitting application.
process include attention to the following details:
Biological Reports - Initial Site Survey
(1) Navigation Channels and Fairways: Artificial
reefs should not be located in or adjacent to navi- The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers regulations
gation channels. Reefs in these areas could create a does not actually require but highly recommends a
hazard and cause conflicts between shipping inter- biological and/or bottom survey report as a part of
ests and fishermen anchored on a reef. the permit application. However, if a biological

149
report is not included with the application, a delay Florida Department of Environmental Regulation.
in permitting may result because governmental A list of these offices appears as Appendices C & D.
agencies may desire additional information before
making recommendations. In most districts of Although the State of Florida has no jurisdiction
Florida, the Florida Department of Environmental beyond three nautical miles offshore along the
Regulation (DER) does not have diver-biologists Atlantic coast or 9 1 miles (3 leagues) into the Gulf
available to make site studies, but the Florida Sea of Mexico, an application is still required and must
Grant Artificial Reef Resource Team has provided be completed and processed. The main part of the
such reports upon request through the Marine application is relatively simple to complete; how-
Advisory Program agents. The Corps does not ever, the drawings that must accompany the appli-
perform diving to obtain this information, cation often cause some problems and delays.

Two biological reports are included as Appendix The first drawing, using a U.S. Coast and Geo-
A and Appendix B. Appendix A is a typical report detic Survey map, must show the location of the
for a new application, while Appendix B is a report artificial reef site. Normally an 8 1 x 11 inch copy
for an existing artificial reef that needs rehabilita- of the portion of the coast involved is adequate.
tion for which the permit has expired. An existing The map scale should include the shoreline and
permitted artificial reef can be renourished under several fixed reference points on land (Appendix
the authority of a nationwide permit. E), and the distance to the nearest shoreline should
be included so state jurisdiction can be determined
In preparing these reports, the exact location is at a glance. In addition, two position lines to the
of prime importance. If out of sight of land, the site from fixed landmarks showing the bearing and
site should be fixed by two Loran C readings the distance in nautical miles are also required.
plotted on a current U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey Loran C readings at the reef site center must also
chart; and the latitude and longitude should be be included on the drawing.
carefully determined and placed at the top of the
Biological Report-Site Survey. A drawing showing A second, cross-section drawing, should show
two lines of position from fixed shore sites should the distance from the surface to the bottom at
be prepared for the permit application also. mean low water, and the maximum height that the
reef will extend up from the bottom. This same
The bottom survey states the type and composi- drawing should show a typical buoy chain and
tion of the bottom substrate, while the biological sinker if the site is to have a buoy. Although buoys
report-site survey discusses the existing marine are not required by the Army Corps, the U.S.
communities on the site. If the site is a new one, Coast Guard may require some types of reefs to
no significant benthic plant or animal communities have buoys. Consequently, it is a good idea to con-
should exist on the bottom, and this should be tact the Coast Guard prior to final selection of a
noted. If the site is an existing reef, then a brief site to determine what buoys, if any, will be
summary of the dominant species should be in- required.
cluded as well as a description of its condition and,
if possible, some estimate of its remaining effective In some locations a lighted buoy may be called
life span. for, and the expense and maintenance of such a
Finally, the report should conclude with a state- buoy may exceed the budget of a small project. In
ment declaring the site suitable for artificial reef this case, a site change might be in order. Generally,
construction of the type planned. However, if the however, lighted buoys are only required on a site
diver doing the biological report finds any condi- close to major shipping lanes where a reef could
tions that would restrict the use of the site, these possibly become a hazard. In selecting a site, these
should be stated. It is the responsibility of the biol- areas should be avoided whenever possible.
ogist doing the report to consider all the above
factors or face the possibility of being responsible, Completed Application
at least partially, if the site later proves to be
unsuitable. Once completed, the application should be sent
to the Florida Department of Environmental Regu-
Joint U.S. Army Corps and Florida D.E.R. Appli- lation in your area along with the required fee. A
cation Form diagram showing the locations of these offices, and
the counties served, appears in Appendix D. The
For artificial reef permits, the Joint Permit Ap- DER then sends a copy of the application to the
plication for Dredge and Fill Structures is used. Corps in order that the application processing can
This form. can be obtained at regional field offices occur concurrently.
of either the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers or the

150
 APPENDIX A

BIOLOGICAL REPORT - TAYLOR COUNTY ARTIFICIAL REEF SITE #3

Prepared by: Dr. Heyward Mathews*

Loran C. Coordinates: 14449.8 Longitude: 290 43' 5"

(Center of site) 46152.0 Latitude: 830 51' 3"

This artificial reef site is located approximately 18 miles off Taylor

County midway between Steinhatchee and Keyton Beach in some 35 feet of water
at low tide. The bottom is a firm sand substrate with limestone just under
the surface.

There are no marine grasses or benthic algae on this site, nor are
there any "hard bottom communities" in the actual site. However, hard bottom
communities are located approximately 1/2 to 1 mile inshore from this site.
Several starfish in the genus, Echinaster, and several black urchins, Arbacia
punctulata, were observed along the bottom. No fish were seen during this
cold water survey dive.

This firm substrate bottom will make an excellent artificial reef site
for high density reef materials such as concrete culvert, steel and fiberglass
hulls, and bridge rubble. However, the depth of 35 feet is not sufficient for
low density materials such as car tires or truck tires. Once the reef is
constructed, the fish populations should increase greatly.

* Florida Sea Grant Artificial Reef Resource Team

151
 APPENDIX B

BIOLOGICAL REPORT - FERNANDINA BEACH ARTIFICIAL REEF SITE #1

Prepared by: Dr. Heyward Mathews*

Loran C. Coordinates: 45314.4 Longitude: 300 38' 0"

(Center of site) 61907.1 Latitude: 810 09" 0"

This is the site of an existing artificial reef approximately 10

miles southeast of Fernandina Beach; The site is in 55 feet of water. It
is a large steel hull barge that has been on the bottom for some years. The
bottom is a firm sand/shell mixture with well developed ripple marks. The
barge has moved into the bottom 10 to 15 inches and exposed some limestone
layers underneath.

The fish population on the reef is well established with large numbers of
sheephead, Archosargus probatocephalus; Black Sea Bass, Centropristis striata;
Black Grouper, Mycteroperca bonaci (several up to 30 pounds); Spadefish,
Chaetodipterus faber; Porgy, Calamus spp.; and large schools of Menhaden,
Rough Scad and Tomtate Grunts. The metal of the barge is well-covered with
fouling organisms, barnacles, algae, corals, worm tubes and numerous others.

This is an excellent existing artificial reef site and will support

almost any type of reef materials; however, the depth is too shallow for car
tires to remain stable without great amounts of ballast.

* Florida Sea Grant Artificial Reef Resource Team.

152
 CORPS OF ENGINEERS _ U. S. ARMY

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 APPENDIX D

DISTRICT & BRANCH OFFICES

Stale of Florida
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION
Twin Towers Office Building
2600 Blar Stone Roed
Tallahassee. Florid 32301

&-r 904-4884805

l, .,,D --. - _A, a. 5 NORTHEAST DIST.

0. Dog Detet.F] Mum.
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;"AM, 6 NORTHEASTD ST.

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ENVIRONMENTAL t
aDlS D waI a )
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Suite 4 SUWANNEE RIVER
Live OIk, F iFI ST.
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EFFECTIVE JULY 1, 1983

154
 APPENDIX E
DER #
COE # 79J-0563

L GB. 7 T.

27' _____

I "48 o r
- -- SITE3 -

Nt L ora4 LOCG.2d4a 330

ach I : LfTyp.)oa BOUn A

' • i SITE5 714 5

SITE-- xo A16 ""s
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. o
be shown either at
should

1
LC-C.
; s. ' s^ 1 Is'

SI, T£
7 I8 ---------- 01

Ldrawing. .c,,o .sso cos.-

LOCATION MAP PROPOSED ARTIFICIAL REEFS
Note: Loran C coordinates * ,, c,, ,

each site or in an informa- AT- s/sr,

each site or in an informa- AT SARASOTA

t(T
SHE__ 0
$Of » * TO WAR«».Hl
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Project No. IR-82-83
Grant No. NA80AA-D-00038
The Florida Sea Grant College Program wishes
to express appreciation to the Florida Department
of Environmental Regulation and the United States
Army Corps of Engineers for their assistance in
reviewing this document.

Dr. Heyward Mathews is a Professor of Oceanography, St. Petersburg Junior College, Clearwater, FL

Florida Sea Grant College is supported by award of the Office of Sea Grant, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US. Depart-
ment of Commerce, grant number NA80AA-D-00038, under provisions of the National Sea Grant College and Programs Act of 1966. This
information is published by the Sea Grant Extension Program which functions as a component of the Florida Cooperative Extension Service.
John T. Woeste, dean, in conducting Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture, Home Economics, and Marine Sciences, State of Florida, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Commerce, and Boards of County Commissioners, cooperating. Printed and disributed in
furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 14, 1914. The Florida Sea Grant College is an Equal Employment Opportunity-Affirma-
tive Action employer authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that
function without regard to race, color, sex, or national origin.

Copies available from:

Sea Grant Extension Program

G022 McCarty Hall
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL 32611

This public document was promulgated at a cost of $213.70, or 21.4 cents per copy, to furnish infor-
mation on artificial reef permitting procedures to interested citizens. Cost does not include handling or
postage.

156
 Appendix I

Synopsis of the Phyla

The following description of the major phyla are limited to distinguishing characters. Only existing
classes of the larger Phyla that are likely to be encountered are listed. The approximate number of described
species is indicated in parentheses.

Phylum Porifera (10,000)

Sponges. Sessile; no anterior end; primitively radial, but most are irregular. Mouth and digestive cavity
absent; body organized about a system of water canals and chambers. Marine, a few in fresh water.

Phylum Cnidaria (9000)

Free-swimming or sessile, with tentacles surrounding mouth. Specialized cells bearing stinging or-
ganoids called nematocysts. Solitary or colonial. Marine, few in fresh water.
Class Hydrozoa. Hydra, hydroids.
Class Scyphozoa. Jellyfish.
Class Anthozoa. Sea anemones, corals.
Phylum Ctenophora (90)
Comb jellies. Free-swimming; biradiate, with two tentacles and eight longitudinal rows of ciliary combs
(membranelles). Marine.

Phylum Platyhelminthes (12,700)

Body dorsoventrally flattened; digestive cavity, when present, with a single opening, the mouth. Free-
living and parasitic. Marine, freshwater, a few terrestrial.
Class Turbellaria. Free-living flatworms.
lass Trematoda. Flukes.
Class Cestoda. Tapeworms.
Phylum Rhynchocoela, or Nemertina (650)
Nemerteans. Long dorsoventrally flattened body with complex proboscis apparatus. Marine, few
terrestrial and freshwater.
Phylum Nematoda (10,000)
Roundworms. Slender cylindrical worms with tapered anterior and posterior ends. Cuticle often
ornamented. Free-living and parasitic. Free-living species usually only a few millimeters or less in length.
Marine, freshwater, and soil inhibiting.

Phylum Sipuncula (300)

Cylindrical marine worms. Retractable anterior end, bearing lobes or tentacles around mouth.

Phylum Mollusca (100,000)

Ventral surface modified in the form of a muscular foot, havingvarious shapes; dorsal and lateral surfaces
of body modified as a shell-secreting mantle, although shell may be reduced or absent. Marine, freshwater,
and terrestrial.
Class Polyplacophora. Chitons.
Class Gastropoda. Snails, welks, conchs, slugs.
Class Bivalvia, or Pelecypoda. Bivalve mollusks.
Class Scaphopoda. Tusk, or tooth, shells.
Class Cephalopoda. Squids, cuttlefish, octopods.
Phylum Annelida (8700)
Segmented worms. Body wormlike and metameric. A large longitudinal ventral nerve cord. Marine,
freshwater, and terrestrial.
Class Polychaeta. Marine annelids.
Class Oligochaeta. Freshwater annelids and earthworms.
Class Hirudinea. Leeches.
Phylum Arthropoda (923,000)
157
 Body metameric with jointed appendages and encased within a chitinous exoskeleton. Coelom vestigial.
Marine, freshwater, and terrestrial.

Subphylum Trilobitomorpha
Trilobites. One pair of appendages; all other postoral appendages similar.
Subphylum Chelicerata
No antennae; one pair of chelicerae. Body composed of a cephalothorax and abdomen.
Class Merostomata. Horseshoe crabs.
Class Arachnida. Scorpions, spiders, mites.
Class Pycnogonida. Sea spiders.
Subphylum Crustacea
With two pairs of antennae and one pair of mandibles. Trunk variable.
Class Branchiopoda. Fairy shrimps, water fleas.
Class Ostracoda. Ostracods.
Clss Copepods. Copepods.
lass Branchiura.
Class Cirripedia. Barnacles.
Class Malacostraca. Amphipods, isopods, shrimps, crabs.
Subphylum Uniramia
With one pair of antennae and one pair of mandibles. None of these are typically marine.
Class Insecta. Insects.
lass Diplopoda. Millipedes.
Class Chilopoda. Centipedes.
Ehylum Bryozoa (4000)
Bryozoams. Colonial, sessile; the body housed within a gelatinous or more commonly a chitinous or
chitinous and calcareous exoskeleton. Mostly marine, a few freshwater.

Phylum Brachiopoda (280)

Lamp shells. Body attached by a stalk and enclosed within two unequal dorsoventrally oriented
calcareous shells.
Phylum Echinodermata (6000)
Secondarily pentamerous radial symmetry. Most existing forms free moving. Body wall containing
calcareous ossicles usually bearing projecting spines. A part of the coelom modified into a system of water
canals with external projections used in feeding locomotion. All marine.
Class Crinoidea. Sea lilies and feather stars.
Class Stelleroidea.
Subclass Asteroidea. Sea stars.
Subclass Ophiuroidea. Brittle stars and basket stars.
Cass Echinoidea. Sea urchins, sand dollars, and heart urchins.
Class Holothuroidea. Sea cucumbers.
Phylum Hemichordata (80)
Acorn worms. Body divided into proboscis, collar, and trunk. Anterior part of trunk perforated with
varying number of pairs of pharyngeal clefts. Marine.

Phylum Chordata (39,000)

Pharyngeal clefts, notochord, and dorsal hollow nerve cord present at some time in life history. Marine,
freshwater, and terrestrial.

Subphylum Urochordata (1300)

Sea squirts, or tunicates. Sessile, nonmetameric invertebrate chordates enclosed with a cellulose tunic.
Notochord and nerve cord present only in larva. Solitary and colonial. Marine.
Class Ascidiacea. Sea squirts, or sessile tunicates.
Class Thaliacea. Free-swimming urochordates.
Class Larvacea. Planktonic urochordates.

Subphylum Cephalochordata (25)

Amphioxus. Metameric fishlike invertebrate chordates.

Subphylum Vertebrata (37,790)

158
 The vertebrates. Metameric. Trunk supported by a series of cartilaginous or bony skeletal pieces
(vertebrae) surrounding or replacing notochord in adult.
Adapted from Invertebrate Zooloy. Robert D. Barnes, 1983.

159
~*
Appendix J

Suggested Data For Artificial Reef Survey

Name of Reef
Location
Latitude Longitude
Loran Sightings
Date when placed
Later additions: A B C D E
Description of Reef
Type of material used:
Dimensions
Amount of material used:
Percent with: Multiple entrances and exist:
Only one entrance:
Relief and surface area:
Site description
_Depth: Bottom Top of Wreck
Bottom type and description:
Nearby bottom features:
Current conditions:
Average speed Direction
Range of current speed Low High
Has reef shifted? Yes No When
Visibility conditiond: Average Range
Temperature Conditions: Bottom Surface
Evaluation of reef success
_Outstanding Successful Adequate No Usefulness A Disaster
Use of reef: High Medium Low
Who uses the reef? SCUBA divers Snorkel divers Sport fish Commercial

______ _High/Med/Low High/Med/Low gh/Med/w High/Med/Low

161
~hJI~)r`
cg~,l,~S~uSIr;
~J"`~s"7Y~1~3~;F~LI·~L
Appendix K

North American Bottle Distributors

Continental Glass Company W. R. Hill and Co., Inc.

225 Commonwealth Blvd. 114 Virginia St.
Louisville, KY 40202 P.O. Box 646
(502) 583-6866 Richmond, VA 23205
(804) 643 2645
S. Kiekes and Sons, Inc.
4217 Mint Way Smith Container Co. (Main)
Dallas, TX 75233 3500 Browns Mill Rd., S.E.
(214) 333-3241 P.O. Box 6716
Atlanta, GA 30315
Smith Container Corp.
P.O. Box 3844 Smith Container Corp.
209-211 Southside Drive 8022 Office Ct.
Charlotte, NC 28203 Suite 107
(704) 523-3075 Orlando, FL 32809
(305)851-8310
Smith Container Corp.
P.O. Box 387 Texberry Container Corp. (Main)
Maple Ave. P.O. Box 33367
Colonial Heights, VA 6040 Donoho
(804) 526-6265 Houston, TX 77033
(713) 644-5201
Texberry Container Corp.
4729 Greatland Texberry Container Corp.
San Antonio, TX 78218 1102 Inwood Drive
(512) 661-6731 Dallas, TX 75247
(214) 638-4260
Texberry Container Corp.
P.O. Box 2944 Northwestern Bottle Co.
New Orleans, LA 70189 849 Roland Street
(504) 254-1947 Memphis, TN 38114
(901) 274-9211
Northwestern Bottle Co.
611 Merrit Street
Nashville, TN 37203
(615) 255-9292

163
,'Now&.-----
Appendix L

Sample Questionnaire For Travel Cost Method Interview

Date

Time

Interviewer

1) What is your hometown?

2) How many miles (one-way) from your home to the dive/fishing site?
3) What is the approximate amount you spent to arrive at this site? $
(This should include fuel for boat and car (if applicable), meals, tolls, or other expenses incurred enroute.)
4) How many divers/fishermen are in your party?
5) How many trips did you and your party make to this site in the past year?

6) What is the purpose of your trip?

photography
spearfishing
general exploring
fishing

Note: Additional questions can be added about the purpose of the activity to provide more information about
users from different travel zones. Also, if the party does not usually travel together as a group or if each has a differ-
ent hometown, it is advisable to record a separate questionnaire for each number.

165
/
Appendix M

Sample Questionnaire For Iterative Bidding Method Interview

Date
Time
Interviewer

1) How many divers/fishermen are in your party?

2) How many trips did you and your party make to this site in the past year?

3) What is the purpose of your trip?

Sphotography
spearfishing
general exploring
fishing

We are trying to determine the economic value of sport diving on artificial reefs in Florida. Let's pretend that
I'm selling an annual pass to use this particular artificial reef. If you didn't have a pass, you couldn't use the reef.
Please realize that this is only hypothetical and neither the city nor the state is planning to actually require such a per-
mit. Now, if you were planning to make the same number of trips to this site in the coming year, would you be will-
ing to pay $ for this permit?

Initial starting value $

Maximum willingness to pay:$

167
~

Ilr-~-~ --L-~~
 Appendix N

Guidelines for Working with Slides

Slides are useful because they:

-Hold attention,
-Get the message across quickly,
-Build interest,
-Clarify points -- show exactly what is being discussed,
-Can share experiences otherwise impossible or impractical to convey,
-Focus attention on a large screen image,
-Are flexible -- you can add to, remove, and rearrange them for different presentations.

1. When preparing a slide presentation, you can write the audio portion first and then match up the visual portion after.
BUT. remember that the VISUALS will carry the burden of the message. Any narration or sound effects will be sec-
ondary, and will support or enhance the visual message.
2. You could take an existing article and use it as the basis for a slide script, but probably the easiest way to avoid using
more words than you need, is to start by outlining your material. Once you have listed the points you wish to make
in the proper order, it will be easy to expand those points into sentences, and in turn use those sentences to develop
narration.
3. Because viewers will not be able to grasp many details from a single viewing, don't try to present more than 2 or 3
main concepts or points in any presentation. If you do want your audience to retain portions of the information, you
may need to supplement the slide program with hand-outs summarizing various points, or discussions.
4. When writing your slide script:
-limit each slide to one main idea;
-limit each slide to 15-20 words;
-include titles to supplement, not duplicate visual material
-use several simple slides ratherthan one complicated one, especially if you must
discuss a subject at length;
-make duplicates if you need to repeat a slide in several different places;
-plan a good pace, don't leave a slide on the screen after discussing its subject;
-never say "in this slide we see"

APPENDIX

* 169
/I

U
 Appendix 0

Guidelines for Preparation of Information for the News Media

The Press Release
Writing the Release
1. Mentally or physically arrange the information in order of importance. Determine what deserves the most emphasis.
2. Write the story beginning (the lead) emphasizing the most important point or points of the story. Make sure it is inter-
esting, accurate and that you have enough information to back up the lead.
3. The lead should establish the angle of the story and the story should stick to that angle. If your lead is the right lead,
the rest of the story should come easier.
4. Write the rest of the story. Include all information that is pertinent and necessary and leave out all
unnecessary or irrelevant material. Make sure all ideas are presented simply and clearly.
5. Use words which generally will be understood by the majority of readers. Avoid highly technical orjargonistic lan-
guage, unless you define it.
6. Check lengths of sentences and of paragraphs. Sentences that are short, to the point and lacking in complexity stand
the best chance of communicating effectively, but they should vary somewhat in lengtand structure. Variety helps
avoid monotony.
7. Rewrite your story if necessary. If a sentence is too long, perhaps you can make two or more sentences out of it. If
sentences or paragraphs do not seem to be in the right order, you should rearrange them.
8. Ask yourself if other words would be better than ones you used. Be specific. Use the right word.
9. Make sure grammar and spelling and punctuation are correct, and check your style sheet to make sure your story con-
forms to it.
10. Check facts again. Are they correct. Accuracy!

APPENDIX

Format for Press Release Following is a guide for releases to print media:
1. Paper--8 1/2" by 11" white paper is preferred, although legal-size paper is acceptable.
2. Typewrite, mimeograph, or offset. Do not send carbons to media.
3. Double-space all copy. Use wide margins. Do not hyphenate words at end of lines. Do not carry a paragraph over
from one page to another.
4. Use one side of the paper only.
5. Identify the sender (organization and/or individual) at the top of the page. Provide name, address, and telephone num-
ber of the person who can be reached for further information, both during and after office hours.
6. A headline is usually written as shown in the sample news release (Appendix D) to give the editor an idea as to the
content of the release. If the story is used in the paper, however, the headline will most likely be written.
7. If the story is for use on receipt of the release, mark it for IMMEDIATE RELEASE. If there is a chance that the re-
lease may reach the newspaper before the date intended for the release the release date should also be included.
8. Unless it is for local news media only, a dateline is usually included at the beginning of the first paragraph (e.g.,
Gainesville, FL, May 3, 1982). The date should be the time the news takes place, not the date you put out the release
or the date you expect the papers to use it. In many cases the date will not be used because it is not relevant to the in-
formation in the release.
9. If your release requires more than one page, type "more" at the bottom of each page except the last. In the upper
lefthand comer of the second and succeeding pages type the subject of the story and the page number In some cases
the succeeding pages are marked in the upper lefthand corer as follows: Add 1 (for the second page) and then the
subject of the story; Add 2 (for the third page), etc. The end of story is marked in some way usually with the nu-
meral "30"or by the use of "## #".

171
4O
Appendix P

Guidelines for Preparation of Magazine Articles

Writing the Article

1. The first step, even before beginning to write the article, should probably be to prepare a query letter to an edi-
tor. This will help locate an editor who may be interested in the subject and thus save time in writing because
the editor may have certain requirements such as a specific word length, the way in which the subject should be
treated in the magazine, etc. If the first editor turns the story down, try another editor, and another. Many edi-
tors are willing to look at a completed manuscript but even if interested may request it be rewritten to their
specifications.
2. Before starting to put the words on paper assemble all the information and organize it in a logical way. The
story may be told chronologically or may simply be a discussion of the material in a logical way.
3. As with a newspaper story, the lead of a magazine article is important. The job of the lead is to "hook" the
reader, to create enough interest in the story that the reader will want to continue reading. Indicate what the arti-
cle is about and what the reader may expect.
4. In the body of the article present the information which you have-the "meat" of the article. If possible, inter-
sperse presentation of facts with anecdotes which are interesting and relevant to the subject as this makes for
more interesting reading.
5. The end of the article should satisfactorily sum up the material for the reader. Depending upon the subject, a
summary of the facts presented in the body of the article may be appropriate. If the ending can in some way re-
fer back to the lead it creates the feeling of a neat, coherent package.
6. In writing the article be specific. If there are facts and figures that need to be in the article don't leave them out.
This will give an air of authenticity to the article and create a feeling of credibility for the author. enhance your
credibility as the author. Use concrete words rather than abstract words. These words will help to make your ar-
ticle more specific.
7. The actual mechanics of writing vary greatly from person to person. But whether you write rapidly throughout
the first draft and then revise and revise again, or whether you write very slowly getting every sentence right be-
fore going on to the next one, chances are that you are going to have to do some revision before arriving at the
final manuscript if only to fill in a few black spaces in the information which were not evident when you started
writing.
8. When the article is ready for final typing it should be prepared as shown.

APPENDIX

173
Sj~i~c'p
Appendix Q

Jacksonville Scubanauts Reef Research Team

Proposed Organizational Chart

Coordinator Scientific
Advisor

Assistant
Coordinator

Finance Chief Public Archives

Officer Scientist Relations & Photos

Equipment Training Grants Diving

Spepecialis t ecialist & Funding Control Board

175
 )r`
~iaJI~
~n')~S~uS
 BOAT CAPTAIN

This position works under the general direction of

the Dive Master. Responsible for total control and
safety of crew and passengers at all times.
Responsible for ensuring boats used for reef research
activities meet Coast Guard requirements and are
seaworthy for desired projects. Organizes radio
contact between other project vessels. Responsible for
organizing equipment and gear storage on boat while in
transit. Must be capable of compass navigation and
adept in using all associated electronics, including
VHF radio, loran C, depth recorder, etc. Instructs all
passengers in the location of safety gear, use of
facilities and proper technique for entering and
exiting water. Performs related duties as required.

CHIEF PHOTOGRAPHER

This position reports directly to the Reef

Research Coordinator and is responsible for recording
all Reef Research activities using video equipment
and/or still photography. Edits raw video footage and
develops and reproduces slides and prints as necessary.
Responsible for producing all training videos and ozher
promotional videos and/or slide presentations as
needed. Works closely with and provides photographic
support to all divisional activities of Reef Research
Team coordinating all phases of photography. Develops
and maintains photography cataloging system,
coordinating subject efforts with archivist. Performs
related duties as required.

177
 CHIEF SCIENTIST

This position is responsible for supervising and

directing all scientific activities of the Reef
Research Team. Develops and implements systems for
underwater data collection and management. Supervises
and directs permitting activities, archivial systems,
data collection, mapping, and scientific diver
training. Delegates project leaders and assists in
organizing assignments. Compiles data and prepares
detailed written reports regarding project activities.
Works closely with Professional/Academic Advisors to
insure acceptable scientific methods are being applied
consistently. Supervises the development and
preservation of physical reference collection. Assists
Archivist in developing cataloging system. Assists
Scientific Dive Instructor in methods and procedures.
Performs related duties as required.

COLLECTION/MAPPING & SURVEY SPECIALIST

This position works under the general direction of

the Chief Scientist. Responsible for supervising and
assisting in the collection of biological samples, map
preparation, and related marine surveys. Establishes
and implements consistent sampling techniques to insure
creditable data. Responsible for the proper care and
handling of subject specimens including preservation
and transportation to specimen library. Performs probe
test, obtains bottom samples and takes physical
measurements of structures as needed. Prepares site
maps including precise location (loran C), water depth,
water temperature, visibility checks, etc. Works
closely with archivist to insure data is recorded
promptly and precisely. Performs related duties as
required.

178
 DIVE MASTER

This position is responsible for organizing,

coordinating, and supervising all diving activities
involving Reef Research Team. Responsible for overall
enforcement of safety standards and practices. Assist
Scientific Dive Instructor and Technical Dive
Instructor in planning and directing training dives for
new Team members. Provides technical support and
expertise regarding diving conditions. Responsible for
terminating a project if weather and/or sea conditions
dictate. Performs related duties as required.

EQUIPMENT SPECIALIST

This position works under the general direction of

the Dive Master. Serves as custodian of all Reef
Research Team equipment. Provides central storage area
for Team equipment and develops and administers method
of accounting for subject equipment. Responsible for
routine maintenance of same. Procures additional
equipment as needed. Performs related duties as
required.

FINANCIAL OFFICER

This position is responsible for developing and

administering the financial program for the Reef
Research Team. Supervises and assists staff personnel
engaged in acquiring funds for Reef Research. Performs
public speaking engagements and slide presentations
before private industries and government agencies.
Supervises and assists in writing grants to obtain
additional funding. Researches and investigates new
funding sources both public and private. Drafts
correspondence and submitted letters of inquiry to
various interest groups. Responsible for coordinating
and receiving all donations, cash or otherwise, within
Reef Research Team. Will be required to maintain
necessary records and prepare and submit financial
reports as needed. Performs related duties as
required.

179
 GOVERNMENT/ACADEMIC/SPORT COMMUNITY LIAISON

This position works under the general direction of

the Public Relations Officer. Responsible for
representing the Reef Research Team with a variety of
community and special interest groups. Attends
community functions, academic and sporting events
relating to reef research and reports observations
regarding same. Recommends and assists in implementing
suggestions to promote positive public image with
community at large. Performs related duties as
required.

GOVERNMENT GRANT SPECIALIST

This position works under the general direction of

the Financial Officer. Responsible for researching,
writing and submitting an assortment of grant
applications to various governmental agencies for the
express purpose of obtaining funds. Makes public
presentations before governmental groups, establishes
contacts and works within established framework to
process grant applications. Responsible for enforcing
all grant requirements. Submits written reports and
records as needed. Performs related duties as
required.

LOGISTICS COORDINATOR

This position works under the general direction of

the Dive Master. Responsible for coordinating vehicle
and vessel transportation to and from Reef Research
Team project sites. Provides appropriate maps and time
schedules for subject activities. Prepares and
distributes itineraries for same. Works closely with
Chief Scientist, Dive Master and Boat Captain assigning
personnel as needed. Performs related duties as
required.

180
 MEDIA & PRODUCTIONS

This position will work under the general

direction of the Public Relations Officer, providing
technical support in areas of recruiting, photography,
finance and science, as needed. Duties include
creating and staging a variety of visual displays,
organizing slide presentations and video programs.
Assists the Public Relations Officer in drafting and
editing narratives to accompany same. Provide
technical support and expertise regarding radio and
television productions. Assists Public Relations
Officer in generating publicity for Reef Research Team
through a variety of mediums. Performs related duties
as required.

PERMITTING SPECIALIST

This position works under the general direction of

the Chief Scientist. Responsible for initiating,
implementing and monitoring the complete permitting
process for artificial reef construction. Establishes
and complies with standard operating procedure of
various governmental agencies. Establishes and
publishes a current list of permitted sites for use by
Reef Research Team. Files new applications and
requests permit extensions as needed. Prepares
correspondence and submits reports as required.
Remains abreast of changing legislation which may
effect artificial reef construction and reports same to
Reef Research Team. Performs related duties as
required.

181
 PRIVATE INDUSTRY FOUNDATIONS SPECIALIST

This position works under the general direction of

the Financial Officer. Responsible for researching,
writing and submitting an assortment of grant
applications to various private industry foundations
for the express purpose of obtaining funds. Makes
public presentations before subject groups.
Establishes contacts and works within established
framework to process grant applications. Responsible
for enforcing all grant requirements. Submits written
reports and records as needed. Performs related duties
as required.

PROFESSIONAL/ACADEMIC ADVISOR

The function of this position is to provide the

means for building credibility and legitimizing various
research methodology used by the Reef Research Team and
linking the teams efforts to the scientific community.
One, primary advisor, having credentials (preferfably a
PHd. in marine science, with field research experience)
recognized by the academic community, should be
appointed to oversee all research methodology before a
project begins. Secondary advisor(s) should be
considered since reef research covers more disciplines
than most individual researchers have expertise in.
Thus, advisors should be solicited based on the
research teams needs and project priorities. Temporary
appointments should be considered for special needs
such as: mapping, benthic and fish surveys,
experimental design and engineering. When unusual
phenomena are observed, specialists should be brought
in to verify the observations. The advisor(s) should
also be asked to review any materials before they are
published to insure its technical accuracy. Where
available , the Sea Grant Extension Agent should be
included as an advisor, since they have access to a
wide variety of marine specialists.

182
 PUBLIC RELATIONS OFFICER

This position is responsible for all phases of

public relation activities involving Reef Research
Team. Supervises and directs all promotional aspects
both visual and written including radio, television,
newspaper, magazines, public speaking engagements, etc.
Works closely with all divisional activities of Reef
Research Team to insure proper exposure with media and
special interest groups. Arranges and schedules
speakers for common interest groups. Writes and edits
articles of interest involving Reef Research for
publication in newspapers, magazines and associated
periodicals. Coordinates public relations effort with
Photo Specialist to insure activities are properly
recorded. Supervises and directs the recruiting of new
candidates for Reef Research Team. Performs related
duties as required.

RECRUITMENT SPECIALIST

This position works under the general direction of

the Public Relations Officer. Responsible for
soliciting and enrolling new volunteers into Reef
Research Program. Plans and coordinates activities
within diving community generating a continuing
interest among potential candidates. Develops and
maintains standard criteria for accepting new
candidates. Assists in training and certifying new
Reef Research Team members. Performs related duties as
required.

183
 REEF RESEARCH COORDINATOR

Serves as Chief Administrative Officer of the Reef

Research Team directing all phases of program
activities. Responsible for administering established
policies and procedures in accordance with project
objectives. This position will be elected by general
membership of the Reef Research Team and will report to
the President of the Jacksonville Scubanauts.

Duties include organizing project activities to

insure coordination with academic and sport community
involved in reef enhancement. Serves as chief
spokesman for Reef Research Team with news media and
other community related groups. Provides group
leadership to foster growth, generate revenue, and
promote positive public image. Works closely with
other organizations involved in reef enhancement to
develop and maintain communications network. Provides
logistical support to various team functions as needed.
Performs related duties as required.

SCIENTIFIC DIVE INSTRUCTOR

This position works under the general direction of

the Chief Scientist. Responsible for training and
supervising the diving activities relative to the
collection of scientific data. Responsible for
directing and enforcing appropriate safety rules and
regulations. Serves as chief time keeper for diving
activities. Assists divers in and out of water with
equipment and specimens. Performs related duties as
required.

184
 SECRETARY

Performs all secretarial duties for Reef Research

Team including recording and transcribing minutes of
all meetings and maintaining record of all associated
events. Responsible for collecting, sorting and
routing all correspondence. Works closely with
Archivist to insure records and correspondence are
properly preserved. Maintains current mailing list,
including addresses and phone numbers of all Reef
Research Team members. Performs related duties as
required.

STANDARDS & SAFETY SPECIALIST

This position works under the general direction of

the Dive Master. Responsible for insuring all Reef
Research Team dives comply with industry safety
standards. Performs routine visual inspections to
insure proper equipment is being used. Responsible for
insuring first aid supplies and medical oxygen are on
hand during all Team dives. Maintains list of
emergency medical personnel including telephone numbers
and addresses. Develops and routinely updates plans to
handle medical emergencies as needed. Performs related
duties as required.

TECHNICAL DIVE INSTRUCTOR

This position works under the general direction of

the Dive Master. Responsible for assisting the Dive
Master with all Reef Research diving activities.
Responsible for training and certifying new members
relative to underwater safety, data collection
techniques and overall skills assessment. Works
closely with new members during related diving
activities. May assist as time keeper or boat
assistant as needed. Visually inspects equipment to
insure overall safety of Reef Research Team. Performs
related duties as required.

185
 TREASURER

This position reports to the President of the

Jacksonville Scubanauts Inc. and is elected by general
membership of subject organization. Duties include
handling and processing all accounts receivable and
accounts payable for Reef Research activities.
Maintains monthly balance on Reef Research Account and
submits financial reports as needed. Performs related
duties as required.

ARCHIVIST

This position works under the general direction of

the Chief Scientist. Responsible for designing and
implementing a computerized archivial system for
recording and preserving scientific, historical and
organizational Reef Research related data. Develops
cataloging system and reference index for retrieval of
subject information including video tapes, photographs,
slides, books, periodicals, newspaper clippings,
business activities of Reef Research Team, physical
reference collection, etc. Coordinate with various
members of Reef Research Team the receiving, entering
and extraction of data from archive, as necessary.
Serves as custodian of specimen and reference library.
Provides information necessary for the preparation of
written reports and data required for statistical
analysis as required. Performs related duties as
required.

ASSISTANT REEF RESEARCH COORDINATOR

Serves as Assistant to Reef Research Coordinator

supervising all phases of program activities. This
position will be appointed by the Reef Research
Coordinator and will serve a term concurrent with other
officers of the Jacksonville Scubanauts. Reports
directly to the Reef Research Coordinator and acts on
behalf of same, in his absence.

Duties include assisting the Reef Research

Coordinator in organizing all project activities.
Serves as liaison between various divisions of Reef
Research Team to insure proper coordination with each.
Responsible for identification and storage of
laboratory specimens, training videos and other related
material. May be required to chair special committees
as directed. Performs related duties as required.

186
Appendix R

Project Management Form

Name Project Prep Boat Dive Operator (1) Dive operator (2)
Dive 1 Dive 2 Dive 1 Dive 2
Food
Lodging
Transportation
Boats
Equipment &
Air
Safey Officer
Chief scientist
Dive master
Admin Assist

187
/
 Appendix S

Jacksonville Scubanauts, Inc. Reef Research Team

Archivist
May 27, 1987

Overview
There are three tasks that must be performed before a successful archive can exist. First, if the informa-
tion/data is not written down, it never happened. Secondly, if the supervisors of the various areas delineated by the
organizational chart are not aware of the information/data which is available in the archive, it may as well not exist.
And last but not least, if the various supervisors do not deliver the information/data to the Archivist, it does not exist.

Standard Operating Procedures

1. All information which pertains to an area which is supervised by the Public Relations Officer shall be delivered to the
Archivist via the Public Relations Officer.
2. All information which pertains to an area which is supervised by the Chief Scientist shall be delivered to the Archi-
vist via the Chief Scientist.
3. All information which pertains to an area which is supervised by the Dive Master shall be delivered to the Archivist
via the Dive Master.
4. All information which pertains to an area which is supervised by the Financial Officer shall be delivered to the Archi
ist via the Financial Officer.
5. All information which pertains to an area which is supervised by the Chief Photographer shall be delivered to the Ar-
chivist via the Chief Photographer.
6. All information provided by the advisors should be delivered to the Coordinator or Assistant Coordinator. The Coor-
dinator or the Assistant should then forward the information to the appropriate supervisor.
7. Each area should establish uniform data sheets to ensure consistent data collection as well as consistent computer in-
put. For example:
Chief Scientist: dive logs, boat logs
Chief Photographer: video/photo index log
Dive Master: equipment inventory log

Public Relations Chief Scientist

Officer

Archivist Dive Master

Financial Officer Chief Photographer

Archivist's
Shawn Brayton Wendy Short
Public Relations Officer Financial Officer
Chief Scientist Collection Specialist
(excluding preserved samples) (preserved Specimen and soil smaple)
Chief Photographer, Dive Master

189
;t ftie
 Appendix T

Jacksonville Scubanauts Inc. f Only Active Members shall be eligible to hold

office in the
Reef Research Team Corporation. Candidates for office must be ac-
P.O. Box 43370 tive and in good standing for ninety (90) days prior to
Jacksonville, FL 32203-2270 nominations. Nominations must be held thirty (30)
Position Statement days prior to elections.
In the event that a presiding officer relinquishes
The Reef Research Team is a group of volun- his post or is found to be unfit for office, nominations
teer sport divers operating as a committee of the Jack- shall be held at the next regular meeting with election
sonville Scubanauts, a non-profit diving organization. and installation at the following meeting. (Nomina-
The primary objective of the Reef Research Team is tions from the floor will still be taken on the third
to observe, collect, document and record scientific meetin)
data for use in further enhancing our marine habitats.
We envision this effort as a long range community Article III.
project spanning many years and involving hundreds Purpose and Objectives:
of volunteers. of volunteers.
For the preservation, support and promotion of
Using the tools of research, education and div- the sport of skin and scuba diving and its various
ing, we are committed to assisting the sea in building forms of allied activities.
reefs around suitable man-made objects, in an effort To dedicate ourselves to the furtherance of the
to increase marine life in areas now barren and unpro- sport together with sound conservation, good sports-
ductive. We will study the presence of these inhabi- manship and cooperation with and for federal, state
tants and report
tants and our findings.
report our Appropriate agencies
findings. Appropriate agencies manship and cooperation with and for federal, state
and local agencies as wel as other worthwhile groups
will interpret the value and impact these structures and local agencies as well as other worthwhile groups
have in relation to our economic, environmental and project
recreational activities. To promote fellowship among underwater
Through education we intend to inform the pub- sportsmen by sponsoring contests, outings and other
Through education we intend to inform the pub- educational, social and recreational programs.
lic of the need for protecting all reefs, both natural
and man-made. By example, we will demonstrate - Provide assistance to the public and scientific
good conservation practices on the reefs. community of Florida by providing scientific data con-
b r u
Sa ato
We aim to create ao ceming reef enhancement productivity and to locate
a better understanding among and evaluate sites for future Fish Enhancement place-
all water sportsmen, particularly those who fish or ment locations.
hunt the reefs, by being more understanding and con-
siderate of each others' needs and viewpoints. - Create an opportunity for divers to utilize their
skills and experience for the benefit of public interest.
- Educate the public of the utilization of fish en-
May 18,1987 hancement devices offshore and develop a workable
By - Laws of relationship with the scientific community in obtain-
ing information concerning the Fish Enhancement Pro-
Jacksonville Scubanauts. Inc. gram.
(Florida Not For Profit Corporation) This organization shall be incorporated so that it
can contract in its own name, to protect its members,
officers and directors from personal liability and to
Article I. provide an organizational format which will allow us
This corporation shall be known as Jacksonville to pursue our Purposes and Objectives as set forth
Scubanauts, Inc. (A Florida Not For Profit Corpora- here in.
tion). Article IV.
Article II. The officers of the corporation shall be a Presi-
Active Members shall be eighteen (18) years of dent, Vice-President, Secretary and Treasurer. All
age or older and be nationally certified scuba divers, elective officers shall be elected on the first meeting
All other members shall be designated "Other Mem- night in May of each year. Officers shall be installed
bers" and shall not be entitled to own stock or to vote. in June, of the same year, and shall hold this office for
Only Active members, in good standing, shall one year, or until their successors are elected and
qualified. Officers shall serve without pay.
be entitled to a vote in corporate affairs.

191
 The outgoing or past President shall be appointed - To be responsible for filing all required IRS re-
as a member of the Board of Directors for a term of one turns for the corporation at the end of the fiscal year,
year after his departure from office, which shall be May 31.
The Stockholders shall elect officers and approve - The Treasurer shall have custody of all corpo-
the selection of Reef Coordinator who, with the inclusion rate funds and financial records, shall keep full and ac-
of the immediate past president shall constitute the Board curate reports of disbursements and render account
of Directors. thereof at each meeting of stockholders and whenever
else required by the Board of Directors or President,
Duties of the President: and shall perform such other duties as may be pre-
The duties of the President shall be: scribed by the Board of Directors or President.
- To preside at all meetings of the corporation. - All money matters over $50.00, including the
- To appoint any persons or committees not other- Reef Research Account, must be approved by the
wise ordered by the corporation. Board of Directors.
- To personally represent the corporation on proper All checks are to be signed by the corporation's
occasions and business contracts. Treasurer or by the President. The Board of Directors
- To assist all other officers of the corporation in is encouraged to submit expenditures over S100.00 for
the performance of their duties. the approval of the Stockholders present at any given
the performane of their dutiesmeeting including the Reef Research Team Account.
- To promote interest on the part of each corporate xnditt eef esearch
member on corporate life and activities. - Expenditures associated with reef research
must first meet the approval of the Reef Research
- To vote only when one vote is necessary to break Team Committee. The Reef Coordinator will submit
a tie. the expenditure to the Board of Directors for review.
- The President shall be the Chief Executive Offi- The Reef Research Team Committee must respond to
cer of the corporation, shall have general and active man- prudent suggestions by the Board of Directors.
agement of the business and affairs of the corporation Article V.
subject to the directions of the Board of Directors, yet
shall be excluded from holding thee office of the Reef Re- Board of Directors:
search Coordinator. - Funtion: The business of this corporation
Duties of the Vice-President: shall be managed and its corporate powers exercised
by the Board of Directors. To make recommendations
The duties of the Vice-President shall be: upon Stockholder expulsions. To properly investigate
- To be the Membership Chairman. and present to the corporation all business or impor-
- To perform the duties of the President in his ab- tant activity situations.
sence. - Number: This corporation shall have no more
- To assist in any other manner which the President than six (6) but no less than four (4) directors.
deems necessary. - Oualifications: All of the members of the
- To act as Program Chairman whose duties shall Board of Directors shall be of full age, and at least one
be as the President directs. shall be a citizen of the United States. It shall be nec-
Duties the Secretary: essary for the Directors to be Stockholders
Duties of
of the Secretary: - Vacancies: Vacancies in the Board of Direc-
The duties of the Secretary shall be: tors shall be filled by appointment by a majority of the
- To have custody of and maintain all of the corpo- remaining members of the Board of Directors. That
rate records except the financial records. the appointee shall fulfill the appointed office until
- To record all the minutes of all meetings of the such time as a new officer can be elected in accord-
Stockholders and Board of Directors. ance with the various Articles of this, the By-laws, at
which time the appointee, if different from the new of-
- To perform such other duties as may be pre- ficer elected, shall step down and the new elected offi-
scribed by the Board of Directors or President. cer shall be installed as a member of the Board of
- To send out notices of all regular and special Directors.
meetings. - uorum: The presence of a majority of all of
- To handle all corporate correspondence. the Directors shall be necessary at any meeting to con-
- To perform such other duties as generally fall to stitute a quorum to transact business. The act of a ma-
that office, jority of Directors present at a meeting where a
- To retain copies of all corporate correspondence quorum is present shall be the act of the Board of Di-
by any other member. rectors.
The Duties of the Treasurer: - Pla of Meeting: Director's meetings may be
held within or without the State of Florida.
The duties of theThedutiesoftheTreasurershabe:
Treasurer shall be: - Time of Meeting: Meetings of the Board of
- To collect dues from all members. Directors shall be held immediately following the an-
- To collect all other money due the corporation. nual meeting of Stockholders each year, at such times,
- To make all payments from corporate funds when thereafter as the Board of Directors may deem neces-
so ordered by the corporation. sary, and at other times upon the call of the President
192
 or by a majority of the Directors. Notice of each special male, over the age of eighteen (18) years who will
meeting shall be given by the Secretary to each Director abide by the laws of the organization and who ex-
not less than five (5) days before that meeting unless presses a desire and willingness to be dedicated to the
each Director shall waive notice thereof before, at or af- purpose herein stated.
ter the meeting. - Active Members will be entitled to one vote
- Executive Committee: The Board of Directors each and one share of stock each and to any and all
may by resolution, designate two (2) or more of their other rights and privileges according to the By-Laws
number to constitute an Executive Committee, who, to provided they are not more than two (2) months in ar-
the extent provided in such resolution, shall have and rears in their dues.
may exercise the powers of the Board of Directors - The applicant shall be provided with a copy and
Article VI. will have read and agreed to the By-Laws of this corpo-
All elective officers shall be nominated at the meet- ration. The applicant shall execute a statement that
ing to be held on the meeting night in April of each year. he/she has read and agreed to the By-Laws and will be
The nominees shall be voted upon and elected at the an- bound by them and will provide an original and one
nual election to be held on the meeting night in May of copy (front and back) of their nationally recognized cer-
each year. Officers shall be installed in June of the same tification card and shall sign such other and further
year and shall hold this office for one year, or until their document as the corporation deems necessary or useful
successors are elected and qualified. Voting shall be by to accomplish its corporate purposes.
secret ballot. - Applications for membership must be recom-
Article VII. mended by an Active Member, in good standing. At
the expiration of one month, his conduct being satisfac-
- The regular meetings of the corporation shall be tory and being voted in by a quorum, he/she becomes a
held by the second Wednesday of each month at 7:30 P. member (Active or Other) and will be entitled to all the
M. The President or Board of Directors may call a spe- privileges of their membership. Prospective Members
cial meeting at any time by mailing a notice to all Stock- shall complete an application for membership chairper-
holders at least five (5) days in advance, son.
- The annual meeting of the Stockholders of this - Active Members shall have the right to bring a
corporation shall be held on the second Wednesday of non-member quest on two club dives. Any Active
May, 1985, and each year thereafter, unless and until Member bringing a quest to a club dive shall be respon-
these By-Laws be amended as provided for herein, sible for the conduct and behavior of their guest. In the
- The annual meeting shall include the election of event that there are limited resources (for example,
officers, spaces on a dive boat) for which both members and
- At least ten (10) Active Members, in good stand- guests are competing, the active member shall be enti-
ing shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of corpo- tled to take priority and precedence over the other mem-
rate business. ber and non-member guest and shall be entitled to all
available resources before any non-member guest will
- Every Stockholder having the right and entitled be entitled to same.
to vote at any meeting of the Stockholders shall be enti-
tled, upon each proposal presented at the meeting, to one Article XI.
vote. - Active Membership dues shall be $16.00 per 6
Article VIII. months or $30.00 per year per person. All other Mem-
bership dues shall be $12.00 per year to be paid annu-
These By-Laws may be amended by the Board of ally.
Directors, subject to approval by a majority of the Stock-
holders present, so long as they constitute a quorum, at - Membership dues are not refundable or transfer-
the next monthly meeting.
Article IX. - That all Active and Other Members belonging
to a single family, not withstanding the other provi-
Roberts Rules of Order shall govern the parliamen- sions of these By-Laws, shall pay no more, for all mem-
tary proceedings of this corporation, unless otherwise bers of the family, than $32.00 per 6 months or $60.00
provided in the By-Laws. The order of business shall be: per year for the entire family. These may be no more
- Speaker (optional). than two (2) Active Members per family.
- Reading and approval or revisions of the Minutes Article XII.
of the previous meeting. - Upon a complaint of conduct on the part of any
- Treasury report. member which might reflect unfavorable on the organi-
- Executive Board Members and committee reports. zation as a whole, said member may be expelled by a
- Old business quorum present at any meeting. Any member so ex-
pelled shall immediately surrender their stock in this
- New business corporation to a corporate officer.
-Dive Reports (optional). - Changes must be submitted in writing and the
Article X. member given a hearing before the Board of Directors,
which in turn will report its findings to the corporation
Ar Membership is open to any person, sub-
- Active with its recommendation that the charges be considered
ject to provisions set forth in the By-Laws, male or fe- with its recommendation that the charges be considered

193
as proven and the member expelled, or the charges be own behalf. Any officer or their designee should have
considered not proven and the accused remain a member the right to dismiss a member for any such infraction or
of the corporation, unsafe practice, said dismissal being effective immedi-
-Upon demand of a quorum of Aive Member- ately upon notification to the offending member. The
- Upon demand of a quorum of Active Member- offending member, on the instant of notification, shall
ship or upon recommendation of the Board of Directors no longer be a member of Jacksonville Scubanauts, Inc.
as ratified by a quorum of the Active Members present at (A Florida not for profit corporation) or any subsidiary
or any subsidiary
any meeting an
any meeting officer may
an officer from office.
removed from
be removed
may be office. (A Florida
thereof any for
for not reason orcorporation)
profit purpose whatsoever until the
Said officer must have the right to speak in his own be- thereof for any reason or purpose whatsoever until the
half. monthly meeting following such dismissal at which
time the offending member shall have the right to be
- Any officer missing three (3) consecutive meet- heard in their own behalf.
ings will be notified that unless he/she attends the next Artice XI.
meeting, his/her office will be considered vacant.
- That two-thirds of the Stockholders present at - Should any Active Member leave the corpora-
any meeting, so long as a quorum is present, can over- tion for any and all reasons whatsoever, that Active
ride the officers and Board of Directors upon motion Member shall immediately return any and all corporate
duly made and seconded by such Stockholders. property. The member shall also return any stock in
which that member own an interest.
- Upon the infraction of any diving rule as set forth
by the Dive Committee (said committee to be organized - Any member shall return their share of stock
and controlled by one of the Officers of the corporation upon demand of the corporation, for any reason.
as designated by the President of the corporation) or will- - The corporation shall keep in its records all is-
fully acting dangerously or causing harm to another per- sued shares of stock. The actual "shares" shall not be
son, or themselves while diving, that member shall be distributed to the member per agreement of the member
subject to immediate dismissal from the corporation. and the corporation.
Said member must have the right to be heard in their

194
Appendix U

195
 Ir:
~S~u~-~li~~~--LI-_
~gn~31, -111~
 JULIAN DATE CALENDAR
FOR LEAP YEARS ONLY

Day Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Day
1 001 032 061 092 122 153 183 214 245 275 306 336 1
2 002 033 062 093 123 154 184 215 246 276 307 337 2
3 003 034 063 094 124 155 185 216 247 277 308 338 3
4 004 035 064 095 125 156 186 217 248 278 309 339 4
5 005 036 065 096 126 157 187 218 249 279 310 340 5
6 006 037 066 097 127 158 188 219 250 280 311 341 6
7 007 038 067 098 128 159 189 220 251 281 312 342 7
8 008 039 068 099 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 343 8
9 009 040 069 100 130 161 191 222 253 283 314 344 9
10 010 041 070 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345 10
11 011 042 071 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346 11
12 012 043 072 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347 12
13 013 044 073 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348 13
14 014 045 074 105 135 166 196 227 258 288 319 349 14
15 015 046 075 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350 15
16 016 047 076 107 137 168 198 229 260 290 321 351 16
17 017 048 077 108 138 169 199 230 261 291 322 352 17
18 018 049 078 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353 18
19 019 050 079 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354 19
20 020 051 080 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355 20
21 021 052 081 112 142 173 203 234 265 295 326 356 21
22 022 053 082 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357 22
23 023 054 083 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358 23
24 024 055 084 115 145 176 206 237 268 298 329 359 24
25 025 056 085 116 146 177 207 238 269 299 330 360 25
26 026 057 086 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361 26
27 027 058 087 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 332 362 27
28 028 059 088 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363 28
29 029 060 089 120 150 181 211 242 273 303 334 364 29
30 030 090 121 151 182 212 243 274 304 335 365 30
31 031 091 152 213 244 • 305 366 31

(USE IN 1964, 1968, 1972, etc.) 6CO: 0-722-7

1/?7, /96 a OC97

197
 JULIAN DATE CALENDAR
(PERPETUAL)

Day Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Day
1 001 032 060 091 121 152 182 213 244 274 305 335 1
2 002 033 061 092 122 153 183 214 245 275 306 336 2
3 003 034 062 093 123 154 184 215 246 276 307 337 3
4 004 035 063 094 124 155 185 216 247 277 308 338 4
5 005 036 064 095 125 156 186 217 248 278 309 339 5
6 006 037 065 096 126 157 187 218- 249 279 310 340 6
7 007 038 066 097 127 158 188 219 250 280 311 341 7
8 008 039 067 098 128 159 189 220 251 281 312 342 8
9 009 040 068 099 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 343 9
10 010 041 069 100 130 161 191 222 253 283 314 344 10
11 011 042 070 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345 11
12 012 043 071 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346 12
13 013 044 072 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347 13
14 014 045 073 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348 14
15 015 046 074 105 135 166 196 227 258 288 319 349 15
16 016 047 075 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350 16
17 017 048 076 107 137 168 198 229 260 290 321 351 17
18 018 049 077 108 138 169 199 '230 261 291 322 352 18
19 019 050 078 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353 19
20 020 051 079 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354 20
21 021 052 080 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355 21
22 022 053 081 112 142 173 203 234 265 295 326 356 22
23 023 054 082 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357 23
24 024 055 083 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358 24
25 025 056 084 115 145 176 206 237 268 298 329 359 25
26 026 057 085 116 146 177 207 238 269 299 330 360 26
27 027 058 086 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361 27
28 028 059 087 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 332 362 28
29 029 088 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363 29
30 030 089 120 150 181 211 242 273 303 334 364 30

31 031 090 151 212 243 *304 365 31

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-ns-o,' FOR LEAP YEAR USE REVERSE SIDE

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