Introduction To Hydrology: Water Cycle
Introduction To Hydrology: Water Cycle
Introduction To Hydrology: Water Cycle
Water cycle
Welcome!
Hydrology is the science of water. It tries to describe and
understand how water moves over and through the Earth and
to find out what the physical processes are that drive the
movement of water. More simply, you could say that
"Hydrology is the science of the origin and fate of water on
Earth"
But if you ask me, I would just say that “Hydrology is
Beautiful”. Even if it rains, or especially when it rains.
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Because everything we do and because everything living on
Earth depends on water, there are large and important
scientific questions that demand our attention.
Such as: Where does the water come from?
How much water is there available for development, for
feeding hungry mouths and for a healthy environment?
How can we better protect ourselves from water threats, such
as floods and droughts?
How can we maintain a healthy environment in a rapidly
developing world?
How does climatic change propagate into the hydrological
behaviour and water resources availability?
In which way do we, as human beings, influence the hydrology,
and is there an interaction?
And many people (particularly politicians) want us to tell when
we can expect a flood.
But that, unfortunately, is a question we cannot answer.
We can communicate the probability of an extreme event to
occur, but not easily the moment when it will occur.
Prediction is difficult in hydrology, particularly when it relates
to the future!
The question “where the water comes from” has inspired the
great philosophers.
The early Greek philosophers indeed believed that river water
and groundwater were fed by rain, but they also liked to
compare the Earth to the human body.
Leonardo Da Vinci, whom we all know as the painter of the
Mona Lisa, was not only a great artist, he was also an engineer,
a writer and a scientist.
Leonardo wanted to understand what he painted.
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To be able to paint water and clouds realistically, he tried to
better understand how it behaved.
He developed instruments and devices to measure flow
velocity, wind velocity, air humidity etc. and he came to
incredibly accurate insights.
He even designed sluice gates that are still in use in The
Netherlands!
However, he respected the classical ideas of Plato so much,
that he thought that water was pumped through the Earth in
analogy to the human body and he thought that sea water was
pumped through the Earth to appear again on the top of
mountains.
It was more than 100 years later till the Frenchman Perrault
could demonstrate that precipitation was sufficient to
maintain the flow of the river Seine which was a revolutionary
idea because the famous English scientist Halley (the one from
the comet) still believed that much of the river water
originated in caves where moist air condensed against the cold
mountain rock.
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The world’s water resides in a system of interacting stocks and
fluxes. Stocks are represented by boxes; and fluxes by arrows.
These boxes and arrows have very different sizes and
magnitudes
By far the largest stock of water is in the oceans and seas. But
this water is saline. The largest stock of fresh water is in the
polar ice. But this is hardly accessible. Then there is a huge
stock of water deep under the ground: in large alluvial plains
and even under the Sahara. But this water is often fossil, not
being replenished at a human time scale. The only sustainable
stocks of water are the amounts that are regularly renewed
These stocks generally lie close to the surface. We have come
to indicate these stocks and fluxes by the colours blue and
green.
We distinguish the light blue water, which we can see on the
surface, from the deep blue water which feeds the surface
water from underground. An equally large resource is the
green water (a term coined by Prof Malin Falkenmark), which
is the water stored in the soil and used by plants to produce
biomass. This is the water that feeds the world population by
agricultural products and which sustains our biomass based
economies. Part of the precipitation does not become blue or
green water, but evaporates back to the atmosphere directly.
I name this white water.
Here we see an overview of the magnitudes of these stocks
and fluxes expressed per unit surface area. They are
approximate values, but they clearly show that some fluxes are
very large (the atmospheric flux) and some are very small
(deep blue). Conversely, we see very large stocks (the oceans),
whereas some are very small (the white stock). The right
column shows the ratio between the stocks and the fluxes,
which represents the residence time.
The water balance is the most basic equation in hydrology. It
implies conservation of mass. It shows that if there is an
imbalance between inflow and outflow, that there then should
be an increase of the storage over time.
Or: the time derivative of the storage is the difference
between inflow and outflow. In hydrology, the inflow can be
an inflow of water, but also precipitation on a surface.
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Outflow can be the river discharge, but also the evaporation
from the surface. An interesting property of such water
balance systems is that if we divide the storage by the outflow,
we obtain a number with a time dimension. This number
represents the average time that a water particle resides in the
stock. More correctly is it to say that this ratio of stock to flux
is the time scale of the process.
If we now look again at our global water resources table, then
we see that the Oceans have the largest residence time. Not
surprising. A water particle, once it ends up in the ocean, has
to wait on average 28000 years before it may again travel to
the land. In the atmosphere, however, a water particle resides
only a few weeks, on average. And thanks to the storage in the
root zone of plants, they can survive half a year without
rainfall, on average.
You may wonder why the flux from land to ocean (through the
rivers) is 310 mm/a and that while the flux from ocean to land
(through the atmosphere) is 130 mm/a.
How come these numbers are not equal? Shouldn’t they be
the same? Of course they are the same! We only have to
multiply them by the right surface area.
Because if we look at this picture, than, on average, the fluxes
A and Q should be equal and opposed. Otherwise the storage
in the ocean would either increase or decrease without end.
You may be wondering what happens with the moisture you
exhale. Does the moisture we exhale fall back as precipitation,
or does if flow back to the ocean through the air?
If we look at the global water balance again, then we see that
it rains 720 mm/a on Earth, while the net atmospheric influx is
only 310 mm/a; a factor 2.3! In fact a substantial part of the
precipitation finds its origin in terrestrial evaporation. If we
equate the terrestrial precipitation to 100%, then 40% of this
water comes from terrestrial evaporation. Just look at the
picture: Of the 100% precipitation about 70% evaporates.
A bit more than half of it returns on land and the rest flows
back to the ocean through the atmosphere. But it depends
strongly on where you are on Earth.
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This is the paper by Ruud van der Ent, which describes this in
detail.
As a result of the dominating westerly winds on the Northern
Hemisphere, exhaled moisture in The Netherlands is likely to
end up in China. But exhaled moisture in China is likely to end
up in the Pacific Ocean. Here we see in red the parts of the
world where the precipitation largely consists of recycled
moisture. We see that China and West Africa strongly depend
on recycled moisture. But where did this moisture come from?
Here we see in red the reverse. Red are the source areas
where the chance of evaporation ending up on land is larger
than 60% These are the areas where land evaporation has a
significant influence on precipitation. So the Amazon forest in
South America; the Great Lakes area in Africa and Eastern
Europe are very important source areas to sustain continental
rainfall And land use change in these areas may have
unexpected consequences downwind.
Although global hydrology is extremely relevant for the
analysis of human impacts on the planet, the natural limits of a
hydrological system are much smaller. The natural boundary of
a hydrological system is the watershed, catchment, or river
basin (in increasing order of size). This is because precipitation
falling on a catchment has only two ways out: discharge
through the outfall or evaporation back into the atmosphere.
There is no other inflow assumed to be there than the
precipitation. So the water balance reads that: The change of
storage over time equals the rainfall minus the evaporation,
minus the runoff through the outfall. Of course all terms in the
equation need to have the same dimensions, so if we express
precipitation and evaporation in [L/T] then they have to be
multiplied by the size of the catchment area A. But we could
also express all terms in [L/T] and in that case the discharge
and the storage need to be expressed per unit area. But is the
water divide always a real divide?
Not all runoff is generated over the surface. A considerable
part flows to the river through the groundwater, and because
of the sometimes complex geology the topographic divide and
the groundwater divide does not have to coincide.
Particularly in karstic or mountainous environments this can
lead to substantial errors when one tries to close the water
budget.
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Here we see the water budgets of some of the major river
basins of the world. We see that they differ in size (the
Mississippi and Ob being among the largest and the Rhine
being relatively small) We also see that the precipitation varies
from 1500 mm/a in the Mekong to only 220 mm/a in the Nile.
The evaporation from a catchment, of course, is always smaller
than the precipitation (because in a catchment the
precipitation is the only inflow) But the proportion of
evaporation to rainfall varies a lot between catchments. In the
Nile, the Zambezi and the Mississippi, containing substantial
semi‐arid parts, the evaporation is more than 80% of the
precipitation. But in more humid climates (particularly the
Orinoco) the evaporation is only 30% of the precipitation.
Of course, the remainder is the runoff. And the Orinoco where
30% of the precipitation evaporates, hence has a runoff ratio
of 70% The Orinoco drains essentially tropical rainforest.
Therefore it is interesting to see that another catchment that
generates a lot of runoff (60% of the precipitation) is a
catchment in cold Siberia. Both have insufficient solar energy
to evaporate most of the precipitation: the Orinoco because it
rains so much, the Ob because there is insufficient solar
energy.
So different regions and different landscapes behave very
differently all over the world. Hydrology is the science that
wants to describe and understand this behaviour. The
landscape reflects this behaviour and if we read the landscape
well, we can learn a lot more about its properties and
dynamics. I hope you enjoyed this part of the course and
remember: Hydrology is the basis of all other water‐related
disciplines and of the management of our resources.
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