ISU MODULE TEMPLATE

Subject: - Utilities 2

1. Title of the Module

Module 2, Chapter 2 Life Safety System

2. Overview / Introduction

The protection of building structure from hazards of fire is one utmost concern of the
government. Hence, planners and builders have their own contributions in this campaign, by
making their plans and constructions conform to the fire code requirements. Despite the
advancement in fire protection technology, fire is still common occurrence in buildings of all
types. Record showed that the loss of life and damages to property is considerably enormous in
every incident of fire.

3. Learning Outcome / Objective

The following are the learning outcome:

a. Identify, describe, distinguish between passive and active fire protection.
b. Identify, describe, distinguish and interpret fire resistance and spread of fire ratings.
c. Name, describe and distinguish between types and key components of building fire
extinguisher, sprinkler and stand pipe system, fire detection system
and fire alarm system.
d. Interpret building fire protection system design and detailing information.

4. Learning Content

a. What is the Difference Between Active and Passive Fire Protection?

It has become more apparent over the years how important it is to have adequate fire protection
in every building. For most people, what comes to mind when they think of fire protection are
smoke detectors and fire extinguishers. However, these two elements only cover a small portion
of the protection services you should have at all times. There are many parts of a building’s fire
protection that often go overlooked or are completely forgotten about. There are in fact two
types of fire protection: Active Fire Protection (AFP) and Passive Fire Protection (PFP). One
type of protection must not be chosen over the other. On the contrary, both AFP and PFP must
be used together for full fire protection. It is important to underst and the difference between
AFP and PFP so that you are confident that your building is protected by both types.

Active Fire Protection:

Active Fire Protection consists of the components of fire protection that require some kind of
action to work. This action may be manual, like using a fire extinguisher, or automatic like the
sprinkler system dousing flames. The action that results from active fire protection is triggered
by some sort of alert or signal. The action itself will help contain, suppress, or extinguish a fire
that has already started. Although fire suppression systems are the most obvious examples of
AFP, fire detection or fire alarm systems are equally as important and are also considered AFP.
After picking up a signal, these systems will trigger a response such as alerting the fire
department, activating sprinklers, or closing fire doors. Working fire alarm system and fire
suppression systems can greatly increase your chances of suppressing a fire or even
extinguishing it before it causes harm.

Passive Fire Protection

Passive Fire protection is frequently overlooked but is a fundamental component of your fire
protection. Despite its name, it is always working. PFP are a set of components used to
compartmentalized a building in order to keep a fire from spreading and require no action to
work. Passive fire protection is usually structural and built into the building. By using fire-
resistant walls and floors, PFP gives people time to escape from a building that has a fire.
Other examples of PFP include dampers which prevent the spread of fire and smoke through a
building’s ductwork, and fire doors which compartmentalize fires. Fire-proofing successfully
compartmentalizes fires and keeps damage to a minimum by eliminating possible fuel a fire
could use to spread or ignite with in the first place. A small fire or a fire restricted to a small area
gives you a greater chance of putting it out, avoiding costs, and avoiding injury.

b. Classes of fire
• Class A - fires involving solid materials such as wood, paper or textiles.
• Class B - fires involving flammable liquids such as petrol, diesel or oils.
• Class C - fires involving gases.
• Class D - fires involving metals.
• Class E - fires involving live electrical apparatus. (Technically ‘Class E’ doesn’t exists
however this is used for convenience here)
• Class F - fires involving cooking oils such as in deep-fat fryers.
Types of extinguishers

Water extinguishers
Water extinguishers are one of the most cost-effective ways to fight Class A fires, those fuelled
by solid materials such as paper, wood and textiles.
There are four different types of water extinguishers: water jet, water spray, water with additives
and water mist or fog.
• Water jet extinguishers work by spraying a jet of water at the burning materials, cooling
them and preventing re-ignition. They should not be used on live electrical equipment.
• Water spray extinguishers use a very fine spray of water droplets, each droplet is
surrounded by air which is non-conductive. Most water spray fire extinguishers carry a
35 kV dielectric test approval which means they have been tested on a 35,000 Volt
electrical source at one meter.
• Water extinguishers with additives are water extinguishers with foaming chemicals
added. The water loses its natural surface tension meaning that it can soak into the
burning materials more effectively. Adding the chemicals to the water means that a
smaller extinguisher can produce the same fire rating as a larger, water only,
extinguisher.
 • Water mist, or fog, extinguishers apply water in the form of mist, or fog, the droplets are
much smaller than those from the water spray extinguisher. The smaller the droplet, the
larger its surface area in relation to its size, the quicker the droplet evaporates which
absorbs the heat energy faster. The downside is the smaller the droplet the less it
weighs and therefore the less powerful the cloud of water.
All water extinguishers have a red label.
Foam extinguishers
Foam fire extinguishers can be used on Class A and B fires. They are most suited to
extinguishing liquid fires such as petrol or diesel and are more versatile than water jet
extinguishers because they can also be used on solids such as wood and paper. The foam
extinguishes liquid fires by sealing the surface of the liquid, preventing flammable vapour
reaching the air and starving the fire of fuel. They are not suitable for use on free flowing liquid
fires.
Foam extinguishers have a cream label.
Powder extinguishers
Powder extinguishers are a good multi-purpose fire extinguisher because they can be used on
Class A, B and C fires. They can also be used on fires involving electrical equipment however,
they do not cool the fire so it can re-ignite. Powder extinguishers can also create a loss of
visibility and may create breathing problems. They are not generally recommended for use
inside buildings unless there is absolutely no alternative.
Powder extinguishers have a blue label.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers (CO2)
CO2 extinguishers are ideal for places with a lot of electrical equipment such as offices or
server rooms because they are safe to use on fires involving electrical apparatus. Carbon
dioxide extinguishers do not leave any residue, unlike a foam extinguisher. They can also be
used on Class B fires, those involving flammable liquids such paraffin or petrol. CO2
extinguishers work by smothering the fire and cutting off the supply of air.
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers (CO2) have a black label.
Wet chemical extinguishers
Wet chemical extinguishers are suitable for use on Class F fires involving cooking oils and fats,
such as lard, olive oil, sunflower oil, maize oil and butter. They are extremely effective, when
used correctly. The wet chemical rapidly knocks the flames out, cools the burning oil and
chemically reacts to form a soap-like solution, sealing the surface and preventing re-ignition.
Although they are primarily designed for use on Class F fires, cooking oils and deep fat fryers.
They can also be used on Class A fires (wood, paper and fabrics) and Class B fires (flammable
liquids).
Wet chemical extinguishers have a yellow label.
Fire blankets
Fire blankets are primarily for use on hot oil fires such as frying pans or small deep fat fryers.
They can also be used on someone whose clothing has caught fire. They work by smothering
the fire, stopping access to the oxygen fuelling it and extinguishing it.

c. Fire Protection system

FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS

Purpose of Fire Alarm Systems
A properly designed, installed, operated, and maintained fire alarm system can reduce the
losses associated with an unwanted fire in any building. These losses include property and,
more importantly, human life. The primary motivation for fire alarm system requirements in
building and fire codes is to provide early notification to building occupants so they can exit the
building, and to notify the fire service so it can respond to the fire. In settings such as hospitals
the fire alarm system provides notification to staff so they can respond to the fire emergency (as
opposed to evacuating the building). This module will explain the basic features of fire alarm
systems and the inspection of these systems. It should be noted that fire alarm systems also are
called "protective signaling systems," especially in NFPA documents and in other codes and
standards.
Basic Components of a Fire Alarm System
Fire alarm systems generally have the following components.
Alarm Initiating Device Circuits
These are the circuits which connect initiating devices such as smoke detectors, heat detectors,
manual pull stations, and water flow alarms. Additionally, many system monitor devices
important to the overall fire safety of the building also tie in to initiating circuits. These devices
indicate an "abnormal" condition, not a fire or "alarm" condition. They
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are referred to as "supervisory devices." One example would be the valve supervisory switch or
tamper switch of a valve controlling the automatic sprinkler system. These types of devices also
may be connected to supervisory type circuits.
Alarm Indicating Appliance Circuits
Audible and visible alarm indicating appliances tie in to these circuits to provide warning to the
building occupants. Devices which send a signal off premises also can be connected to these
circuits.
Fire Alarm Control Panel
The fire alarm control panel contains the electronics that supervise and monitor the fire alarm
system. The initiating and indicating circuits are connected directly into this panel.
Primary Power Supply
The primary electrical supply powers the entire fire alarm system. Primary power for fire alarm
systems typically is provided by connecting into the local commercial power service.
Secondary Power Supply
A separate power supply that will operate automatically when the primary power fails and is
capable of operating the entire system is considered a secondary power supply.
Initiating Devices
Initiating devices fall into one of two main categories: either those that indicate an alarm
condition, or those that indicate an abnormal condition of a monitored device. A brief description
of the common types of devices follows.
Fire detection can occur by using any device that responds to conditions caused by fire. The
most common byproducts of fire are heat, smoke, flames, and fire gases.
In addition, people can detect a fire and initiate an alarm by activating a manual pull station.
Also, when a sprinkler system activates and causes an alarm, it is a result of the sprinkler
system detecting heat produced by the fire (if the sprinklers have fusible links). We will now look
briefly at heat
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detectors, smoke detectors, flame detectors, gas sensors, manual fire alarm boxes, automatic
suppression systems, and indicating appliances.
Heat Detectors
Heat detectors commonly are used to detect fires. They are not as prone to false alarms and
are less expensive than smoke detectors. However, the response of heat detectors may not be
adequate in many instances, which limits their usefulness. Heat detectors are slower to respond
to fires than are smoke detectors because heat detectors cannot respond to smoke. Heat
detectors typically are best suited for detecting fast-growing fires in small spaces. Heat
detectors are also a means of fire detection in locations that smoke detectors cannot protect
due to such environmental effects as mist, normally occurring smoke, and high humidity. Heat
detectors have several different operating mechanisms.
Fusible-element type mechanisms use a eutectic alloy that melts rapidly at a predetermined
fixed temperature. When this temperature is reached and the fusible alloy melts, an electrical
contact occurs and causes an alarm. Fusible alloys also are commonly used in sprinkler heads.
These mechanisms must be replaced after each operation.
Bimetallic type mechanisms combine two metals with different thermal expansion coefficients.
As the mechanism heats, one metal expands more than the other, causing a deflection in the
shape of the element. This deflection causes an electrical contact, thus initiating an alarm.
These types of mechanisms are self-resetting as the element cools.
Rate-compensated heat detectors respond to a given temperature of the surrounding air
regardless of the rate at which the temperature rises. This, in effect, compensates for thermal
lag, which standard thermal detectors do not do. This can be compared to the rate-of-rise
detectors discussed immediately below.
Some heat detectors operate on what is commonly referred to as the "rate of rise" principle.
Regardless of the ambient temperature, if the detector senses a rise in temperature exceeding a
set amount, an alarm occurs. One method of accomplishing this is using a container that has a
small vent hole. As air is heated it expands; this can cause a set of contacts
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to close and send an alarm. If the expanding air can leak out of a vent hole, the resulting
pressure will be reduced. However, if the air expands at a rate faster than the vent hole can
compensate for, the contacts will close and an alarm will be sent.
Combination heat detectors can combine the two operating principles of reaching a fixed
temperature and reaching a set rate of rise. Smoke and heat detectors also can be combined
into a single unit. It should be noted that some combination smoke/heat detectors activate when
either condition is reached, while others require both the smoke and heat mechanisms to
operate. In most cases, little benefit, if any, results from the combination detector which requires
both heat and smoke to cause an alarm.
Other types of heat detectors include heat-sensitive cables and liquid expansion detectors.
Figure 1 Heat Detectors
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Smoke Detectors
One cannot overemphasize the benefits of smoke detectors. However, smoke detectors are not
usable in all environments and their effectiveness varies depending on the fire scenario and
occupant capability. The two basic operating mechanisms currently used in smoke detectors are
photoelectric and ionization.
Ionization smoke detectors have a small amount of a radioactive material located within the
detector that "ionizes" the air entering the detection chamber. Once ionized, the air particles
become conductive, allowing a current to flow through the detector circuitry. Smoke entering the
ionization chamber causes a reduction in the current flowing through the detector's circuitry. At a
certain reduced level of current flow, the detector signals an alarm.
Figure 2
Example of Ionization Smoke Detector with Air Sampling Tubes
for Installation in Duct Work for Air Handling System
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Photoelectric smoke detectors use one of two methods to detect smoke; however, both use a
light-emitting source and a receiver. Photoelectric smoke detectors that operate on the "light
obscuration" principle work as follows. A light source is directed at a receiver which is
accustomed to receiving a certain intensity of light. When smoke particles enter the detection
chamber they partially block the light traveling from the emitter to the receiver. When the light is
reduced or obscured by a certain amount, the detector's built-in circuitry sounds an alarm.
The second operating principle used in photoelectric detectors is that of "light scattering." It is
more common and operates as follows. The receiver in the detection chamber is located so that
the light emitted is normally not "seen" by the receiver. That is, the light emitter and receiver are
not aligned as with the light obscuration method. When smoke enters the detection chamber,
light from the emitter strikes it. A fraction of the light striking the smoke particles is scattered or
"reflected" away from the smoke particle. Some of this scattered light lands on, or strikes, the
photo receiver. When a preset amount of light lands on the receiver, the detector signals an
alarm.
Detectors that operate on the photoelectric principle are generally appropriate in locations
where slow-growing, smoldering fires are expected. These fires typically generate large size
particles (0.3-10 microns). They also respond better to light gray smoke as opposed to very dark
smoke. Ionization-type detectors respond better to fast-flowing, flaming fires that produce
smaller particles (0.01-3.0 microns). Ionization detectors respond better to dark smoke than to
light smoke. Photoelectric detectors are better suited than ionization detectors for locations with
high humidity. Air velocity also may affect smoke detector operation.
A special type of photoelectric smoke detector is the projected-beam detector. Here the
operating principle is the same as a light-obscuration- based detector but the light emitter and
the receiver are physically separated across large areas (e.g., the length of a room). Smoke at
any location between the two components can result in an alarm. These detectors also can be
used in conjunction with mirror systems so that the projected beam is directed in several
directions before ultimately striking the receiver.
Another special type of smoke detector is the cloud chamber smoke detector. This detection
system uses a pump to sample
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the air from a given room. The air is pumped into a high humidity chamber and the pressure in
the chamber then is reduced slightly. If smoke particles are present, as the pressure is lowered,
moisture will condense on the smoke particles. This creates a "cloud" within the chamber. The
photoelectric principle discussed above is then used to detect the presence of the "cloud" and,
hence, smoke.
Figure 3
Examples of Photoelectric Smoke Detectors
Light Obscuration Principle
Figure 4
Example of Beam Smoke Detector
Recent data indicate that health care facilities, for example, are experiencing an average of
approximately 15 unwanted alarms for every real alarm. One problem resulting from these high
averages is that people may ignore the fire alarm's warnings during fire drills and actual
emergencies, believing it to be "just another false alarm." Quite obviously this could lead to a
tragedy. Many of the unwanted alarms are attributed to "field" problems such as insects in the
detector and other maintenance deficiencies.
Some modifications in detector design are helping to reduce the unwanted alarm problem.
Alarm verification recently was approved by U/L. This allows the fire alarm panel to "wait" for a
specified time period to see whether the signal from the detector is just from a brief exposure to
smoke or from electrical "noise." Device manufacturers are modifying their
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products continually to reduce the unwanted alarm rate. System maintenance can have a
profound effect on the false alarms at facilities.
There are other ways to deal with the unwanted alarm situation: proper system design,
installation, and acceptance test procedures. For example, the specification could specify a
certain sensitivity rating such as 2.5 percent or 3 percent which would eliminate detectors that
are too sensitive. During the acceptance test one should verify the sensitivity of the detectors.
Also, proper location of smoke detectors with respect to air diffusers will assist in reducing
unwanted alarms. As a general rule of thumb, a detector should have a three-foot separation
from a supply air diffuser.
Flame Detectors
Another method of fire detection is detectors that are sensitive to the light waves emitted by
fires. These typically operate by detecting ultraviolet (UV) or infrared (IR) energy. These
detectors are extremely quick to operate and typically are used only in high hazard areas such
as industrial process facilities, fuel-loading areas, and areas where explosions may occur.
Explosion suppression systems protect them. One problem with IR detectors is that they will
respond to sunlight, creating an unwanted alarm problem. Besides, both types of flame
detectors must "see" the flame to detect it so they usually have to be pointed toward the
locations where fires are likely to originate.
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Figure 5 Infrared Flame Detectors

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 6 Ultraviolet Flame Detectors
Gas Sensing and Other Phenomena Detectors
Gas sensing detectors and "other phenomena" detectors are not common. Special gas
detectors sense specific gases given off by a fire; these gases indicate a fire. For example,
there are carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide detectors. The use of carbon monoxide gas
detectors in the home is becoming very popular as a way of warning residents of gases
produced by malfunctioning heating equipment.
Basically, any method of fire detection not already mentioned is considered under the "other
phenomena" category. One example is pressure. If a fire burns in a sealed room (the Apollo
capsule, for example), excessive pressures develop quickly and can be detected. Some
explosion detection devices operate this way.
Manual Fire Alarm Boxes (Pull Stations)
Very common initiating devices, the manual fire alarm boxes usually are referred to as manual
pull stations. These are simple devices which operate manually, i.e., they require that a person
operate the mechanism. These are found throughout building hallways, near exits, and at other
strategic locations such as a nurse's station or security center.
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Figure 7 Manual Pull Box
The manual fire alarm devices provide a means of manually activating the fire alarm system and
are used in all types of fire alarm systems. They may be the only initiating devices provided, or
they may be used with automatic initiating devices, such as heat or smoke detectors.
Manual fire stations generally are located near main exits from a building or from a floor of a
multistory building and in certain work areas containing unusual fire hazards, valuable
equipment, or records subject to fire damage. Paint shops, aircraft repair areas, computer
rooms, and telephone equipment rooms are examples of such work areas.
Automatic Suppression Systems
Fire suppression systems can connect into a fire alarm panel so that activation of the system
causes the panel to signal an alarm. Wet pipe automatic sprinkler systems commonly have
water flow detectors. As water starts to flow in the sprinkler piping, it causes a vane to swing into
an alarm position; this sends an alarm to the fire alarm panel. Dry pipe sprinkler systems may
have pressure sensors for the same reason.
All other fire suppression systems also can be connected to the fire alarm panel. As mentioned
above, not all devices signal an alarm condition.
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Many devices tie into the fire alarm system so that they will alert for abnormal conditions.
Perhaps the most common example is that of a valve supervisory switch or "tamper switch" on a
sprinkler system. To assure valves that control a sprinkler system are in the proper position,
they can have a tamper switch that will operate if the valve position changes. If the valve moves,
a signal will appear at the fire alarm panel indicating the valve should be inspected. This is
important since someone could inadvertently, or purposely, close a valve on the sprinkler
system, rendering the system inoperable.
Many other indicating devices can connect into the fire alarm panel for supervision. The
following is a partial list.
• water level and temperature in a gravity tank;
• water level and air pressure in storage tank;
• status of fire pump;
• air pressure on dry pipe system; and
• temperature in the sprinkler control valve room.
Figure 8
Examples of Water Flow Detectors
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Indicating Appliances
Signal Circuit Appliances
When a fire alarm system goes into an alarm condition because of the operation of an initiating
device, several activities can occur. NFPA 101 and the building codes may require that a signal
be sent to the fire department. Activation of the fire alarm panel may cause other events to
happen. In most cases the fire alarm system also provides audible and visual indications that an
alarm condition has occurred. This latter function is the most important when considering an
occupied building.
Figure 9
Audible and Visual Alarm Appliances on Indicating Circuits
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A fire alarm panel also can perform functions as needed or required. Examples of these would
be to control a remote annunciator or to operate relays that capture and recall elevators. These
and other functions will be discussed further in following sections.
Figure 10
Local Fire Alarm System Diagram
Secondary Power Supply
The secondary, or backup, power supply is required so that fire alarm operations can continue if
failure of the main power supply occurs. The secondary power supply should activate
automatically within 30 seconds of the primary power failure to maintain its normal operating
voltage. Secondary power supplies should be capable of powering the system at maximum
loading for at least a 24-hour period and then be capable of operating all alarm appliances for
another 5 minutes. The time period requirements for secondary power operation capabilities
vary and can be found in NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code. Batteries with chargers are a
common form of secondary power supply and engine-driven generators also are acceptable.
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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS Trouble Signal

An important feature of any fire alarm system is the trouble signal. Upon the detection of an
abnormal condition within the fire alarm system, the trouble alarm signal activates to attract
attention to the system so that the condition can be repaired. NFPA 72 requires as a minimum
that all systems provide an abnormal condition trouble signal for a signal open or ground fault of
the system's initiating, indicating circuits, and loss of primary and secondary power supply to the
system.
All components of fire alarm systems should be listed for fire alarm system use by an
acceptable testing agency such as Underwriters Laboratories (U/L). Additionally, all components
must be used only for the specific function for which they have been designed and tested.
Types of Fire Alarm Systems
In 1993 the National Fire Protection Association incorporated all of the existing 72 series
standards into one standard that also included NFPA 71. This new standard is titled NFPA 72,
National Fire Alarm Code.
Fire alarm systems can be designed and configured to meet the requirements of local fire
codes. In addition to the basic features or components common to most fire alarm systems,
there are several "types" of fire alarm systems. These are described here (with a reference to
the standard prior to being incorporated into NFPA 72).
Local Protective Signaling System
This type of fire alarm is contained entirely within the building which it services. The main
purpose of this type of system is to provide an evacuation alarm for occupants of that building.
The system need not be connected by any means to the fire service. Therefore, notification of
the fire service can occur only if someone hearing the evacuation alarm calls and reports the fire
alarm. This is the most common type of fire alarm and was covered previously in NFPA 72A,
now part of NFPA 72.
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Auxiliary Protective Signaling System
This type of system is connected to a municipal coded fire alarm box dedicated to that building.
Upon activation of the fire alarm within the building, the municipal box is tripped and sends a
signal to the fire service. It uses the same line as the street fire alarm boxes available to the
public. This type of system, covered previously in NFPA 72B, is now part of NFPA 72.
Remote Station Protective Signaling System
This type of system uses leased telephone lines to connect the fire alarm system of a given
building to a remote receiving station such as the local fire or police station. This type of system,
covered previously in NFPA 72C, is now part of NFPA 72.
Central Station Protective Signaling System
In this type of system the fire alarm system is connected to a privately owned central station.
The central station monitors the fire alarm system and takes the necessary action when an
alarm is received, such as to call the local fire department to report an activated fire alarm. This
type of system, covered previously in NFPA 71, is now part of NFPA 72.
Proprietary Protective Signaling System
This type of system is similar to the central station system discussed above, except that the
central station is owned by the same concern as the building being monitored. The building(s)
being protected may or may not be on the same property as the central station. Many large
facilities use this type of system with the security center serving as the central station. This type
of system, covered previously in NFPA 72D, is now part of NFPA 72.
Voice-Alarm Communication System
Systems can include an emergency voice/alarm communication system. Inclusion of this
equipment within the fire alarm system provides for the transmission of information to occupants
of the building. The fire
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department also can use this equipment while operating within the building. This type of
equipment, covered previously in NFPA 72F, is now part of NFPA 72.
Audible and Visual Alarm Indicators
To make occupants of a building aware of a possible fire emergency, they must be notified in
some manner. Fire alarm systems typically accomplish this through audible and visual indicating
devices. So that occupants don't mistake the signals' purpose, and because the building may be
occupied by handicapped persons, there is a need for both types of signals. For example, a
deaf person will not hear a fire alarm bell and a blind person cannot see a fire alarm strobe light.
Bells, chimes, horns, buzzers, and speakers as well as strobe lights, rotating beacons, and
flashing lights are common examples of these devices. Many times the audible devices will ring
in what is referred to as "march time." This means the ringing is not constant but in an on-off
manner. The flashing of lights or strobes acts better to alert occupants than a steadily
illuminated light. It is common practice, but not always desirable, to locate the audible and visual
devices in one unit.
In addition to march-time signals, there are "coded signals." Coded signals, as the name
implies, have a pattern (code) that provides information regarding the initiation of the alarm. The
code may indicate a location such as a floor or wing where the alarm started. It also could alert
the occupants about the required action. The extent and meaning of any coded fire alarm signal
must suit the needs of a particular facility. In hospitals, for example, where loudspeaker
warnings are common, either coded or direct, such warnings and any fire alarm warnings need
coordination so that the two do not interfere with one another. All signaling systems should be
engineered and tested to ensure they are capable of alerting all occupants. This requires a
knowledge of the anticipated background noises. For example, a mechanical room that has
equipment operating that produces high noise levels may require special attention.
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Other Functions Controlled By Fire Alarm Systems
As mentioned above, fire alarm systems can do more than receive an indication of an
emergency and send an alarm. This section will identify some of the common functions
controlled by fire alarm systems. The list is not intended to be all-inclusive.
The fire alarm panel can send a signal to the fire department or other desired facility via one of
the methods described at the beginning of this section. Elevator capture and recall is a common
function that fire alarm panels can perform easily. Upon receiving an alarm, the fire alarm panel
can operate one or more relays that control the actions of the elevator. The heating, ventilating,
and air conditioning system (HVAC) or a smoke control system also can be controlled through
fire alarm panels.
Fire alarm systems frequently include remote annunciators. Briefly, a remote annunciator
"displays" the condition of the fire alarm panel at a remote location, usually through lights
(LEDs) on graphic or tabular displays. Remote annunciators also can have switches that control
the main fire alarm panel. The fire alarm panel may be in a secured area out of the public way.
However, it must be remembered that those investigating an alarm need to inspect the
indicators on a fire alarm or annunciator panel to determine the cause of the alarm and the
location of the initiating device. Remote annunciators can be at locations such as the main lobby
of a building, or at a security desk, so that the needed information on the condition of the fire
alarm panel is readily available.
Earlier we said that fire suppression systems can tie into fire alarm panels so that their
activation is monitored. Another important function that a fire alarm panel can control is the
activation of fire suppression systems. In this function, the fire alarm panel identifies a fire
through its initiating circuits, and activates a fire suppression system such as a halon or CO2
system, through a control circuit. This means that fire alarm systems can both alert when a fire
suppression system is activated, and serve as a control mechanism when suppression systems
are activated. Other types of fire suppression systems that fire alarm panels can control are
preaction and deluge sprinkler systems. We will talk more about these later.
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 FIRE SUPPRESSION AGENTS AND SYSTEMS Basic Fire Suppression
Fire suppression and extinguishment involve two essential variables: the extinguishing agent
and the system or procedure for applying the agent. The primary methods of achieving fire
suppression can be explained through the use of the fire tetrahedron which evolved from the
familiar fire triangle. The fire triangle is a graphic representation of the three components that
must be present for combustion to occur: 1) fuel, 2) heat, and 3) oxygen. If some of these
components are removed or sufficiently reduced, combustion ceases. Fire suppression involves
the removal or reduction of one or more components of the fire triangle. Or so it was thought
until fairly recently.
With the advent of halon and a re-evaluation of the dry chemical extinguishing agents, came a
necessity to modify the fire triangle. In addition to the removal of one of the three components
just described, fire can be put out by interfering with the complex chemical reactions that are
constantly occurring during the combustion process. This "uninhibited chain reaction" now adds
a fourth side to the fire triangle, and the fire triangle becomes the fire tetrahedron.
Water
Water is the most common fire extinguishing agent used because it has several features that
make it a desirable extinguishing agent. It also has some limitations. Water can extinguish fire
by cooling the fuel below the temperature at which the fuel can produce flammable vapors.
Water also can extinguish by smothering, dilution, and emulsification.
Water has a very high specific heat; it needs a great deal of heat before it can change from the
liquid to the gaseous phase. Therefore, water applied to a fire will absorb a large portion of the
heat released by the fire. If there is enough water to absorb the heat, the fire will go out since
the fuel cools below the temperature required to liberate additional flammable vapors. Once
water is converted to steam, it is still an effective fire extinguishing agent, since the steam can
continue to absorb a great deal of heat. It is best to introduce water into the fire area in the form
of a spray as opposed to a stream. A spray will allow for the quicker absorption of heat. For this
reason, sprinklers discharge water in a spray pattern.
SM PS-20

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

When water transforms into steam, its volume increases approximately 1,600 times. This acts
to displace the oxygen from the fire area. This will result in the smothering, or oxygen depletion,
of the fire. Without adequate oxygen, the fire soon will die. Thus, water transferring to steam
acts as a suppression agent in two ways: heat absorption and oxygen displacement.
Extinguishment by dilution means the introduction of water into a burning liquid. The dilution
acts to cool the liquid and reduces the vapor production at the fuel surface, since the flammable
liquid is diluted.
Emulsification is another method of fire extinguishment using water. Basically, an emulsion is
formed when immiscible liquids are mixed and one of the liquids becomes dispersed in the
other. The emulsion that forms at the surface will retard the liberation of flammable vapors and
the fire will die. Dilution and emulsification have several limitations and generally are not a good
way to extinguish a fire. Spills and boilovers may occur in some tanks, causing the fire to spread
and possibly causing injuries.
Perhaps the main benefit of water as a suppression agent is that it is relatively cheap and
readily available in most areas, especially if there is a municipal water supply. The major
limitations of water are that it is extremely heavy, it conducts electricity, it can damage property,
and it can freeze. However, there are design methods, including the selection of other agents,
that can minimize the negative aspects of water as a suppression agent.
Water With Modifiers
Occasionally the water used for fire suppression has modifiers added to change some of its
characteristics. Foam is perhaps the most common example. Low- to high-expansion foam
concentrates frequently are added to water to form a foam solution for fighting certain types of
fire, such as flammable liquid spills. Additives also include surface tension reducing agents
frequently called wetting agents. These increase the ability of water to penetrate combustibles;
in turn this allows the water to attack deep-seated fire. Antifreeze is used to reduce the freezing
point of water when temperatures at or below freezing threaten the proper use of water- based
fire suppression systems. NFPA's Fire Protection Handbook discusses other water additives
used with less frequency.
SM PS-21

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

CO2 is a substance with many commercial uses. Perhaps the most familiar is the carbonation in
soda pop and other carbonated beverages. CO2 also
has a number of properties which make it a good fire extinguishing agent. One of the most
common uses of CO2 systems is to protect kitchen cooking equipment. The hood, ducts, and
enclosed broilers may be protected with a total flooding application. Deep fryers require local
application protection.
At room temperature and pressure, CO2 can exist as a vapor or a solid. Eventually the solid
form (dry ice) will transfer to the gaseous form. For fire extinguishing purposes CO2 cannot exist
at pressures below 75.1 psi absolute (about 60 psi). At this pressure, the liquid, vapor, and solid
phases of CO2 can all exist simultaneously. This point is of importance when designing piping
systems to carry liquid CO2. Pressure in the pipeline must not drop below this point or the
attendant formation of dry ice will block the pipe and stop the flow.
In any fire, heat results from the rapid oxidation of the fuel. Some of the heat generated brings
the unburned portion of the fuel to its ignition temperature, while a large portion of the heat and
combustion escapes by radiation and convection to the surroundings. If the atmosphere that
supplies oxygen to the fire is diluted by adding carbon dioxide, the rate of heat generated by
oxidation is reduced. When the rate of heat generation is less than the rate of heat loss, the fire
will die. Complete extinguishment will occur when all of the fuels involved cool below their
ignition temperatures.
When the liquid is discharged to atmospheric pressure, it "flashes" over to vapor and dry ice.
The percentage of dry ice and vapor produced depends primarily on the storage condition of the
liquid. The superheated CO2 vapor is about 50 percent more dense than air. The dry ice has a
temperature of about -110°F at atmospheric pressure. In spite of the low temperature of the dry
ice particles, the heat capacity of the CO2 is rather low compared to other fire extinguishing
agents such as water. Thus the cooling effect, though present, is not as significant on a pound-
for-pound basis as the cooling produced by water. Most of the dry ice from a typical total
flooding discharge is sublimated by the air in the enclosure.
SM PS-22

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The evaporation of the dry ice in the fire zone removes heat from surroundings at a rate
between 60 and 110 Btus per pound of liquid CO2 discharged. While this cooling is small
compared with the cooling obtained with other agents (water provides ten times the cooling
effect per pound), it does contribute to extinguishing effectiveness.
The relative high density of CO2 vapor makes it useful for blanketing the surface of a fuel. The
oxygen in the surrounding air physically separates
from the surface of a fuel. This effect is noticeable particularly with local application.
Halon
Halon is a fire extinguishing agent commonly used to protect electronic and electrical
equipment, surface burning solids such as some plastics, flammable liquids, and gases. Halon
generally is not successful in protecting reactive metals (e.g., magnesium, sodium, etc.) and in
extinguishing many fires that can become deep seated. For these fires, high concentrations and
a long soak time would be required. Fuels that contain their own oxidizing agent will burn freely
in halon, making it ineffective. Halons also are quite expensive, a concern when determining the
type of agent and system to use for fire protection.
Halon extinguishes fire by entering into, and disrupting, the chemical combustion chain reaction;
the exact mechanism still is not understood completely. This is unique for a fire extinguishing
agent in that it affects the chemical chain reaction as opposed to quenching (removal of heat by
water) or smothering (by CO2).
The breaking of the chain reaction allows halon to suppress fires quickly. In addition, halon is
considered a "clean" agent, in that it leaves no residue after discharge. It is almost completely
electrically nonconductive; hence its wide use in electronics. Halon is also noncorrosive to many
materials. Since Halon 1301 is a gas when discharged, it has good volume filling capabilities.
However, Halon 1211, another fairly common agent, does not vaporize as readily as Halon
1301. The concentrations required typically are low, on the order of five percent by volume. This
results in smaller storage containers. Halon is approximately 2-1/2 times more effective than
CO2 on a weight basis. Finally, halon is colorless, which allows people caught in a discharge to
see through it.
SM PS-23

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Halon systems often protect data processing centers and other areas which contain sensitive
electrical equipment. Such systems also exist in electric and telephone switchgear rooms. In
addition to the type of hazard protected, another critical criterion for using halon is the need to
provide a tight enclosure. Since halon is a gas, it can leak through improperly sealed openings
and, as a result, the required design density is not maintained.
Lately, there has been great concern over the effects halon has on the environment, and in
particular its depletion effect on the ozone layer. This has resulted in a re-evaluation of the use
of halon as a fire suppression agent. In addition, the use of halon in acceptance testing has
been subject to study, and options such as using different test gases (e.g., sulfur hexafluoride,
SF6) are now being evaluated. Several new products are now under development to replace the
halon agent in existing fire suppression systems.
Dry Chemical
Dry chemical extinguishing agents can extinguish extremely fast if introduced directly into the
flaming area. Smothering and cooling result from the application of dry chemical agents, but the
primary extinguishing capabilities result from the combustion-chain-reaction-breaking abilities of
the dry chemical agent. This is the same principal extinguishing feature of halons.
Dry chemical fire suppression systems use a dry chemical powder mixture as an extinguishing
agent. Common dry chemical agents include sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, urea-
potassium bicarbonate, and monoammonium phosphate. Additives in the base compound
reduce caking, promote water repellence, and increase flow and storage characteristics.
Examples of common additives include metallic stearates, tricalcium phosphates, and silicones.
Multipurpose dry chemical usually refers to the monoammonium agent which can be used to
suppress fires involving ordinary combustibles, and energized electrical equipment as well as
flammable liquids.
Regular dry chemical is not considered a good agent for ordinary combustibles, since water also
must be applied to attack any subsurface burning which the regular dry chemical cannot reach.
The multipurpose agent does have penetrating abilities, thus its multipurpose listing. Agents
should never be mixed unless specifically listed for mixing, as some agents will generate CO2.
This may cause containers to explode and the agent to cake.
SM PS-24

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Dry chemical agents can be applied via portable fire extinguishers, hand hoselines, or fixed
systems. Portable extinguishers and fixed systems are covered later in this section.
Here are some examples of hazards for which dry chemical agents are effective.
• Flammable and combustible liquids and combustible gases.
• Combustible solids that melt when involved in fire (such as
naphthalene and pitch).
• Those fuels released from transfer facilities, including transfer piping leaks.
• Electrical hazards similar to transformers and oil circuit breakers.
• Multipurpose, ordinary combustibles and some plastics, if all
involved surfaces can be covered by the agent.
• Kitchen hoods and ducts as well as surface cooking units and deep fat fryers (a very common
application).
Here are examples of hazards for which dry chemical agents are not considered satisfactory.
• Chemicals containing their own oxygen supply, such as cellulose nitrate.
• Combustible metals, unless the agent is specifically listed for such use.
• Deep-seated fires in ordinary combustibles when multipurpose dry chemical agents cannot
cover all involved surfaces.
• In addition, it is not wise to use a dry chemical to prevent reignition if a heat source is present.
Dry chemical agents are likely to leave sticky residues, may adhere to electrical components,
are slightly corrosive, and may affect occupant breathing and reduce vision. If the agent does
become moist, it may not flow properly through the systems and will not discharge properly. Dry
chemical agents, however, are considered nontoxic.
SM PS-25

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 11
Local Application Dry Chemical System Installation
Wet Chemical
Wet chemical suppression agents are a relatively new means of suppressing fires involving
cooking equipment. Leading manufacturers of wet chemical suppression systems introduced
these systems in the early 1980s. Wet chemical suppression systems currently are accepted
only for the protection of restaurant, commercial, and institutional hoods, plenums, ducts, and
associated cooking appliances. Only pre-engineered systems are used.
Wet chemical extinguishing agents typically are potassium carbonate- based, potassium
acetate-based, or a combination of these, mixed with water. These solutions are alkaline-based
and discharge through system piping by an expellent gas. The primary extinguishing capability
of the wet agent is its characteristic of mixing with cooking grease to form a foam barrier over
the burning fuel. This blanket effect prevents the flammable volatiles from mixing with the
oxygen needed for combustion. It also acts to cool the fuel surface; this aids in fire suppression.
SM PS-26

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The wet chemical agents generally are harmless to humans. Any effects that may occur usually
disappear once contact with the agent ends. The agents may have corrosive effects on some
metals; the manufacturer's literature should be consulted for such information. Manufacturers'
warnings to use the right agent in the right system are very important. In part, this is due to the
testing of specific systems with specific wet chemical agents. Using nonapproved agents, or
agents from other manufacturers may make a system inoperative.
Figure 12
Restaurant Range Hood Wet Chemical System
TYPES OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The two basic types of systems are public systems and private systems.
Public Water Systems
Public water systems usually fall under a unit of local government or an "authority" with legal
responsibility. The water utility department and the fire department need to develop and
maintain a good working relationship. They should support each other and work together to
plan, design, and maintain the system for the benefit of the community. If a public water system
and the fire department are both units of the local government, it is easier to work together.
SM PS-27

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

This becomes even more critical when the water authority is separate from local government.
Private Water Systems
Private water systems usually are owned by land development or manufacturing companies.
They may supply water utility service to a particular site or in some instances to a community.
When serving a single site, the water usually is used for manufacturing, processing, and fire
protection. Generally, the system has its own water storage and, in some cases, its own water
processing equipment.
The water distribution system (pipes and valves) is only for use on the site and generally is not
connected to a public system. The system may have standard water distribution hardware, or
hardware manufactured for the private system owner. If nonstandard hardware is used,
sometimes the hydrants and hose connection are not compatible with the local fire department's
apparatus. If you have any private systems within your jurisdiction, preplan the site and make
arrangements with the private system operators for appropriate hardware so that the fire
department's equipment and the equipment at the site system are compatible or are adaptable
for compatibility.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM COMPONENTS
All water supply systems, either private or public, have the same basic functional components: a
water source, water storage, water distribution systems (pipes and valves), and hydrants or
other end-user devices (sprinkler systems, etc.).
Water Sources
The source of a utility's water varies around the country, and perhaps even within smaller
geographic areas. The two sources for water supply systems are ground water and surface
water. Although most water systems have only one source, there are instances of both.
SM PS-28

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Ground Water Sources
Ground-water-source users receive the water from wells, where the water is pumped up from
the ground; ground-level springs; or subterranean springs from which the water is either drained
off or pumped out of the springs. Once brought to the surface it is either stored or sent through
the distribution system. Ground-water-source users may or may not treat the water prior to
distribution.
Surface Water Sources
Surface water sources include lakes, rivers, ponds, coastal waters, and natural or artificial
reservoirs.
Surface water users usually will treat the water, since water from this source tends to be
exposed to contaminants more than ground water. In some coastal areas the local water utility
may operate a desalination plant to convert salt water to fresh water.
Two Systems
There is a trend today, in parts of the country, to have two separate systems in the community.
One system provides potable water and the other system supplies nonpotable water. Potable
water is used for human consumption and for food preparation or processing. The nonpotable
water generally is used for industrial processes, irrigation of crops or landscapes, and fire
suppression systems.
This nonpotable water is referred to as "gray water." It is processed water residue from sewage
treatment plants; all solids have been removed, but the water is not purified enough to be
potable. These systems use water normally discharged into lakes or rivers, or pumped
underground into wells. By using this "gray water" the community is able to conserve the
potable supply and get good use out of water that it otherwise would discard.
SM PS-29

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS Water Storage

Storage of water prior to delivery in water systems normally occurs in elevated tanks; ground-
level tanks or underground storage; or a combination of elevated and ground-level tanks.
Elevated Storage
Elevated storage tanks or reservoirs are common because they do not require pumping water
into the distribution system; gravity supplies pressure to the distribution system. Generally a
pumping system increases water main pressure in the event of a larger demand for water. The
use of the system for firefighting could put a larger-than-normal demand on the system, and the
utility company could supply larger pressures and volumes with pumps.
In some systems elevated tanks are used solely for storage of water for fire protection. For
these tanks to be reliable, they must be properly located, have an adequate capacity, and be of
sufficient height to develop the required pressures.
Ground-Level and Underground Storage
Ground-level storage tanks, which lack the gravitational pressure of elevated tanks, usually
cannot supply the minimum pressure demands for normal use. Therefore, pumps maintain a
minimum pressure and can increase the pressure should there be a demand.
Combination Storage Systems
Some systems use a combination of elevated and ground-level tanks for storage.
Pumps
The main components of water distribution systems are pumps, pipes (mains), valves, hydrants,
and fire protection connections.
SM PS-30

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Pumps provide proper pressure and volume in the water distribution system. Normal system
pressure may have to be increased in the event an increased demand is placed on the system
or part of the system. Such a demand may result from a main break, flushing of the system, or a
large fire or multiple fires occurring at the same time.
Pipes (Mains)
Water mains form the foundation of a good water supply. Size, location, tie-ins, and materials,
along with proper maintenance, all affect the quality and quantity of water service delivered. For
this reason, communities and water departments must consider the quality, capability, and
reliability of new system installations and retrofits. The fire department should be consulted any
time that modifications are made to a system to assure that fire department requirements are
met, and that the system will supply enough pressure and quantity of water for fire protection
purposes.
The first fire mains in the Colonies were hollowed-out logs. Water mains today generally are
constructed out of cast iron, ductile iron, steel, cement asbestos, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or a
combination of these materials.
Water mains usually have the larger diameter pipe closer to the water source. From that point to
the end user, the size gradually decreases.
Valves
Valves control the flow of water through the water distribution system. Valves are broadly
divided into two categories: indicating and nonindicating.
Indicating valves visually show the position of the gate or valve seat to indicate whether it is
closed, partially closed, or open. The primary types of indicating valves used for connections to
fire suppression systems are OS&Y (Outside Screw and Yoke), YPIV (Yard Post Indicating
Valve), and indicating Butterfly Valves.
SM PS-31

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Valves supplying water for fire protection and suppression systems should be chained and
locked in the open position at all times. If not chained and locked, the valve should have a valve
tamper alarm, which activates a trouble signal on an alarm system if the valve is not in the full
open position.
Nonindicating valves do not have any visible means to show their position. Except for a few
valves in plants and pumping stations, valves in water supply systems are of the nonindicating
type. Valves in water distribution systems usually are buried or installed in manholes.
When properly installed, a buried valve is operable from above ground through a valve box. A
long-handled wrench, known as a "T" wrench, is inserted in the valve box to operate the valve. It
is very important that valves are in the full open position, as a partially closed valve will not
deliver the amount of water needed for the system and can hamper or even cripple firefighting
operations.
Valves should be tested at least once a year to assure their proper operation. Valves should be
spaced so that only a short length of pipe will be out of service at one time should a break occur.
Hydrants
Early methods of obtaining water for firefighting purposes were crude. Water systems used
hollowed-out logs for water mains. Pits were dug at specified intervals to expose the mains. A
hole was made in the main and a wooden plug was inserted. These plugs were known as "fire
plugs," and this term is still sometimes used to identify hydrants. When a fire occurred, the
wooden plug was removed from the main, water filled the pit, and fire apparatus drafted from
the pit. However, the flow of water was so meager that the system was seldom effective.
Cast iron pipe permitted the system pressure to be increased, and this led to the development
of the post-type fire hydrant. An opening at the upper end of the standpipe provided a place for
the fire pumpers to receive their supply.
Two basic types of fire hydrants used today are dry barrel and wet barrel.
SM PS-32

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Hydrant Installations
For hydrants to be immediately useful, they must be kept clear of obstructions such as fences,
walls, landscaping, and snow. The center of the large opening should be a minimum of 18
inches above grade. The hydrant must be far enough from any adjacent object to allow the
hydrant wrench to turn in a continuous movement and to allow for hose connection.
The caps on the openings and the threads need to be inspected on a periodic basis to assure
that they operate freely and that the hose couplings can be connected. Any hydrants found to be
nonfunctional should be reported to the utility authority and a followup inspection made to be
sure the hydrant was repaired and placed in service.
One of the most common problems with out-of-service hydrants is that someone failed to turn
on the control valve for the hydrant after installation or maintenance. Usually each hydrant on a
system will have its dedicated valve so that only one hydrant will have to be out of service for
repair or replacement.
Hydrants come in many styles. Utility companies usually will have one type of hydrant on their
system; however, some communities may have more than one design of hydrant on the system.
Some large developments have hydrants designed to add to the aesthetics of the development.
Dry Barrel Hydrants
Dry barrel hydrants operate with a valve at the bottom of the hydrant that opens at the water
main and, when closed, permits the water remaining in the barrel to drain out. These hydrants
are common in areas subject to freezing weather conditions and are by far the most common
hydrants today.
Current dry-barrel hydrant designs incorporate a traffic safety flange and operating rod installed
just above grade. With this type of design, if a vehicle hits the hydrant, it will shear the hydrant
and operating rod and allow the main valve to remain closed. The safety flange allows a new
hydrant to be installed without digging down to the water main; this provides for less expensive
repair and decreases time out of service.
SM PS-33

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Wet Barrel Hydrants
Wet barrel hydrants may have a valve at each outlet or they may have only one valve that
controls the flow to all outlets.
In general, hydrant bonnets (tops), barrels, and foot pieces are made of cast iron. The important
working parts usually are made of bronze, but the valve facings may be made of rubber, leather,
or composition material. A standard hydrant is equipped with one large opening (4 inch or 4-1/2
inch) and two outlets for 2-1/2-inch hose couplings.
Hydrant outlet threads must conform to the threads which the local fire department uses.
National Standard hose coupling threads are best suited for mutual-aid operations. Adapters
may be necessary when using hydrants in other response areas or those on private systems.
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS
Many codes do not require a specific type of automatic suppression system, but generally it is
expected that an automatic sprinkler system will exist unless the hazard is not compatible with
water. Automatic sprinkler systems are the most common automatic fire suppression systems.
They consist of automatic sprinklers that operate at a predetermined temperature and
automatically distribute water upon a fire in sufficient quantity at least to contain, and possibly to
extinguish, the fire. The water reaches the sprinklers through a system of overhead piping.
Some reliable public or private water source supplies the overhead piping.
Sprinklers Have Two Main Purposes
Sprinkler systems have two main purposes: 1) to extinguish unwanted fires, and 2) to control
the size of a fire until trained fire suppression crews arrive to extinguish the fire. Either of these
activities results in increased property protection and life safety. When connected to an
approved fire alarm system, sprinkler systems provide the added benefit of acting as initiating
devices to activate the fire alarm system.
SM PS-34

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 13
Major Sprinkler System Components
Classifications of Automatic Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, defines the six major automatic
sprinkler systems.
Wet Pipe Systems
Wet pipe systems use closed automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system containing water
under pressure at all times. The wet pipe system is the most common type of sprinkler system
in use unless there is danger of the water in the pipes freezing or when other special conditions
require one of the other types of systems.
SM PS-35

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 14
Examples of Alarm Check Valves
Figure 15
Alarm Check Valve (Section)
Dry Pipe Systems
Dry pipe systems employ closed automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system which
contains air or nitrogen under pressure. When a fire occurs and an automatic sprinkler
activates, the air or nitrogen escapes. This reduces the pressure in the system to a point at
which the pressure on the water supply side causes the valve to operate, allowing water to flow
SM PS-36

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

through the system piping. Dry pipe systems usually exist only in locations that cannot be
heated properly.
Figure 16 Dry Pipe Valve
Figure 17 Differential Dry Pipe Valve
SM PS-37
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Preaction Systems
Preaction systems employ closed automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system which
contains air, which may or may not be under pressure. When a fire occurs, a fire detecting
device, such as a smoke or heat detector, activates and causes the water control valve to open
and water to flow into the pipe system. Thereafter, when an automatic sprinkler activates, water
is available to flow through the sprinkler immediately. Preaction systems commonly exist in
areas where there is danger of serious water damage as a result of a damaged automatic
sprinkler or broken piping. Electrical equipment rooms, computer rooms, and operating rooms
are locations which use preaction sprinkler systems.
Deluge Systems
Deluge sprinkler systems employ automatic sprinklers which are open at all times. When a fire
occurs, a fire detecting device, usually a heat detector, activates and causes the deluge valve to
open. Water then will flow into the piping and discharge through all the open sprinklers. Deluge
sprinkler systems offer effective protection from severe hazards, such as flammable liquids,
where there is a possibility that the fire could flash ahead of the operation of closed automatic
sprinklers.
SM PS-38
Figure 18 Deluge System

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 19 Open Sprinkler Head
Combined Dry Pipe and Preaction Systems
These systems combine the essential features of each system and can operate as either
system. Typically the dry pipe feature serves as a supplemental operation in case of failure of
the preaction system. Such systems are effective in areas that are too large for a single dry pipe
system.
Antifreeze Systems
These types of systems are used to protect small, unheated areas. The system's piping is filled
with a special antifreeze solution to prevent freezing in the piping that protects the area.
Types of Automatic Sprinklers
There are various types of sprinklers. We will briefly examine the most commonly found ones.
Standard
Automatic sprinklers are heat-sensitive devices designed to react at predetermined
temperatures to release a stream of water automatically, and to distribute it in a specified
pattern and quantity over designated areas. Under normal conditions, the discharge of water
from a closed automatic sprinkler is restrained by a cap or valve held tightly against the orifice
by the releasing mechanism. The standard automatic sprinkler
SM PS-39

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

orifice is one-half inch in diameter. The most commonly used release mechanisms include
fusible links, glass bulbs, and chemical pellets.
Figure 20
Fusible Link Automatic Sprinkler
Water flowing through the orifice strikes a deflector designed to create the specified discharge
pattern. Sprinklers are made for installation in an upright (SSU), pendent (SSP), or sidewall
position. While the shape of the deflector usually indicates the proper position of the sprinkler,
the letters "SSU" or "SSP" are stamped on the deflector's surface for easy identification. For
upright and pendent sprinklers, the water spray flows downward in a hemispherical pattern from
the deflector. For sidewall sprinklers, which are mounted in a horizontal or vertical position
depending on design, the flow projects horizontally away from the wall- mounted sprinkler. A
small amount of water also hits the wall directly behind the sidewall sprinkler.
 SM PS-40

Special Heads
Extended Coverage
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Figure 21 Sprinkler Deflector Styles
NFPA 13 defines extended coverage sprinklers as "sprinklers with special extended, directional
discharge patterns." These are specially designed sprinklers and must be installed according to
their listings and the appropriate sections of NFPA 13.
Fast Response Sprinklers
Fast-response sprinklers, as the name implies, are specially designed to react more quickly
than standard sprinklers when subjected to the effects of fire. This group of sprinklers includes
three types of fast-acting sprinklers: 1) quick response sprinklers, 2) residential sprinklers, and
3) early suppression fast response (ESFR) sprinklers. A quick response early suppression
(QRES) is also under development.
SM PS-41

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Residential
These are sprinklers intended for use in residential applications only and which have been listed
according to U/L Standard 1626 and installed in accordance with the requirements of NFPA 13,
NFPA 13D, and NFPA 13R. These sprinklers typically use less pressure and flow, and the
design requirements stem from fires and conditions found in residential settings. Because of
this, they must not be used outside their listed uses and applications.
Figure 22 Residential Sprinklers
Quick Response
Recent technology has introduced "quick-response sprinklers." The sole criterion for this special
designation is performance on the Underwriters Laboratories' (U/L) plunge test, presently a 14-
second maximum operating time. The faster operating time holds promise of improved life
safety and property protection. The quicker response time results from an actuation element
that has a higher ratio of surface-area-to-mass than normal sprinklers. The higher surface area
allows for quicker transfer of heat into the element and the lower mass requires less heating.
Therefore, a shorter time is needed to reach the element's activation temperature. A sprinkler
that responds more quickly is more likely to attack a fire before it can develop high velocity
plumes, which are more difficult for water spray drops to penetrate. Also, there is the probability
that more sprinklers may activate, thus prewetting areas the fire has yet to reach. This can help
prevent the spread of the fire. Clearly, the sooner sprinklers activate, the sooner they mitigate
hazardous conditions.
SM PS-42

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Early Suppression Fast Response (ESFR)
These sprinklers, intended for special fire-threat applications, were developed as a result of the
quick-response residential sprinkler research coupled with the high pressures and water flows
associated with existing large drop sprinklers. The result is basically a large drop sprinkler with a
quick response actuation element. These sprinklers attack a fire rapidly with large amounts of
water so that the activation of a small number of ESFR sprinkler heads minimizes or prevents
the spread of the fire.
Dry
In some instances it is desirable to use dry sprinklers attached to wet pipe sprinkler systems.
One common example is the protection of a freezer in an otherwise heated area. Dry sprinklers
have mechanisms that keep a tight seal in place, which prevents water from the wet pipe
system flowing into the dry sprinklers. The dry sprinklers typically have extended pipe lengths
that are dry (without water) and which extend into the unheated area. When the sprinkler fuses,
the seal linkage drops out, allowing water to flow into the previously dry sprinkler.
Figure 23 Grinnell ESFR Head
Ornamental, Flush, Recessed, and Concealed
In some cases it is desirable to change the appearance from that normally associated with
standard sprinkler installations. Aesthetics is one reason people do not use sprinklers. Standard
sprinkler heads are considered unsightly. Manufacturers have responded by painting or finishing
sprinklers heads or by giving them a low profile so they do not project from the ceiling as much
(flush, recessed, and concealed). In some cases, this also can be used to limit damage to the
sprinklers and prevent tampering. Prisons are one setting where low profile sprinklers are
desirable, as inmates cannot hang themselves from the sprinkler heads.
SM PS-43

Large Drop
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Figure 24
These sprinklers are designed to provide a water spray of large drops (as compared to other
sprinklers). These larger drops have an increased ability to travel through high-heat and high-
velocity fire plumes, thereby reaching the seat of the fire. Water drops from standard design
sprinklers may be dispersed by high-velocity fire plumes, significantly reducing the sprinkler's
ability to control and extinguish the fire.
Open
These sprinklers do not employ an actuating element. Therefore, when water flows into the
piping all sprinklers will flow immediately.
Nozzles
Nozzles are sprinklers used in applications which require special discharge patterns and spray
characteristics.
SM PS-44
Figure 25 Water Spray Nozzles

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Automatic On-Off
On-off sprinklers refers to any sprinkler head that has an integral water- flow control mechanism
which can allow or prevent the flow of water through the sprinkler. One common use of these
sprinklers is in the protection of computer facilities where limited water flow is desirable. A
common design uses a simple heat-driven valve which will allow flow if heated, and will close if
the sprinkler cools (i.e., if it appears the fire has been controlled).
Intermittent Level
These sprinklers include a shield located directly above the sprinkler which is designed to
prevent water from other sprinklers located at higher levels from cooling the sprinkler's operating
elements. Without this protection, sprinklers would respond more slowly, or not at all, to fire
conditions.
Corrosion Resistant
Sprinklers used in environments that are hostile to unprotected sprinklers may include corrosion
protection. This generally is some form of protective coating applied to the special sprinkler.
System Readiness
Sprinklers are one part of the fire suppression system the inspector can more easily examine
and inspect. It is not realistic to expect the beginning inspector to be able to determine the
status of the jurisdiction's water system. But if a structure is sprinklered, the inspector can at
least check this part.
Without getting into design and testing issues, the inspector needs to make sure at a minimum
that none of the sprinkler heads is blocked, painted over, missing, or damaged. If one suspects
there are problems with the system, it would be wise to report this to one's superiors. Obviously,
it is not the inspector's job to test the sprinklers. This could be disastrous.
The next parts of the suppression system we need to examine are the standpipes and hose
systems.
SM PS-45

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

SM PS-46
Figure 26
Examples of Intermittent and Automatic On/Off Sprinkler Heads

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 27
Examples of Automatic Sprinkler Head Components
SM PS-47

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

STANDPIPE AND HOSE SYSTEMS Purpose
Standpipe and hose systems in buildings allow the occupants or fire service personnel to
suppress a fire without further help. Standpipe systems are an arrangement of piping, valves,
hose connections, and related equipment installed in a building in a fixed manner. The systems
may or may not have hoses permanently attached. Water supplies may or may not be
continually provided to standpipe systems. These features of a standpipe system are dictated
by the class and type of system. Fire department personnel trained in manual fire suppression
methods are the ones who primarily use standpipe systems. Many standpipe systems no longer
have occupant hoselines (small diameter 1-1/2 inch). The fixed piping of a standpipe system in
a building allows the fire service to connect its hoselines into a pressurized water source near
the fire floor. Consequently, the fire service is relieved of the burden of extending hoses into the
building from grade level to the location (floor) of the fire. In mid- to highrise buildings, standpipe
systems are extremely important for the prompt manual extinguishment of fires.
Classes of Standpipe and Hose Systems
NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems, defines three classes of
standpipe systems.
Class I
Class I systems have 2-1/2-inch hose connections on the system piping. This size hose
produces a heavy fire stream primarily for the fire service which supplies its own hoses for
fighting the fire.
Class II
Class II systems have 1-1/2-inch hose connections. This hose is primarily for occupant control
of a fire until the fire department arrives. A hose and nozzle connect to the system piping.
SM PS-48

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Class III
Class III systems provide both 2-1/2-inch and 1-1/2-inch hose connections for use by either the
fire service or the building occupants. Typically, the two sizes of hose tie in by a 2-1/2-inch
connection to the system piping and a 1-1/2-inch reducer connection on the 2-1/2-inch
connection. The fire service can easily remove the reducer. This gives the fire service the 2-1/2-
inch connection it requires for manual suppression. A small hose (1-1/2 inch) and nozzle must
be provided for occupant use.
Types of Standpipe and Hose Systems
There are four types of systems available.
• Wet systems with supply valves open and the system continually under pressure.
• Dry systems with a supply valve that automatically opens when a hose valve is opened.
• Dry systems with a supply valve that is opened by a remote control device located at each
hose station.
• Dry systems with no permanent water supply connection. This type requires that a system be
connected to a pressurized water supply, such as a fire department pumper. Such systems may
be filled with water for supervision purposes.
Standpipe and Hose System Standards
Where required, standpipe systems typically comply with the requirements of NFPA 14. If the
system is a combined sprinkler-standpipe system, the requirements of NFPA 13 also play a role.
As with sprinkler systems, the Uniform Building Code has its own standpipe standard, Uniform
Building Code Standard No. 38-2. This standard is very similar to NFPA 14.
SM PS-49

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS Purpose of Fire Extinguishers
A portable fire extinguisher enables an individual with minimal training and orientation to
extinguish an incipient fire without risk after calling the fire department. There have been many
disastrous fires resulting from a delayed notification of the fire department while someone
attempted extinguishment with portable fire extinguishers. One was the Beverly Hills Supper
Club fire which claimed over 160 lives.
Extinguisher Use Based on Fire Classification
Fire extinguishers fall into four classes based on the type of fire(s) they are effective at
extinguishing.
Class A: Fires in ordinary combustibles such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and many plastics.
They can be extinguished by cooling, smothering, and insulation, or by inhibiting the combustion
chain reaction.
Class B: Fires involving flammable or combustible liquids and gases, including greases and
similar fuels. They can be extinguished by oxygen exclusion, smothering, and insulation, and by
inhibiting the combustion chain reaction.
Class C: Fires involving energized electrical equipment which requires the use of a
nonconductive agent for protection of the extinguisher operator. If electrical power is eliminated,
these fires become Class A or Class B, and may be extinguished accordingly.
Class D: Fires in combustible metals such as magnesium, potassium, sodium, titanium, and
zirconium. They require the use of an agent that absorbs heat and does not react with the
burning metal.
Class A and Class B fire extinguishers also have a numerical rating according to the size of the
fire they potentially can extinguish. Although somewhat subjective, a 2-A extinguisher is roughly
equivalent to a 2-1/2- gallon water extinguisher; a 4-A extinguisher has about as much
extinguishing power as 5 gallons of water.
SM PS-50

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Class B extinguishers are given a numerical rating based on the area of flammable liquid they
potentially can extinguish. As an estimate, it can be assumed that for each unit of "B," one
square foot of burning liquid can be extinguished. For example, a 10-B extinguisher can be used
to extinguish a ten-square-foot liquid fire. It must be emphasized that the numerical rating is for
estimating only, as the actual effectiveness will depend on such factors as user qualifications
and skill.
The classifications, including the numerical rating, can be compounded to provide multipurpose
extinguishers. For example, a fire extinguisher listed as 4-A:20-B:C has the capacity of two 2-A
extinguishers, 20 times the capacity of a single 1-B extinguisher, and it can be used on electrical
(C) fires.
To assist potential users, the NFPA has developed a color-graphic identification system for rapid
identification of fires related to a particular extinguisher. This system is described in NFPA 10,
Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers.
Types of Portable Fire Extinguisher Agents
There are six common agents used in portable extinguishers.
Water Based
For the most part, extinguishers that use water are for use on Class A fires. An exception is
Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) extinguishers, which will be discussed below. The
remaining water-based extinguisher types include antifreeze additives, loaded streams, and
wetting agents. Other foams may be used, but generally are obsolete. Until 1969, there were
three methods of water-based extinguisher operation: 1) stored pressure, 2) pump tank, and 3)
inverting type. The last type was discontinued in 1960; this made soda-acid extinguishers
obsolete.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Compressed CO2 provides both an agent and a discharge method, as the gas is under
pressure while in the storage container. CO2 extinguishes fire primarily by excluding oxygen
from the combustion region, although there is some cooling effect. In fact, the operator of a CO2
extinguisher must be careful not to touch the horn of the extinguisher due to risk of freezer burn
SM PS-51

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

injury. CO2 is for fighting Class B and Class C fires, but can be used on Class A if needed. One
advantage of CO2 is that it leaves no residue. A drawback of CO2 is that it is a gas and, as
such, may be carried away from the intended area by drafts and wind. Also, users must avoid
asphyxiation if the extinguisher is used in a confined place.
Dry Chemical
Dry chemical agents are either ordinary or multipurpose agents. Ordinary dry chemical agents
include sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, urea-potassium bicarbonate, and
potassium chloride. They are effective on Class B and Class C fires.
Multipurpose dry chemical is based on ammonium phosphate and can be used for Class A,
Class B, and Class C fires; hence, its "multipurpose" listing. Dry chemical agents extinguish
fires by inhibiting the chemical chain reaction of the combustion process; they also may have a
blanketing effect. Dry chemical extinguishers need either stored or cartridge- operated pressure
to force the dry chemical agent from the extinguisher. Typically, CO2 or nitrogen is used for this
purpose.
Halon
Halon 1211 can be used in portable fire extinguishers because it is not as volatile as Halon 1301
which instantly becomes gaseous when discharged. The low relative volatility of Halon 1211
allows the extinguisher user to direct the liquid flow toward the intended strike zone of the fire.
As with the larger halon systems, Halon 1211 extinguishes fires by inhibiting the combustion
chemical chain reaction. Like CO2, halon is a clean agent which leaves no residue. Halon is for
Class B and Class C fires as well as for Class A if needed.
Dry Powder
Dry powder agents are for fighting Class D (metal) fires and typically are sodium chloride based.
This type of agent extinguishes fire by reacting with the heat of the fire to form a blanket over
the fuel. This prevents the fuel and oxygen from meeting.
SM PS-52

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)
AFFF is a special type of water-based fire extinguishing agent. It differs from other water-based
agents in that it can be used successfully for combating Class B fires, where it extinguishes via
oxygen exclusion, as well as on Class A fires, where it acts by cooling and penetrating.
Some Obsolete Extinguishers
A note on some obsolete extinguishers to identify and remove from circulation. In addition to
operating difficulties, these older extinguishers had an unacceptably high test failure rate. Soda-
Acid extinguishers were quite popular years ago but are no longer acceptable because they
may explode when inverted to activate the extinguisher. Cartridge-Operated Water extinguishers
are similar to soda-acid extinguishers in operation and have the same problems. Foam
extinguishers look like the soda-acid extinguishers; these should be replaced by newer AFFF
extinguishers. Vaporizing-Liquid extinguishers have been banned from service due to problems
with toxicity of both the agent and products generated during fire extinguishment. The most
common type of this agent is carbon tetrachloride--CCl4.
Distribution of Portable Fire Extinguishers
The first step in addressing extinguisher distribution requirements is determining the hazard
classification according to NFPA 10.
Light (Low) Hazard
These are areas where the total amount of Class A type combustibles is small. Examples
include offices, classrooms, churches, and assembly halls. Small amounts of Class B fuels may
exist but should be negligible, e.g., duplicating fluid or solvents in art rooms.
SM PS-53

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Ordinary (Moderate) Hazard
These are areas where the total amount of Class A and Class B fuels is greater than that of
Light Hazard areas. Examples include offices, classrooms, mercantile shops and storage, light
manufacturing, research operations, auto showrooms, parking garages, and workshops.
Extra (High) Hazard
These are areas where the total amount of Class A and Class B fuels is greater than that of
Moderate Hazard areas. Examples include woodworking shops, vehicle repair shops, aircraft
and boat service areas, product display areas, storage, and manufacturing processes such as
painting, dipping, and coating which use flammable liquids.
The next step is figuring the total area of each hazard. From here one simply consults the tables
in NFPA 10 which specify the fire extinguishers needed, based on the hazard class and area to
be protected. In addition, there are maximum travel distances allowed. For Class A
extinguishers it is 75 feet; for Class B it is either 30 feet or 50 feet, depending on extinguisher
size.
For each location with Class C fire threats, there must be a Class C rated extinguisher. Similarly,
for each location with Class D fire threats, there needs to be a Class D extinguisher.
Basis for Code Requirements
Not all buildings require portable fire extinguishers, nor do all locations within a building need
extinguishers for a particular hazard. In general, portable fire extinguishers are a must in
occupancies that have people familiar with the building and the fire extinguishers. Hospitals,
factories, and mercantile occupancies are examples of buildings that may require portable fire
extinguishers. In some cases, the code may require portable fire extinguishers to provide
protection from a given hazard. A magnesium milling machine shop and a flammable liquid
process area are examples of locations which may need special portable fire extinguishers.
Locations where untrained people are normally the only ones present are generally exempt from
portable fire extinguisher requirements.
SM PS-54

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Installation, Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Portable Fire Extinguishers
NFPA 10 places the responsibility for inspection, maintenance, and recharging on the property
owner. The local authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) may wish to verify that the owners or their
representatives are taking their responsibilities seriously.
Before being placed into service, fire extinguishers need to be inspected. Thereafter, fire
extinguishers should be inspected every 30 days unless circumstances dictate more frequent
inspections. NFPA 10 recommends the following items be checked during the inspection:
• location in designated place;
• access or visibility not obstructed;
• operating instructions on nameplate are legible and facing outward;
• seals and tamper indicators are not broken or missing;
• determination of fullness by weighing or "hefting";
• examination for obvious physical damage, corrosion, leakage, or
clogged nozzle; and
• pressure gauge reading or indicator is in the operable range or
position.
In addition, one needs to confirm the presence of the recordkeeping tag and review its contents.
One should remedy all deficiencies at once and replace all extinguishers removed for servicing.
Extinguishers require maintenance at least once a year. It should cover three main areas:
mechanical parts; extinguishing agent; and expellent means.
In addition maintenance needs to cover these steps.
• Discharge stored pressure extinguishers before service.
• Perform a conductivity test of the hose assembly on carbon dioxide extinguishers. If found
conductive, the assembly should be replaced.
• Every 6 years, empty stored pressure extinguishers that require a 12-year hydrostatic test and
subject them to the applicable maintenance procedures.

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

Homework ( assignments), Research works, etc.

Research Works

1. What is passive and active fire protection.

2. What is fire resistance and spread of fire ratings.
3. Key components of building fire extinguisher, sprinkler and stand pipe system, fire detection
system and fire alarm system.
4. Building fire protection system design and detailing information.