What is the gender pay gap and

is it real?
The complete guide to how women are paid less
than men and why it can’t be explained away
Report • By Elise Gould, Jessica Schieder, and Kathleen Geier • October 20, 2016

• Washington, DC View this report at epi.org/112962

 SECTIONS
Working women are paid less than working men. A large
body of research accounts for, diagnoses, and investigates 1. Summary • 1
this “gender pay gap.” But this literature often becomes
2. The gender wage gap
unwieldy for lay readers, and because pay gaps are
101: The basics • 5
political topics, ideological agendas often seep quickly into
discussions. 3. Does a woman’s race,
age, or pay level affect
This primer examines the evidence surrounding the the gender gap she
gender pay gap, both in the literature and through our own experiences? • 10
data analyses. We will begin by explaining the different
4. How do work
ways the gap is measured, and then go deeper into the
experience,
data using hourly wages for our analyses,1 culling from
schedules, and
extensive national and regional surveys of wages,
motherhood affect the
educational attainment, and occupational employment.
gender wage gap? • 14
5. How do education and

Summary job and occupational

characteristics affect
the gender wage gap?
Why different measures don’t • 17

mean the data are unreliable 6. Does the gender

wage gap depend on
A number of figures are commonly used to describe the where you live? • 24
gender wage gap. One often-cited statistic comes from the 7. How might the gender
Census Bureau, which looks at annual pay of full-time wage gap affect the
workers. By that measure, women are paid 80 cents for retirement security of
every dollar men are paid. Another measure looks at hourly America’s working
pay and does not exclude part-time workers. It finds that, women? • 25
relative to men, typical women are paid 83 cents on the
dollar.2 Other, less-cited measures show different gaps 8. What role do
because they examine the gap at different parts of the “unobservables” like
wage distribution, or for different demographic subgroups, discrimination and
or are adjusted for factors such as education level and productivity play in the
occupation. wage gap? • 27
9. How might
The presence of alternative ways to measure the gap can discrimination—in the
create a misconception that data on the gender wage gap form of norms and
are unreliable. However, the data on the gender wage gap expectations—be
are remarkably clear and (unfortunately) consistent about affecting the wage
the scale of the gap. In simple terms, no matter how you gap by constraining
measure it, there is a gap. And, different gaps answer women’s choices? • 30
different questions. By discussing the data and the
rationale behind these seemingly contradictory measures
of the wage gap, we hope to improve the discourse around
the gender wage gap.

1
Why adjusted measures can’t 10. Is there a gender gap
gauge the full effects of in other forms of
worker compensation,
discrimination such as health
insurance, paid sick
The most common analytical mistake people make when
leave, and retirement
discussing the gender wage gap is to assume that as long
benefits? • 33
as it is measured “correctly,” it will tell us precisely how
much gender-based discrimination affects what women are
paid. Acknowledgments • 35
About the authors • 35
Specifically, some people note that the commonly cited Endnotes • 35
measures of the gender wage gap do not control for References • 37
workers’ demographic characteristics (such measures are
often labeled unadjusted). They speculate that the
“unadjusted” gender wage gap could simply be reflecting
other influences, such as levels of education, labor market
experiences, and occupations. And because gender wage
gaps that are “adjusted” for workers’ characteristics
(through multivariate regression) are often smaller than
unadjusted measures, people commonly infer that gender
discrimination is a smaller problem in the American
economy than thought.

However, the adjusted gender wage gap really only

narrows the analysis to the potential role of gender
discrimination along one dimension: to differential pay for
equivalent work. But this simple adjustment misses all of
the potential differences in opportunities for men and
women that affect and constrain the choices they make
before they ever bargain with an employer over a wage.
While multivariate regression can be used to distill the role
of discrimination in the narrowest sense, it cannot capture
how discrimination affects differences in opportunity.

In short, one should have a very precise question that he

or she hopes to answer using the data on the wage
differences between men and women workers. We hope to
provide this careful thinking in the questions we address in
this primer.

2
A summary of some key questions and answers
in this primer
Given that gender wage gaps are strikingly persistent in economic data, it is natural to
then ask, “What causes these gaps?” And, further, “Do women’s own choices and labor
force characteristics drive the gender wage gap, or are women’s opportunities for higher
pay constricted relative to men?” Although this paper will largely focus on empirical data to
answer questions about the size and scope of the gaps for different groups of women, we
will use the data to shed light on some of these “why” questions.

How much do women make relative to men? A typical, or median, woman working
full time is paid 80 cents for every dollar a typical man working full time is paid. When
evaluated by wages per hour, a typical woman is paid 83 cents for every dollar a man
is paid. Both of these measures are correct, but examining women’s earnings per
hour is our preferred way of looking at the wage gap.3
Is the wage gap the same whether you are a front-line worker or a high-level
executive? There is much greater parity at the lower end of the wage distribution,
likely because minimum wages and other labor market policies create a wage floor. At
the 10th percentile, women are paid 92 cents on the male dollar, whereas women at
the 95th percentile are paid 74 cents relative to the dollar of their male counterparts’
hourly wages.
Does a woman’s race or ethnicity affect how much she makes relative to a man?
Asian and white women at the median actually experience the biggest gaps relative
to Asian and white men, respectively. But that is due, in part, to the fact that Asian and
white men make much more than black or Hispanic men. Relative to white non-
Hispanic men, black and Hispanic women workers are paid only 65 cents and 58
cents on the dollar, respectively, compared with 81 cents for white, non-Hispanic
women workers and 90 cents for Asian women.
Can women close the wage gap by getting more education? It appears not. Women
are paid less than similarly educated men at every level of education. And the wage
gap tends to rise with education level. This, again, in part likely reflects labor market
policies that foster more-equal outcomes for workers in the lower tier of the wage
distribution. It also may be affected by certain challenges that disproportionately
affect women’s ability to secure jobs at the top of the wage distribution, such as
earnings penalties for time out of the workforce, excessive work hours, domestic
gender roles, and pay and promotion discrimination.
Can women close the gap by choosing different occupations? Partly, but these
“choices” stem from a lifetime of decisions shaped by economic and social forces.
Men constitute greater shares of certain types of jobs, or occupations, and
women greater shares in others. Some say that these differences in how men
and women are distributed across occupations explain much of the gender wage
gap. In truth, it explains some of the gap, but not nearly as much as is assumed.
And even when we reduce the size of the measured gap by controlling for
occupational distributions, that does not mean that the remaining gap provides a

3
 complete view of the role of discrimination on women’s wages. Gender
discrimination doesn’t happen only in the pay-setting practices of employers
making wage offers to nearly identical workers of different genders. It can
happen at every stage of a woman’s life, from steering her away from science
and technology education to shouldering her with home responsibilities that
impede her capacity to work the long hours of demanding professions.
Women who work in male-dominated occupations are paid significantly less than
similarly educated males in those occupations. So even recommending that
women choose better-paying occupations does not solve the problem.
Are women in unions, relative to their male peers, better or worse off? Working
women in unions are paid 89 cents for every dollar paid to unionized working men;
nonunionized working women are paid 82 cents for every dollar paid to nonunionized
working men.
Do women with children pay a “motherhood penalty”? Yes, and not just in terms of
hourly wages.
After giving birth, women’s pay lags behind pay of similarly educated and
experienced men and of women without children. There is no corresponding
“fatherhood penalty” for men.4
Outside the labor market, mothers are also charged a time penalty. For example,
among married full-time working parents of children under the age of 18, women
still spend 50 percent more time than men engaging in care activities within the
home. Among child-rearing couples that include a woman either working part
time or staying at home to parent, the burden of caring for family members is
even more disproportionately borne by women. This higher share of domestic
and care work performed by women suggests that cultural norms and
expectations strongly condition (and often restrict) the labor market opportunities
of women. Indeed, it likely plays a role in the lower labor force participation of
mothers relative to men or women without children.
The higher share of domestic and care work performed by women is also a
disadvantage for women in high-prestige, high-wage jobs in which employers
demand very long hours as a condition of work.
Does a shrinking wage gap unequivocally indicate a good thing—that women are
catching up to men? Unfortunately no. Because the gender pay gap has both a
numerator (women’s wages) and a denominator (men’s wages), one cannot make firm
normative judgments about whether a given fall (or rise) in the gender pay gap is
welcome news. For example, about 30 percent of the reduction of the gender wage
gap between the median male and female worker since 1979 is due to the decline in
men’s wages during this period.
If we counted benefits, would women be doing less bad relative to men? The
gender pay gap in cash wages would not disappear by factoring in other employee
benefits because women are less likely than men to have employer-provided health
insurance and have fewer retirement resources than men.

4
The gender pay gap is a fraught topic. Discussions about it would benefit greatly from a
thorough review of the empirical evidence. The data can answer only precise questions,
but the answers can help us work toward the broader questions. This paper aims to
provide this precision in search of broader answers. Readers can access the data we
analyze and report in this paper in the EPI State of Working America Data Library. By
making the data publicly available and usable, we hope to advance constructive
discussions of the gender pay gap.

The gender wage gap 101: The basics

The gender wage gap is a measure of pay disparity between men and women. While it
can be measured different ways, the data are clear: women are still paid much less relative
to men (about 83 cents per dollar, by our measure), and progress on closing the gap has
stalled.

What is the gender wage gap?

The gender wage gap is a measure of what women
are paid relative to men. It is commonly calculated
by dividing women’s wages by men’s wages, and
The wage gap this ratio is often expressed as a percent, or in
means women dollar terms. This tells us how much a woman is
paid for each dollar paid to a man. This gender pay
are paid: ratio is often measured for year-round, full-time
82.7 percent of men’s wages. This workers and compares the annual wages (of hourly
translates to 83 cents per dollar. wage and salaried workers) of the median (“typical”)
The “typical” (median) woman is man with that of the median (“typical”) woman;
paid 83 cents per every dollar the measured this way, the current gender pay ratio is
typical man is paid.
0.796, or, expressed as a percent, it is 79.6 percent
(U.S. Census Bureau 2016). In other words, for
In dollar terms every dollar a man makes, a woman makes about
80 cents.
this means
The difference in earnings between men and
women bring women is also sometimes described in terms of
home: how much less women make than men. To
calculate this gap from the ratio as defined above,
$3.27 less per hour than men. The
simply subtract the ratio from 1. So, if the gender
median hourly wage is $15.67 for
women and $18.94 for men. pay ratio is about 80 percent (or 80 cents on the
dollar), this means that women are paid 20 percent
less (or 20 cents less per dollar) than men. A larger
difference between men’s and women’s earnings
translates into a lower ratio but a larger gap in their earnings.

5
We keep with this convention of using median wages of wage and salary workers rather
than average wages of wage and salary workers because averages can be skewed by a
handful of people making much more or much less than the rest of workers in a sample.
However, we examine median wages on an hourly basis and include all workers reporting
a positive number of work hours. This hourly measure constitutes a limited “adjustment” in
research methodology in that it accounts for the fact that men work more hours on
average during the year, and that more women work part time. 5 This limited adjustment
allows us to compare women’s and men’s wages without assuming that women, who still
shoulder a disproportionate amount of responsibilities at home, would be able or willing to
work as many hours as their male counterparts.

Computed this way using data from the federal government’s Current Population Survey
Outgoing Rotation Group, or CPS ORG in shorthand, the typical woman is paid 82.7
percent of what the typical man is paid (CPS ORG 2015). Or in common terms, women are
paid 83 cents on the male dollar.

Notwithstanding our limited adjustment, this is basically the “raw” or “unadjusted” gap that
we explore throughout this report when we consider the ways a large basket of factors
interact and create the wage gap women experience when they cash their paychecks.

Would adjusting the raw gender wage gap to

include factors such as education help explain
the gap? Maybe it is not as big of a problem as it
seems?
Adjustments can help round out our understanding but unfortunately, as we explain here,
they don’t explain away the gap. It is important to understand why.

The gender wage gap described above and referred to in this primer has the virtue of
being clear and simple. It provides a good overview of what is going on with typical
women’s earnings relative to men’s. But it does not tell us what the wage gap is between
men and women doing similar work, and whether the size of the gap derives in part from
differences in education levels, experience levels, and other characteristics of working
men and women. To round out our understanding of the disparity between men’s and
women’s pay, we also consider “adjusted” measures of the gender wage gap—with the
caveat that the adjusted measures may understate the wage disparities.

Adjusted wage gap estimates control for characteristics such as race and ethnicity, level of
education, potential work experience, and geographic division. These estimate are made
using average wages rather than median because it requires standard regression
techniques. Again, using the Current Population Survey data from the CPS Outgoing
Rotation Group, but making these adjustments, we find that the wage gap grows, with
women on average paid 21.7 percent less than men.6 The unadjusted penalty for the
average woman is 17.9 percent.7 The measured penalty actually increases when

6
accounting for these influences because women workers, on average, have higher levels
of education than men.8

Models that control for a much larger set of variables—such as occupation, industry, or
work hours—are sometimes used to isolate the role of discrimination in setting wages for
specific jobs and workers. The notion is that if we can control for these factors, the wage
gap will shrink, and what is left can be attributed to discrimination. Think of a man and
woman with identical education and years of experience working side-by-side in cubicles
but who are paid different wages because of discriminatory pay-setting practices. We also
run a model with more of these controls, and find that the wage gap shrinks slightly from
the unadjusted measure, from 17.9 percent to 13.5 percent.9 Researchers have used more
extensive datasets to examine these differences. For instance, Blau and Kahn (2016) find
an unadjusted penalty of 20.7 percent, a partially adjusted penalty of 17.9 percent, and a
fully adjusted penalty of 8.4 percent.10

But switching to a fully adjusted model of the gender wage gap actually can radically
understate the effect of gender discrimination on women’s earnings. This is because
gender discrimination doesn’t happen only in the pay-setting practices of employers
making wage offers to nearly identical workers of different genders. Instead, it can
potentially happen at every stage of a woman’s life, from girlhood to moving through the
labor market. By the time she completes her education and embarks on her career, a
woman’s occupational choice is the culmination of years of education, guidance by
mentors, expectations of parents and other influential adults, hiring practices of firms, and
widespread norms and expectations about work/family balance held by employers, co-
workers, and society (Gould and Schieder 2016). So it would not be accurate to assume
that discrimination explains only the gender wage gap that remains after adjusting for
education, occupational choice, and all these other factors. Put another way, we cannot
look at our adjusted model and say that discrimination explains at most 13.5 percent of the
gender wage gap. Why? Because, for example, by controlling for occupation, this adjusted
wage gap no longer includes the discrimination that can influence a woman’s occupational
choice.

How much does the gender pay gap cost

women over a lifetime?
The average woman worker loses more than $530,000 over the course of her lifetime
because of the gender wage gap, and the average college-educated woman loses even
more—nearly $800,000 (IWPR 2016). It’s worth noting that each woman’s losses will vary
significantly based on a variety of factors—including the health of the economy at various
points in her life, her education, and duration of periods out of the labor force—but this
estimate demonstrates the significance of the cumulative impact. And, as explained later,
the gap may play a role in the retirement insecurity of older American women.

7
Figure A Progress in closing the gender pay gap has largely stalled
Women’s hourly wages as a share of men’s at the median, 1979–2015
Women’s
hourly
100% earnings
at the
median
as a 82.7%
share of
75
men’s
hourly
earnings
at the
Year50 median Men

1979 62.39% 100

1980 63.06% 100

25
1981 64.18% 100

1982 65.32%

19830 66.52%
1980 1990 2000 2010
1984 67.54%
Source: EPI analysis of Current Population Survey microdata. For more information on the data sample see EPI's State
of1985 68.00%Data Library.
Working America

1986 67.33%

1987 69.08%

Yes,
1988
but isn’t the gender pay gap smaller than it
70.95%

used
1989
to73.82%
be?
1990 75.15%
Over1991
the past75.78%
three and a half decades, substantial progress has been made to narrow the
pay gap. Women’s wages are now significantly closer to men’s, but in recent years, that
1992 76.38%
progress has stalled.
1993 78.43%
From1994
1979 to79.10%
the early 1990s, the ratio of women’s median hourly earnings to men’s hourly
median earnings grew partly because women made disproportionate gains in education
1995 77.35%
and labor force participation. After that, convergence slowed, and over the past two
1996 it has
decades, 77.34%
stalled. According to the most recent data, as of 2015, women’s hourly
wages are 82.7
1997 percent of men’s hourly wages at the median (Figure A), with the median
79.24%
woman paid an hourly wage of $15.67, compared with $18.94 for men (Figure B).
1998 77.96%

It’s not entirely

1999 clear why women have stopped gaining on men. But as discussed later in
77.13%
the section
2000 on the “motherhood penalty,” the tendency for women with children to receive
78.29%
systematically lower pay has stubbornly persisted, suggesting that the gender pay gap is
2001 78.79%
not going away anytime soon. Economist Claudia Goldin’s research supports this
2002
conclusion. 80.05%
According to Goldin, current trends indicate that women’s wages will still be
pulled down80.64%
2003 over the course of their working lifetimes, even after controlling for education
and 2004
work time (Goldin 2014).
81.81%

2005 82.49%

2006 82.39%

2007 81.75%

2008 83.17%
8
2009 81.30%

2010 83.43%
Figure B Women earn less than men at every wage level
Hourly
80
wages by gender and wage percentile, 2015
Men Women

10th $9.36 $8.61 $65.06

Men Women
20th $11.07 $9.96
60
30th $13.44 $11.54
$48.03
40th $15.90 $13.50

40
50th $18.94 $15.67

60th $22.26 $18.58

70th $26.93 $22.18

$18.94
20
80th $33.96 $27.83 $15.67
$9.36
90th $8.61
$47.89 $37.62

$65.06 $48.03
95th
0
10th 20th 30th 40th 50th 60th 70th 80th 90th 95th

Source: EPI analysis of Current Population Survey Outgoing Rotation Group microdata. For more information on the
data sample see EPI's State of Working America Data Library.

How much of the narrowing of the gender pay

gap is due to women’s earnings rising, and how
much is due to men’s earnings falling?
Since 1979, median men’s wages have stagnated, falling 6.7 percent in real terms from
$20.30 per hour to $18.94 (Figure C). At the same time, women’s real median hourly
wages have increased. In 1979, they were equal to roughly 62.4 percent of men’s real
median hourly wages. By 2015, they were equal to 82.7 percent of men’s real wages at the
median—a substantial reduction in the wage gap. Unfortunately, this means that about 30
percent of the reduction was due to the decline in men’s wages. The stagnation and
decline of median men’s wages has played a significant role in the decline in the
unadjusted gender wage gap. Women’s wages increased as more women had increased
their participation in the labor force, increased their educational attainment, and entered
higher-paying occupations. (Davis and Gould 2015). At the same time, for most workers,
wages no longer increased with increases in economy-wide productivity. Had workers’
wages continued to keep pace with productivity, both men and women would be earning
much more today.

9
Figure C The gender wage gap persists, but has narrowed since
1979
Median hourly wages, by gender, 1979–2015
Men’s Women’s
median median
$22.5
hourly hourly
Year wages wages Men’s median hourly wages
$20.30 Women’s median hourly wages
$20.30 $12.66
1979 20
$18.94
Real 2015 dollars

1980 $19.98 $12.60 Women are paid

17.5 82.7% of men’s
1981 $19.52 $12.53are paid 62.4% of men’s wages
Women wages
1982 $19.30 $12.61 $15.67
15
1983 $19.18 $12.76

1984 $19.15 $12.66

$12.93
12.5
1985 $19.10 $12.98

1986 $19.70 $13.26

10
1987 $19.75 1980 $13.64 1990 2000 2010

1988 EPI analysis

Source: $19.23 of Current
$13.64
Population Survey Outgoing Rotation Group microdata. For more information on the
data sample see EPI's State of Working America Data Library.
1989 $18.57 $13.71

1990 $18.12 $13.62

1991 $18.06 $13.68

Does a woman’s race, age, or pay level

1992 $18.10 $13.82

affect the gender gap she experiences?

1993

1994
$17.87

$17.67
$14.02

$13.98
Belonging
1995
to$17.91
a certain $13.85
race or age group does not immunize women from experiencing
the gender wage gap. It affects women across the board, though higher-earning women
1996 $17.93 $13.87
and middle-age women are at a greater disadvantage relative to their male counterparts.
And1997
relative $17.85 $14.14
to white male wages, black and Hispanic women are the most disadvantaged.
1998 $18.65 $14.54

Is 1999
the gender
$19.10 wage gap a problem for low- or
$14.73

high-earning women?
2000 $19.20 $15.03

2001 $19.44 $15.31

The 2002
gender wage
$19.64 gap $15.72
is a problem for women at every wage level. At each and every
point in the wage distribution, men significantly out-earn women, although by different
2003 $19.35 $15.61
amounts, to be sure (Figures B and C).
2004 $19.17 $15.69
In 2015, the gap between men’s and women’s hourly wages was smallest among the
2005 $18.95 $15.63
lowest-earning workers, with 10th percentile women earning 92.0 percent of men’s wages.
2006 $18.91 $15.58
The minimum wage is partially responsible for this greater equality among the lowest
earners.
2007 It sets a wage$15.70
$19.21 floor that applies to everyone, which means that people near the
bottom
2008of the distribution
$19.06 are likely to make more equal wages, even though those wages
$15.85
are very low (Figure D).
2009 $19.75 $16.06

2010 $19.09 $15.92

2011 $18.60 $15.74 10

2012 $18.59 $15.44

2013 $18.38 $15.32

Figure D The gender wage gap is still widest among top earners
Women’s hourly wages as a share of men’s at various wage percentiles, 1979 and 2015
2015 1979

10th 92.0% 8.0 86.9% 12.1

percentile
1979 2015

50th 82.7% 17.3 62.4% 37.6

percentile
92.0%
95th 86.9%73.8% 26.2 63.0% 37.0
percentile 82.7%
73.8%
62.4% 63.0%

10th percentile 50th percentile 95th percentile

Notes: The xth-percentile wage is the wage at which x% of wage earners earn less and (100-x)% earn more.
Source: EPI analysis of Current Population Survey Outgoing Rotation group microdata

At the median, women’s hourly wages are equal to 82.7 percent of men’s wages.

The gender wage gap is largest at the top of the wage distribution, with women at the
95th percentile getting paid 73.8 percent of wages at the male 95th percentile. Economist
Claudia Goldin argues that women in high-wage professions experience a wider gender
gap because they are penalized for not working long, inflexible hours (Goldin 2014). Such
rigorous work schedules tend to weigh disproportionately heavily on women, who are still
responsible for more housework and child/elder care than men.

It is interesting to note that the wage gap between median men and women workers has
narrowed noticeably over the past four decades (Hegewisch and DuMonthier 2016). At the
low end, the gap has not closed as much, but the existence of the minimum wage likely
kept wages of low-paid men and women closer together even in the 1970s. And the
relatively fast growth of men’s wages at the 95th percentile has kept this gap from closing
as much as the median gap (Economic Policy Institute 2016).

How do women of different races and ethnicities

experience the gender wage gap?
Relative wage gaps are larger for high-wage white and Asian women but black and
Hispanic women are paid least relative to white men.

11
Figure E Women of every race and ethnicity make less than their
male counterparts
Women’s hourly wages as a percentage of men’s hourly wages of the same race, by
wages percentile, 2015
Within Race
Gender Wage Hispanic
Gap Asian Black White
White Black Hispanic Asian
10th percentile 91.6% 8.4% 90.8% 9.2% 95.6% 4.4% 89.9% 10.1%

50th percentile 75.9% 24.1% 83.7% 16.3% 92.0% 8.0% 81.0% 19.0%
95.6% 94.8%
60.1%91.6%
percentile 90.8%
89.9%
95th 39.9%
92.0% 13.5% 94.8%
86.5% 5.2% 58.7% 86.5%
41.3%
81.0% 83.7%
75.9%

58.7% 60.1%

10th percentile 50th percentile 95th percentile

Source: EPI analysis of Current Population Survey microdata

Figure E looks at low-, middle-, and high-wage women and compares their wages with
those of men within their same racial and ethnic group. Here higher-wage white and Asian
women are paid the least relative to their male peers, i.e., the gender wage gap is largest
among high-earning whites and Asians.

When we compare the wages of white women and women of color with wages of white
men, white and Asian women fare better than their black and Hispanic counterparts
(Figure F). White non-Hispanic women are paid 81.0 percent and Asian women 89.8
percent, of what non-Hispanic white men make. But the shares are much lower for black
and Hispanic women, at 65.3 percent and 57.6 percent, respectively (CPS ORG
2011–2015).

In terms of the impact on women’s paychecks, this means that relative to the typical white
man, the typical white woman takes home $4.00 less per hour, black women take home
$7.31 less per hour, Hispanic women take home $8.91 less per hour, and Asian women
take home $2.15 less per hour.

What is the gender wage gap for immigrant

women?
Native-born workers of either gender are paid more per hour than (non-naturalized)
foreign-born workers (Figure G). However, non-naturalized foreign-born women—like their

12
Figure F Black and Hispanic women experience the biggest pay
gaps
Women’s median hourly wages as a share of white men’s and their per hour wage
penalties, by race and ethnicity, 2015
Gender
Wage Gap
100%
as
Compared -$4.00 -$2.15
to White wage penalty
Men Median Gap 89.8%
-$7.31
81.0% -$8.91
75
White 81.00% 19.00%
women
65.3%
Black 65.26% 34.74%
women 57.6%
50
Hispanic 57.64% 42.36%
women
Asian
25 89.79% 10.21%
women

0
White women Black women Hispanic women Asian women

Notes: Values displayed above columns represent the difference between women's median hourly wages and medi-
an hourly wages of white men.
Source: EPI analysis of Current Population Survey microdata, 2015

native-born counterparts—experience a wage gap that further reduces their earnings. The
typical non-naturalized foreign-born woman is paid 80 cents per dollar of what a foreign-
born man is paid ($11.26 as a share of $14.02). Among undocumented Mexican immigrants,
the gender wage gap is wider: for every dollar a man is paid, a woman is paid 71 cents
(Garcia and Oakford 2013).

So while foreign-born workers overall are disadvantaged in terms of wages, non-

naturalized foreign-born women are additionally disadvantaged by the gender wage gap.
Compared with native-born men, the average foreign-born woman is paid 58.4 cents on
the dollar. Foreign-born naturalized workers not only earn higher wages than their non-
naturalized and native-born counterparts, but have a slightly smaller gender wage gap.

Does the gender wage gap get bigger or smaller

as women age?
The gender wage gap is quite small for workers in their teens and early 20s, but the gap
grows with age (Figure H). For typical working men, hourly wages rise until around the age
of 45 and then plateau, but for typical working women, hourly wages top off earlier (in the
35 to 44 age range). After around 40, women’s wage growth plateaus and then drops off
earlier than men’s. This holds true when measuring the gap using median weekly earnings

13
Figure G Foreign-born women are dually disadvantaged
Median hourly wages by immigration status and gender, 2015
Status Men Women

$25
Native $19.28 $15.80
born Men Women
Naturalized $20.09 $16.65 $20.09
20
citizens $19.28
Foreign $14.02 $11.26 $16.65
born $15.80
15 $14.02

$11.26
10

0
Native born Naturalized citizens Foreign born

Notes: Includes individuals older than 16. The category native born includes individuals born in the United States,
Puerto Rico, and U.S. outlying areas, as well as individuals born abroad of American parents. The category foreign
born includes foreign-born individuals who are not citizens of the United States.
Source: EPI analysis of Current Population Survey microdata

of full-time wage and salary workers (Hill 2016). The growth in the gender wage gap during
this time of life reflects the disproportionate impact of family responsibilities on women’s
careers. Other research shows that from the beginning of their working lives, women
experience a gender wage gap that is still expected to swell significantly over the course
of their careers, regardless of education or work experience (Goldin 2014).

How do work experience, schedules,

and motherhood affect the gender
wage gap?
Women’s experience levels and work schedules do factor into the gender wage gap.
Rather than disproving the role of discrimination, work experience, hours, and schedules
in part reflect the social expectations that still disadvantage women. These influences all
play a role in the “motherhood wage penalty” evident in the data.

14
Figure H Women’s hourly wages plateau and then begin to decline
earlier than men’s
Median hourly wage gap by age and gender, 2015
Age Men Women

$30
16-24 $10.09 $9.85
Men
25-34 $16.78 Women
$15.39

35-44 $21.72 $18.04

45-54
20 $22.98 $18.03

55-64 $22.97 $17.63

65+ $19.44 $14.95

10

0
16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Source: EPI analysis of Current Population Survey microdata

Are women paid less because they have less

experience?
On average, women have less work experience than men, and this contributes to the
gender wage gap. But it would not be correct to conclude that this helps disprove the role
of discrimination, because the lack of experience itself is a function of social expectations
and norms that disadvantage women in the workplace. Women are more likely to
temporarily exit the labor force—most often to raise children, although increasingly to care
for an older relative—which leaves them with less work experience. One study of workers
with MBAs showed that a year after receiving the degree, only 4 percent of men had
experienced a career interruption of six months or more, compared with 9 percent of
women (Goldin 2014). Further out from their schooling the gap grows: after 10 years, 10
percent of men had experienced a career interruption, compared with 32 percent of
women experiencing a career interruption nine years out. And in the 10 to 16 years
following graduation with an MBA, 40 percent of women had experienced a career
interruption. (Bertrand, Goldin, and Katz 2009)

Do women’s work schedules affect the gender

wage gap?
Women tend to work different hours than men, which affects their earnings. However, the
story is different depending on wage level. Women are more likely than men to work low-

15
wage jobs, and low-wage workers are more likely to experience irregular work schedules,
such as irregular shift times or on-call shifts, than are other workers (Golden 2015; Davis
and Gould 2015). For low-wage parents especially, irregular schedules—often associated
with pay that changes from paycheck to paycheck—can be paralyzing as they try to
coordinate childcare and meet basic household needs.

Among higher-wage workers, firms tend to disproportionately reward those who work
long and particular hours, and those individuals are more likely to be men, which creates a
wider wage gap for higher-wage women (Hersch and Stratton 2002; Goldin 2014). But
when workers have more temporal flexibility—that is, more choice as to the schedules and
number of hours they work—the gender gap narrows. In fact, Goldin (2014) finds that
temporal inflexibility is an important contributor to the gender gap. Long, inflexible work
schedules tend to weigh disproportionately heavily on women, who are still responsible
for more housework and child/elder care than men.

Women are also roughly twice as likely to work part time as men; 24.5 percent of women
work part time versus 12.4 percent of men (Golden 2016). The biggest disadvantage part-
time workers face is their relatively lower rates of pay and benefits coverage relative to
full-time workers. When adjusting for differences in personal, educational, locational,
industrial, and occupational characteristics of the workers, women who work part time
earn 9 percent less than full-time working women. Disadvantages are compounded when
women work part time involuntarily—they are willing and able to work full time but can
only obtain part-time work. Women of color are disproportionately involuntarily part time.

What we do know is that, in recent decades, women have been working substantially
more hours. Between 1979 and 2012, the median annual hours worked by women
increased by 739 hours (Appelbaum, Boushey, and Schmitt 2014). Median annual hours of
work by mothers increased even more dramatically, rising 960 hours from 1979 to 2012
(Appelbaum, Boushey, and Schmitt 2014). For mothers and for women overall, all of the
increase in work hours took place by 2000 (Appelbaum, Boushey, and Schmitt 2014).

Despite these advances, women still work fewer paid hours than men (OECD 2016).

How does the gender wage gap change after a

woman has children?
Research has consistently shown that women with children are paid less than women
without children and men with or without children.11 In short, there does seem to be a
motherhood penalty for earnings. Even after researchers control for variables such as
education and experience, they find that mothers are paid approximately 4.6 percent less
on an hourly basis than women who are not mothers (Budig 2014). Compared with their
counterparts 40 years ago, first-time mothers today are older and have more education
and work experience; after giving birth, they are less likely to leave the labor force and
more likely to return to work quickly (Laughlin 2011). Despite women’s greater experience,
education, and attachment to the labor force, the motherhood pay penalty persists (Budig
2014).

16
Figure I After the birth of a child, fathers spend more time at the
office, whereas mothers spend less
Average weekly hours worked, by gender and household type, 2014
Gender Men Women

All 40.9588 36.1858

Men Women
No children 40.4231 36.8106
43.1
At least 41.0 43.1141 35.4717 40.4
one child 36.8
less than 6 36.2 35.5
years old

All No children At least one child less than

6 years old

Notes: Sample is limited to prime-age workers (workers age 25–54) with positive average weekly hours worked.
Source: EPI analysis of the March Current Population Survey

Our research on the work hours of parents finds that women with children under the age
of 6 work 5.5 hours less per week (13.4 percent fewer weekly hours) than the average
working man, while women without children work 4.1 hours less per week (10.1 percent
fewer hours) than the average man (Figure I).

Our research also looks at labor force participation, which is generally defined as the
share of a given population that is in the labor force (i.e., that is working or looking for
work). Because of social norms and home responsibility, women, in general, are less likely
to work than men. As shown in Figure J, 71.0 percent of all mothers are in the labor force,
as are 73.8 percent of all prime-age women and 88.3 percent of all prime-age men.12 It’s
particularly striking that labor force attachment of parents differs for men and women:
fathers are more likely to be in the labor force than are men without children, but mothers
are less likely to be in the labor force than are women without children.

How do education and job and

occupational characteristics affect the
gender wage gap?
Some have suggested that women could narrow the wage gap if they made different
educational or occupational choices. The data suggest it’s not that simple.

17
Figure J Parenthood has opposite effects on mothers’ and fathers’
labor force participation
Labor force participation by gender and parental status, 2013–2015
Men Women

All 88.30% 73.8%

Men Women
Workers 84.20% 76.80%
with no
100% 93.9%
children
88.3%
Workers
84.2%
93.90% 71.00%
with 73.8% 76.8%
children 71.0%

50

0
All Workers with no children Workers with children

Note: Sample limited to people ages 25–54. Children are defined as being less than 18 years old. The labor force
participation rate is the percentage of people who either have a job or are actively looking for a job, and are not on
active duty in the Armed Forces or living in institutions (such as correctional facilities or nursing homes).
Source: EPI analysis of Current Population Survey microdata

Does education level affect the gender wage

gap?
One thing the data clearly show is that women have not been able to educate themselves
out of the gender wage gap, at least in terms of broad formal credentials. While women
are more likely to graduate from college than men, and are more likely to receive a
graduate degree than men (Gould and Schieder 2016), at every education level, women
are paid less than men (Figure K).

Among workers who have not completed high school, women are paid 78.2 percent of
what men are paid. Among workers who have a college degree, the share is 75.2 percent;
and among workers who have an advanced degree, it is 73.4 percent. Women with
advanced degrees still make less per hour than men with college degrees. Even straight
out of college, women with a college degree make $4 less per hour than their male
peers—a gap that has grown since 2000 (Kroeger, Cooke, and Gould 2016).

18
Figure K Women earn less than men at every education level
Average hourly wages, by gender and education, 2015
Education
level Men Women

Less than $13.93 $10.89 Men Women

high
school
High
Less than high school $14.57
$18.61 $13.93
school $10.89 (78.2%)
Some $20.95 $16.59
college High school $18.61
$14.57 (78.3%)
College $35.23 $26.51
AdvancedSome college $33.65
$45.84 $20.95
degree $16.59 (79.2%)

College $35.23
$26.51 (75.2%)

Advanced degree $45.84

$33.65 (73.4%)

Source: EPI analysis of Current Population Survey Outgoing Rotation Group microdata. For more information on the
data sample see EPI's State of Working America Data Library.

Does the choice of college major affect the

gender wage gap?
Part of the gender wage gap can be attributed to college major. Women are more likely to
major in subjects such as education and the humanities, and these majors are associated
with lower-paying jobs after graduation. At the same time, fewer women major in the
STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) subjects, which are associated with
the most lucrative jobs (Corbett and Hill 2015).

Although college major doesn’t always determine occupation after graduation, there is a
link between major and salary in the workforce. Figure L shows that people with college
degrees in majors favored by women are making less 10 years after graduation. For
example, engineering majors are paid on average nearly twice as much as education
majors 10 years after graduation.

Contrary to what some may believe, educational choices remain gendered today. For
example, male seniors graduating in 2008 were more than five times as likely as their
female counterparts to have majored in engineering and engineering technology, while
women in that same year were three times as likely as their male counterparts to have
studied education (NCES 2011–2015).

These choices of college majors, however, should not be seen as completely

unconstrained. Women’s experiences before college strongly influence their college

19
Figure L Undergraduate majors favored by women pay less 10 years
after graduation
Undergraduate major by gender and salary 10 years after graduation
100 Salary 10
Percentage female (within given major) years after
graduation Percent
Education
(2015 $’s) female
Psychology Health professions
75
Engineering $90,196 13.8%
Humanities Other
History $60,560 38.9%
Public affairs/social Social science
services
Biological sciences Business and management
Math 50 $72,930 40.2%
and science History

Business $70,868 46.2% Math and science

and
25
management
Engineering
Biological $60,560 47.9%
sciences
Social 0 $64,425 50.6%
science 50k 60k 70k 80k 90k

Other $59,014 57.2%

Salary 10 years after graduation (in 2015 dollars)
Humanities $52,829 59.2%
Notes: Salaries are based on the current or most recent salary of college graduates of the class of 1993 10 years after
Public $52,829
graduation in 2003. The 59.4%
salaries are then inflated to 2015 dollars using the CPI-U for easier comparison with today's
affairs/social
wages. The percentage of graduates who are female by major is based on a survey of college students graduating in
services
1993 for consistency.
Psychology
Source: $51,540
U.S. Department of Education,73.6%
National Center for Education Statistics, B&B: 93/03 Baccalaureate and Be-
yond Longitudinal Study
Health $68,291 74.7%
professions
Education $47,417 78.7%

trajectories. For example, women arrive in college less interested in STEM fields than their
male counterparts. Only 14 percent of first-time college women chose science-related
fields in 2012, compared with 39 percent of first-time college men (OECD 2015). Among
STEM majors, women are disproportionately in the biological and life sciences, while men
dominate engineering and computer science (Corbett and Hill 2015).

How much of the wage gap is due to lower pay

in women-dominated occupations versus wage
disparities among men and women in the same
occupation?
A gender pay gap exists both within and between industries and occupations (Goldin
2014). This means that occupations that have more women in them tend to pay less (the
“between occupation” wage gap), and that within each occupation, whether male- or
female-dominated, men tend to be paid more than women (the “within-occupation” gap).
This within-occupation gap means that even when men and women work in the same
occupation—whether as hairdressers, cosmetologists, nurses, teachers, computer

20
engineers, mechanical engineers, or construction workers—men make more, on average,
than women (CPS ORG 2011-2015).

Some have argued that the gender wage gap mostly reflects choices women make about
career paths—and choices about occupation in particular. But as it turns out the within-
occupation gender wage gap plays a larger role in the occupational gender wage gap
than the between-occupation wage gap (the fact that both men and women in
occupations with higher shares of women are paid less). As a thought experiment, imagine
all women are picked out of their jobs and dropped into jobs to mirror how men are
distributed throughout the occupational labor market. For example, if 1.22 percent of men
are currently software developers, suppose 1.22 percent of women (instead of today’s 0.33
percent of women) became software developers.13 What would this occupational
reassignment of women do to the wage gap? Claudia Goldin imagines this scenario in a
2014 paper (Goldin 2014). After controlling for differences in education and preferences for
full-time work, she finds that only 32 percent of the gender pay gap for college graduates
would be closed by redistributing women and men across occupations. On the other hand,
as much as 68 percent of the gender pay gap by occupation for college graduates is due
to the within-occupation gap (Goldin 2014).14 This means if you left women in their current
occupations and just closed the gaps between women and their male counterparts within
occupations (e.g., if male and female civil engineers, and male and female teachers, made
the same per hour), that would close a whopping 68 percent of the gap.

Furthermore, evidence shows that as women’s participation in a particular occupation

rises, pay within that occupation falls (Miller 2016; Oldenziel 1999). Some researchers
attribute this phenomenon to “devaluation,” in which employers ascribe a lower value to
work done in female-dominated occupations and thus pay them less (Levanon, England,
and Allison 2009).

Therefore, changing which occupations women are in will only partially close the gender
wage gap. If we want to equalize earnings between men and women, we need to pay as
much attention to the fact that women in the same job make less than men as we do to the
fact that female-dominated professions pay less.

Has the gender wage gap shrunk as more men

and women blaze paths into “nontraditional”
occupations?
This is a trick question. From the early 1960s to the 1990s, more men and women moved
into “nontraditional” occupations. (An occupation is considered “nontraditional” for a
particular gender if that gender constitutes less than 25 percent of employees in the
occupation [Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006]).15
So for example more women found jobs in recreation and more men became nurses
(Landivar 2013; Miller 2016). But the movement toward gender integration in occupations
slowed down after the 1990s and came to a complete halt during the 2000s (Hegewisch
and Hartmann 2014). Gen Xers, who reached their mid-40s mainly in the 2010s, saw an

21
Figure M 43 percent of workers are in highly gendered occupations
Percentage of workers in occupations in which more than 75 percent of workers are of a
single gender, 2011–2015
Type
of occupation Frequency

Gendered 42.7%
occupations
Mixed occupations 57.3%

Gendered occupations: 42.7%

Mixed occupations: 57.3%

Notes: We define gendered-occupations as occupations in which more than 75 percent of workers are of one gen-
der. This definition is based on the definition of "traditional" occupations included in the Carl D. Perkins Vocational
and Technical Education Act of 1998 S.250-6. Employment counts are averaged over the time period, 2011-2015.
Source: EPI analysis of Current Population Survey Outgoing Rotation group data

increase in occupational segregation between ages 25 and 45. In fact virtually all cohorts
of workers all saw a small increase in occupational segregation in the 2000s and 2010s
(Hegewisch and Hartmann 2014).

For all our progress, as of recent years, only about 6 percent of women are employed in
nontraditional (i.e., traditionally male) occupations. These same sets of occupations employ
45 percent of all men. At the same time, only about 5 percent of men are in traditionally
female occupations, while these occupations employ 40 percent of all female workers.

Figure M shows more simply how gender segregated our occupations still are in the
United States. More than 40 percent of workers are in occupations in which more than
three-fourths of workers are of one gender.

And this segregated distribution of men and women across jobs matters to the gender
wage gap. Occupation and industry (taken together) account for about half of the overall
gender wage gap (Blau and Kahn 2016).

Finally, it is important to note that the distribution of men and women across occupations is
not a simple matter of unconstrained choice. Much research suggests that many women
are driven out of nontraditional occupations by hostile work environments. For example,
63 percent of women working in science, engineering, and technology experience sexual
harassment (Hewlett et al. 2008). Over time, 52 percent of women in science, engineering,

22
Figure N Women generally experience a smaller pay gap when their
workplace is unionized
Women’s median weekly earnings for full-time wage and salary employees as a percent
of men’s, by race and ethnicity, 2014
Race Union Nonunion

100%
All 88.7% 81.8%
94.6%
White 88.7% 81.2% 91.3%
91.0%
88.7% 88.7% 88.2%87.2%
Black 94.6% 91.0%

Hispanic 88.2% 81.8%87.2% 81.2%

80
Asian 91.3% 75.7% 75.7%

60 Union
Nonunion

All White Black Hispanic Asian

Notes: The values represent the difference between the median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary work-
ers who are union members or are covered by a union contract and those who are not.
Source: EPI analysis of Anderson, Hegewisch, and Hayes, 2015

and technology quit their jobs, half of whom end up leaving these fields altogether
(Hewlett et al. 2008).

Does union membership close the gender pay

gap?
Unions not only raise wages for male and female workers alike, but also reduce the size of
the gender wage gap. Women in unions are paid 31 percent more than their nonunionized
sisters. Among racial and ethnic subgroups, black, Hispanic, and white women in unions
make 34, 42, and 31 percent more than their nonunion counterparts (Anderson,
Hegewisch, and Hayes 2015).16 Unionization raises women’s wages by 11.2 percent,
compared with nonunion women who have similar characteristics (Schmitt 2008).

Women in unions also experience a smaller gender pay gap than their nonunionized
counterparts (Figure N). Women workers in unions are paid 88.7 percent of what their
male counterparts are paid, while for nonunionized women the share is 81.8 percent
(Anderson, Hegewisch, and Hayes 2015).

23
Figure O The difference between men’s and women’s pay varies
greatly by state
Median hourly women’s wages as a share of men’s by state, 2013–2015

Maine

Vt. N.H.

Wash. Idaho Mont. N.D. Minn. Ill. Wis. Mich. N.Y. R.I. Mass.

Ore. Nev. Wyo. S.D. Iowa Ind. Ohio Pa. N.J. Conn.

Calif. Utah Colo. Neb. Mo. Ky. W.Va. Va. Md. Del.

Ariz. N.M. Kan. Ark. Tenn. N.C. S.C. D.C.

Okla. La. Miss. Ala. Ga.

Alaska Hawaii Texas Fla.

75.0% 92.6%
Notes: Values representGender
averages 2013-2015.
pay ratio
Source: EPI analysis of (female/
Current Population Survey microdata
male
hourly
State earnings)

Does the gender wage gap depend on

Alaska 86.31%

Alabama 79.17%

where you live?

Arkansas 86.42%

Arizona 84.58%
Yes. The gender wage gap varies widely by state. The gender wage gap, as measured by
California
women’s 87.66%
share of men’s hourly wages at the median, ranges from 74.8 percent (in
Wyoming)
Coloradoto 92.9 percent
84.09%(in Washington, D.C.; Figure O). Typical female workers in
Washington,
ConnecticutD.C., and Vermont make more than 90 percent of the wages of their male
80.07%
counterparts. In nine states, women are paid less than 80 percent of their male
Washington 92.90%
counterparts’
D.C. wages. Similarly, the gender gap in annual earnings ranges from 65.3
percent in Louisiana to
Delaware 89.5 percent in Washington, D.C. (NWLC 2015).
84.15%

Florida of factors may

A number 86.57%
be contributing to these differences, such as the mix of
predominant
Georgia industries or cultural differences. For example, after holding other factors
86.07%
constant, states with a higher score of “religiosity”—including higher frequency of prayer,
Hawaii 88.64%

Iowa 82.79%

Idaho 84.15%
24
Illinois 83.73%

Indiana 81.93%
worship service attendance, and expressed belief in prayer among other
measures—experience a wider gender wage gap (Wiseman and Dutta 2016). According to
the researchers, the reason for this is that religiosity is often associated with more
traditional views about gender roles.

The raw gender wage gap is larger in rural areas than in urban areas. In metropolitan
areas, the gender gap in median hourly wages is 83.2 percent, while in nonmetropolitan
areas, it is 81.7 percent.

The gender pay gap in the United States is bigger than the gap in many other
developed countries. The gender pay gap in the United States is larger than the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) average when
considering the difference between the wages of full-time annual median male and female
wages. Within the OECD, the United States has the 12th largest gender gap overall, and
the U.S. gap is bigger than the gap in most European countries. That said, making direct
international comparisons is often difficult. For example, part-time work by one parent is
more common in Europe, as is substantial use of parental leave and paid vacations, while
single parenthood is more common in the United States (Ruhm 2011).

A common thread in these data is that the burden of parenthood is distributed differently
in various countries. This means that policies meant to address the motherhood penalty
likely need to be tailored differently across these countries as well. For example, the
availability of parental leave might make a woman in Europe less likely to leave her
employer following her pregnancy, whereas in the United States, taking any significant
amount of time off at all following childbirth might lead to her losing her job. On the other
hand, in many of the OECD countries, women are less likely to work full time and less
likely to attain high-level positions than are women in the United States, suggesting that
flexibility comes at a cost (Blau and Kahn 2013a).

There is another way in which geography might affect the gender wage gap. Women are
more willing to move for a husband’s employment than vice versa (Abraham, Auspurg, and
Hinz 2010). This suggests that women are less able to widen the geographic net over
which to search for good job opportunities.

How might the gender wage gap affect

the retirement security of America’s
working women?
It is hard to isolate the effect of the gender wage gap on American women’s retirement
security. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, women’s lower lifetime earnings
means that they receive lower Social Security payments and experience fewer
opportunities to save for retirement. Average annual Social Security benefits for women
are only $13,392, and the annual median income in retirement for women is only $14,000,

25
Figure P Elderly women are more likely than elderly men to be
economically vulnerable
Share of the elderly at various income levels, expressed as multiples of the
supplemental poverty measure (SPM) threshold, by gender
Less than 1.0 to 1.99x At or
1.0x SPM SPM 2.0 to above
100% (economically (economically 3.99x 4.0x
vulnerable)
16.0% vulnerable) SPM SPM At or above
23.0% 4.0x SPM
Women, 17.2% 35.3% 31.5% 16.0% 2.0 to 3.99x
age
65+75 SPM
31.5% 1.0 to 1.99x
Men, 12.7% 29.2% 35.1% 23.0% SPM
age 35.1% (economically
65+
50 vulnerable)
Less than
1.0x SPM
35.3%
(economically
25 29.2% vulnerable)

17.2% 12.7%
0
Women, age 65+ Men, age 65+

Source: EPI analysis of pooled 2010–2012 Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement mi-
crodata

well below the $19,000 to $29,000 that a single person needs to live in retirement,
depending on geographic area (DOL 2015).

That may be a key reason why elderly women are more likely than elderly men to be
economically vulnerable (defined as earning less than twice what they would need to earn
to be above the supplemental poverty measure). As shown in Figure P, over half (52.5
percent) of American women age 65 or older are economically vulnerable, compared with
41.9 percent of same-aged men.

But the gender wage gap is not the only factor that contributes to women’s lower lifetime
earnings. Women’s caregiving responsibilities often push them into working fewer hours,
and working part time often limits opportunities for advancement. Women’s time out of the
workforce translates into lower earnings and can often erode women’s early and mid-life
savings. Further, caregiving costs women $274,044 ($142,693 in lost wages and $131,351
in lost Social Security) over their lifetime, plus an additional $50,000 in lost pension
income (DOL 2015).

In addition to their lower Social Security and retirement earnings, older women also have
limited opportunities to earn money in the labor force. Not only is the gender pay gap
highest among workers age 55 to 64, but recent studies suggest that women face
“robust” age discrimination in the labor market, and that age discrimination against women
is worse than it is for men (Neumark, Burn, and Button 2015; Farber, Silverman, and von
Wachter 2015). Since working longer later in life yields less than it would for a man (DOL

26
2015), this leaves less room for women to catch up on retirement savings. It also means
that when older women are given a choice between staying home to care for family or
staying in the workplace, the latter option is relatively less advantageous. In a recent
survey, one-fifth of all women ages 45 to 74 reported that they had taken time off work
within the past five years to act as caregivers (DOL 2015). Older women’s caregiving
responsibilities extend not just to their children but also to their parents. About 9.7 million
Americans over age 50 care for their parents, and women are the majority of the
caregivers.

The labor force participation rate of older women has grown in the past two decades, but
it is still lower than older men’s (DOL 2015). In 2012, 35.1 percent of women ages 55 and
older were in the labor force, compared with 46.8 percent of their male counterparts (DOL
2015). In 1992, those figures for older women and older men were 22.8 percent and 38.4
percent, respectively (DOL 2015).

What role do “unobservables” like

discrimination and productivity play
in the wage gap?
The unexplained, or residual, portion of the pay gap is the difference in pay between men
and women who are observationally identical. It is what is left when researchers control for
all observable characteristics. It is due to factors that are otherwise difficult to
measure—which could include not only discrimination but also differences in productivity
that are unrelated to influences such as educational level and experience. What can the
size and trajectory of this residual gap tell us about the scope of discrimination in the
workplace?

Is discrimination an expanding or shrinking

factor in gender wage gaps?
Even when researchers control for all observable characteristics, a portion of the gender
wage gap is left unexplained. Economists often argue that this unexplained portion, while
not synonymous with discrimination, may tell us how much gender discrimination could be
affecting wages.

By this measure, discrimination is either stable or increasing. In a 2016 study, economists

Francine Blau and Lawrence Kahn found that the unexplained portion of the gender wage
gap narrowed dramatically in the 1980s, shrinking from between 21 and 29 percent of the
gap in 1980 to between 8 and 18 percent of the gap in 1989. However, after 1989, the
unexplained portion of the gap did not narrow any further, and it has remained stable ever
since.

27
In a 2014 study, economist Claudia Goldin found that the unexplained, or “residual,” gap
makes up more of the gap today than it did in the 1980s. Women today have more
education and work experience, which has whittled away the influence of those factors on
the gap. Human capital factors such as education and experience made up about 25
percent of the wage gap in 1979, but only 8 percent in 1998.

This residual gap is not uniform across occupations. Goldin argues that some professions
disproportionately reward those who work very long hours, and this might explain why she
finds a larger residual gap in business occupations than in science and technology fields.
Also some high-wage firms have adopted pay-setting practices that disproportionately
reward individuals who work very long and very particular hours, including weekends or
late nights. This means that—even if men and women are equally productive per
hour—individuals in these firms who are more likely to work a very high number of weekly
hours and be available at particular off hours are paid more. This reward of long and
nonstandard hours for highly credentialed employees works to men’s advantage (Hersch
and Stratton 2002; Goldin 2014).

But expansion or contraction of the residual gap does not mean that discrimination is
expanding or contracting to the same degree because the residual wage gap only
captures discrimination in pay-setting between similar workers. It does not capture the
range of factors that influence the different labor market experience of men and women
before employers make hourly pay offers, and discrimination—in the form of society-wide
constraints on choices—can certainly enter into these factors. For example, women’s
choice of college major or occupation is conditioned on how well educated in science and
math they were in college and even before. If gender differences in teachers’ attention or
perception of academic excellence influence these choices about college major and
occupation, then it will affect pay outcomes. Therefore, controlling for current occupation
disguises how discrimination can filter men and women differently into high- or low-paying
occupations.

While we can’t precisely measure how big the role of discrimination is, or set a ceiling on
its impact, we do know that it exists. Empirical evidence of outright discrimination in hiring,
promotions, and even wage-setting is strong and includes the following:

One famous study found that switching to blind auditions led to a significantly higher
proportion of female musicians in orchestras (Goldin and Rouse 1997).

An experimental study of résumés submitted for job openings found bias against
women and mothers and a preference for male applicants (Steinpreis, Anders, and
Ritzke 1999). Another résumé study showed discrimination against women in the
sciences (Moss-Racusin et al. 2012).

Researchers have also found that women are viewed as less competent than men,
and that mothers are judged as even less competent than childless women (Ridgeway
and Correll 2004).

In her book, Selling Women Short: The Landmark Battle for Workers’ Rights at Wal-
Mart (2004), Liza Featherstone reported that “women make up 72 percent of Wal-

28
 Mart’s hourly workforce (nonsalaried workers), but only 34 percent of its managers are
women. Women also earn less than their male counterparts in nearly every position at
the company.”

Is the gender gap a result of men being “better”

or more productive workers than women?
As noted, the unexplained, or residual, portion of the pay gap is the difference in pay
between men and women who are observationally identical. Some argue that one of the
difficult-to-measure factors is differences in productivity that are unrelated to influences
such as educational level and experience. Some argue that women’s disproportionate
childcare responsibilities may make them less productive.

Studies that have directly explored worker productivity show little evidence of a
motherhood penalty on productivity. Recent research by the Federal Reserve Bank of St.
Louis that examined productivity among academic economists found that, over the course
of a career, women with children were more productive than women without children
(Krapf, Ursprung, and Zimmerman 2014). Additionally, women with two children were more
productive than women with one child. Another study of blue-collar workers, a group
chosen because of the belief that there would likely be productivity differences by gender,
found that women were generally as productive as men (Petersen, Snartland, and Milgrom
2006).

In fact, research on impressions of women in the workplace suggests women’s

productivity might in fact be systematically underestimated (Burgess 2013). Researchers
have noted that women are caught in a paradox between appearing too feminine (not
qualified) and not feminine enough (lacking in social skills), which often causes their
performance to be evaluated much more strictly than men’s (Burgess 2013). The same
study found that mothers were seen as less competent than childless women (Burgess
2013). For men, parenthood status had no effect on their perceived competency.

Another study found both men and women were conflicted by the notion that they should
put work before family and other personal affairs (Reid 2015). Women, however, were
much less likely to be perceived as putting work first.

Framing the question of pay fairness (as this question does) implies that men’s pay is very
closely aligned with their productivity. But in fact, for decades, the wages of the vast
majority of both men and women have not kept pace with economy-wide productivity as
productivity continued to increase but wages largely stagnated. This contrasts with the
decades before about 1980, when wage growth and productivity growth were closely
linked.

If wages had continued to grow with productivity, the vast majority of both women and
men would be better off today (Figure Q). For example, Davis and Gould (2015) have
shown that had the gender wage gap closed and had wages grown with productivity since
1979, the median woman’s wages would be nearly 70 percent higher today.

29
Figure Q Eliminating the gender and inequality wage gap could raise
women’s wages by 69%
Median hourly wages for men and women, compared with wages for all workers had
they increased in tandem with productivity, 1979–2015
30 Wages for
all workers
had they
grown in $26.47
Wages tandem
Wages for all workers had they grown in tandem with productivity
25 for all with
workers Men’s Women’s productivity
Year wages wages
Women’s
wages
$16.15 $20.30 $12.66 $16.15
1979 Men’s wages could be
69%
20 $18.94 higher
1980 $16.07 $19.98 $12.60 $16.03
$17.11
1981 $15.66 $19.52 $12.53 $16.38

1982 $15.75 $19.30

Wages for $12.61
all workers $16.13
15 $15.67
1983 $15.71 $19.18 $12.76 $16.62

1984 $15.71
Women’s$19.15
wages $12.93 $17.05

1985 $15.80 $19.10 $12.98 $17.34

10
1986
1980
$16.27 $19.70
1990
$13.26 $17.70
2000 2010

Source:
1987 Reproduced
$16.12 from$19.75
Figure G in$13.64
Alyssa Davis and Elise Gould, Closing the Pay Gap and Beyond:
$17.78
A Comprehensive Strategy for Improving Economic Security for Women and Families, EPI Briefing Paper #412, No-
1988 18, 2015
vember $16.10 $19.23 $13.64 $17.99

1989 $16.06 $18.57 $13.71 $18.13

1990 $15.85 $18.12 $13.62 $18.39

How might discrimination—in the

1991 $15.94 $18.06 $13.68 $18.54

form of norms and expectations—be

1992 $15.98 $18.10 $13.82 $19.21

1993 $16.06 $17.87 $14.02 $19.28

affecting the wage gap by constraining

1994 $15.80 $17.67 $13.98 $19.46

women’s choices?
1995 $15.58 $17.91 $13.85 $19.47

1996 $15.65 $17.93 $13.87 $19.94

Women
1997do indeed
$16.04 make choices,
$17.85 but those$20.22
$14.14 choices do not occur in a vacuum. Our
society’s
1998 institutions
$16.49 and norms$14.54
$18.65 exert a powerful
$20.62influence on what choices are available
and what form they take.
1999 $16.97 $19.10 $14.73 $21.12

2000 $16.83 $19.20 $15.03 $21.61

How
2001
well
$17.27
do$19.44
grade school
$15.31 $21.95
test scores measure
aptitude?
2002 $17.27 $19.64 $15.72 $22.56

One2003 $17.56
study found that $19.35
parents are$15.61 $23.30
more likely to expect their sons, rather than their
daughters,
2004 to$17.55
work in STEM
$19.17 fields, even when
$15.69 their daughters performed at the same level
$23.92
in mathematics
2005 (OECD$18.95
$17.40 2015). This suggests$24.34
$15.63 that cultural norms influence girls’ confidence
which in turn influences their success (Herbert and Stipek 2005).
2006 $17.51 $18.91 $15.58 $24.49

2007 $17.21 $19.21 $15.70 $24.66

2008 $17.30 $19.06 $15.85 $24.70

30
2009 $17.65 $19.75 $16.06 $25.20

2010 $17.40 $19.09 $15.92 $25.94

Though girls are underrepresented among students with the highest math test scores,
research shows that this gap differs geographically. In areas where people were more
likely to say “women [are] better suited for home” and “math is for boys,” girls were more
likely to have lower math scores and higher scores on reading tests (Pope and Syndor
2010). In the same states where girls had stereotypically gender-normative test scores,
boys scored higher in math than girls but also lower in reading. More evidence that
children’s disparate test scores may be the result of cultural factors, not innate differences,
is found in the fact that in some states girls scored better at subjects in which cultural cues
might have suggested they should be more gifted, and the same was true for boys.

Other research shows that gender bias among teachers negatively affects girls, with the
worst effects for girls in less well-off families and girls whose fathers have more years of
schooling than their mothers (Lavy and Sands 2015).

Cultural attitudes also affect girls’ confidence, which in turn affects their math performance
(OECD 2015). One study found that girls are more likely to express feelings of anxiety over
mathematics, and on average their math scores were lower. But among girls who reported
similar levels of confidence as boys, the gender gap in performance disappeared (OECD
2015).

Cultural stereotypes appear to have a direct impact on academic performance (OECD

2015). Asians, for example, are stereotyped as being good at math. When Asian girls were
told they were taking a quantitative skills test to assess ethnic differences in performance,
they scored higher than a control group, which was given no explanation for why they
were taking the test. By contrast, Asian girls scored worse when they were told they were
taking a quantitative assessment to determine gender differences.

How does the cultural steering of girls away

from math and science affect occupational
choice?
In college, girls are less likely to major in STEM subjects than men and are less likely to
major in STEM than in other subjects. Yet STEM majors are associated with the highest
earnings. But even though they are not studying the subjects that lead to the most
lucrative jobs, women’s level of education continues to increase. Today, women earn more
than half of all associate degrees, bachelor’s degrees, master’s degrees, and Ph.D.s
(although in this last category, they make up only 51 percent of recipients).

One obstacle to increasing women’s share of employment in lucrative fields is the attrition
rate of highly qualified women working in science, engineering, and technology
(SET) fields. One study found that as many as half of highly qualified female SET
professionals left their jobs because of hostile work environments and job pressures at
odds with traditionally gendered domestic roles (Hewlett et al. 2008). Yet the gender wage
gap persists even among recent graduates (Gould and Kroeger 2016).

31
Do work scheduling practices disadvantage
women?
In some fields—particularly among highly credentialed workers in very well-paid
occupations—employees are disproportionately rewarded for working very long hours
and/or at inconvenient times, with short notice. There seems to be little compelling
evidence that this reflects smart economic thinking by employers. For example,
productivity suffers for employees in medical fields who work long hours (Lockley et al.
2007). Yet these practices persist and affect women. As noted earlier, women in high-
wage professions experience a wider gender gap because they are penalized for not
working long, inflexible hours. Such rigorous work schedules tend to weigh
disproportionately heavily on women, who are still responsible for more housework and
child/elder care than men.

But in the United States and around the world, when unpaid work is accounted for, women
do more work than men, reflecting again the social expectation that women
disproportionately undertake nonmarket work. This trend holds even for children:
Although girls spend more time doing chores than boys, they are less likely than boys to
be paid an allowance (University of Michigan 2007).

Does sex segregation in occupations affect

women’s salary expectations?
Sex segregation in occupations is a reality; women dominate some occupations, just as
men dominated others. However, when women enter male-dominated occupations, they
have similar or lower expected wages than their female counterparts who go into female-
dominated occupations (Pitts 2002). This suggests that when women enter female-
dominated occupations, they are rationally situating themselves to be paid higher wages
once discrimination is taken into account. Another study (Hwang and Polachek 2004)
found that women “choose female jobs to earn a relatively greater amenity package than
they would have received elsewhere. Similarly, men choose male jobs to earn relatively
more.”

How do family and child-rearing roles affect

women’s choices?
It is often suggested that women who are planning to have children seek out “mother-
friendly” occupations, sacrificing higher pay for work environments that are more
conducive to balancing professional and family responsibilities whether because they are
lower stress or offer greater flexibility. But Budig and England (2001) find little support in
the data for this. They find motherhood does not impact mothers’ pay through the types of
jobs women with children choose (except when it comes to choosing part-time jobs, which
does partially account for the motherhood penalty). Instead, they find that it is mothers’

32
breaks in employment, as opposed to the jobs they take, that lead to a discrepancy in pay
between mothers and women without children.

Goldin (2014) argues that women’s labor market choices are strongly conditioned by social
norms and expectations regarding who bears the burden of domestic work as well as
employer indifference toward this burden. “The observed patterns of decreased labor
supply and earnings substantially reflect women’s choices given family constraints and the
inflexibility of work schedules in many corporate and finance sector jobs,” the report
explains.

Finally, the perception that women with children choose to work less is often false.
Instead, mothers in the workplace are simply judged more harshly in regard to their
employer commitment than women without children. Correll, Benard, and Paik (2011) find
that mothers are seen as less committed to the workplace than women without children in
comparable jobs. For men, it’s the opposite: fathers are seen as more committed than
childless men.

Do salary and incentive pay setting practices

affect the gender wage gap?
Gender differences in salary negotiation explain a portion of the gender gap. Men are
more likely to negotiate their salary, which increases their earnings (Babcock and
Laschever 2007). However, men and women face different social incentives for
negotiation, and there is evidence that women are more likely to be penalized when they
negotiate (Bowles, Babcock, and Lei 2006). The constraints on negotiation clearly have an
impact: women who consistently negotiate their salary are paid over $1 million more
across their lifetime than women who do not negotiate (Babcock and Laschever 2007).

Evidence also shows that men benefit disproportionately from incentive pay (Albanesi,
Olivetti, and Prados 2015). Female executives receive a lower share of incentive pay
relative to their male counterparts, and this difference accounts for 93 percent of the
gender gap in total pay (Albanesi, Olivetti, and Prados 2015). Performance pay also
disproportionately rewards male executives. Researchers found that every $1 million
increase in firm value generates a $17,150 increase in firm-specific wealth for male
executives, but only a $1,670 increase for their female counterparts (Albanesi, Olivetti, and
Prados 2015). This research suggests that women are hurt by incentive pay at the top of
the earnings spectrum in two ways: (1) women are less likely to be rewarded using
incentive pay when they are in high-ranking managerial positions, and (2) they are less
likely to reach those commanding heights of the economy where they would receive more
of their pay through an incentive-based structure.

Is there a gender gap in other forms of

worker compensation, such as health

33
Figure R Low-wage workers are less likely to have access to paid
sick days
Percent of private industry workers with access to paid sick days, by wage group, 2016
Share
of
workers
who 87%
have 84%
access
75%
to paid
sick 65%
Category days

Bottom 39%
25%
39%
Second 65%
25% 27%
Third 75%
25%
Top 25% 84%

Bottom Second Third Top 25% Bottom Top 10%

25%
Bottom 27% 25% 25% 10%
10%
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics' National Compensation Survey--Employee Benefits in the United States, July 2016
Top 10%
(Table 6)
87%

insurance, paid sick leave, and

retirement benefits?
Only 60 percent of men and 62 percent of women have access to paid sick days (Williams
and Gault 2014). Although there doesn’t appear to be an overall gender gap in paid sick
time, Hispanic women are less likely than men to have access to paid sick time; 49
percent of Latinas lack such a benefit. Two disproportionately female groups, low-wage
workers and part-time workers, are also less likely to have paid sick leave than their higher
wage and full-time counterparts (BLS 2015; Figure R).

Women are less likely than men to receive health insurance through their own job. In 2015,
34 percent of women had employer-provided health insurance, compared with 43 percent
of men (KFF 2016).

However, men’s and women’s overall participation rates in employer retirement plans are
about the same, despite the fact that, as of 2012, women were slightly more likely than
men to work for employers that offered retirement plans. The equal participation rate is
due to a gap in eligibility that limits women’s participation (Brown et al.).

But equal participation does not mean equal retirement security. Because of their care
responsibilities, women are more likely to move in and out of the workforce. This weakens
their earnings power, and as a result, women have less retirement wealth than men, both

34
in traditional pensions and employer savings accounts such as 401(k)s. In 2010, women’s
income from defined-benefit employer pensions was about 33 percent less than men’s
(Brown et al.). And an analysis of 3 million participants in money manager Vanguard’s fund
showed that the median amount accumulated in defined-contribution retirement accounts
(i.e., 401(k)s and the like) was 34 percent less for women than for men (Brown et al.).

Women age 65 and older are 80 percent more likely than their male counterparts to be
living in poverty (Brown et al.). And widowed women are twice as likely as widowed men
to be living below the poverty line (Brown et al.).

Acknowledgments
This publication was made possible by a grant from the Peter G. Peterson Foundation. The
statements made and views expressed are solely the responsibility of the authors. The
authors would also like to acknowledge the tireless work of Jin Dai, data programmer, and
overall guidance of Josh Bivens, research director.

About the authors

Elise Gould, senior economist, joined EPI in 2003. Her research areas include wages,
poverty, economic mobility, and health care. She is a co-author of The State of Working
America, 12th Edition. In the past, she has authored a chapter on health in The State of
Working America 2008/09; co-authored a book on health insurance coverage in
retirement; published in venues such as The Chronicle of Higher Education, Challenge
Magazine, and Tax Notes; and written for academic journals including Health Economics,
Health Affairs, Journal of Aging and Social Policy, Risk Management & Insurance Review,
Environmental Health Perspectives, and International Journal of Health Services. She
holds a master’s in public affairs from the University of Texas at Austin and a Ph.D. in
economics from the University of Wisconsin at Madison.

Jessica Schieder joined EPI in 2015. As a research assistant, she supports the research of
EPI’s economists on topics such as the labor market, wage trends, executive
compensation, and inequality. Prior to joining EPI, Jessica worked at the Center for
Effective Government (formerly OMB Watch) as a revenue and spending policies analyst,
where she examined how budget and tax policy decisions impact working families. She
holds a bachelor’s degree in international political economy from Georgetown University.

Kathleen Geier is a Chicago-based writer and researcher. She has written for The Nation,
The New Republic, The Baffler, Washington Monthly, and other publications.

Endnotes
1. Wages here refers to the hourly wages of all wage and salary workers between 18 and 64 years
old. Throughout we use wage gap and pay gap interchangeably to refer to the wage gap.

35
2. The typical woman (or man) referred to here and throughout is the median female (or male)
worker.

3. Unless otherwise specified, the EPI analyses throughout this piece use data on hourly wages of all
workers, not just full-time workers. Technically, this is an adjusted gender wage gap measure
because the weekly or annual gender wage gap would allow hours of work to differ. An hourly
wage gap will not capture the direct effect of differences in hours or weeks worked, but it will
capture the indirect effect of wage differences due to the effect of hours on hourly wages. This
limited adjustment allows us to compare women’s and men’s wages without assuming that
women, who still shoulder a disproportionate amount of responsibilities at home, would be able or
willing to work as many hours as their male counterparts. Examining this “raw” gap, we hope to
have a more thorough conversation about the ways a large basket of factors interact and create
the wage gap women experience when they cash their paychecks. Of course, our answers to
questions about the wage gap also draw on the work of other researchers, who may use different
measures. Claudia Goldin for example uses earnings of full-time full-year workers.

4. While there is no fatherhood penalty in the data, there is evidence that fathers who take leave are
punished as well (Bertrand, Goldin, and Katz 2009).

5. The median is the value you get if you take a set of numbers, arrange them from highest to
lowest, and choose the number that is exactly in the middle. Technically, the median hourly wage
is an adjusted gender wage gap measure because the weekly or annual gender wage gap would
allow hours of work to differ. For details on the methodology used, see the “Documentation”
section of the Economic Policy Institute’s State of Working America Data Library (epi.org/data/).

6. The regression-based gap is based on average wages and controls for gender, race and ethnicity,
education, experience, and geographic division. The log of the hourly wage is the dependent
variable.

7. Economic Policy Institute (EPI) analysis of CPS ORG hourly wage data for workers age 18 to 64
using a simple weighted regression model with only a gender control variable.

8. Here education is measured on a mutually exclusive five-point scale: workers who have less than
a high school diploma, those who have completed high school but no further schooling, those
who have some college experience but have not earned a college degree, those who have
earned a college degree, and those with advanced degrees.

9. Here we add in controls for major industry category, detailed occupation (four digit), and full-time
status.

10. Blau and Kahn’s modified model includes controls for education, experience, race/ethnicity,
region, and metropolitan area residence. Their more fully specified model adds in a series of
industry, occupation, and union coverage dummy variables.

11. For our purposes, parents are those with children under age 18.

12. Women and men are limited in these comparisons to individuals between ages 25 and 54.
Children are defined as under age 18.

13. EPI analysis of CPS ORG data by 532 occupation categories averaged 2011–2015.

14. Using female weights gives a lower share of 58 percent. Using female weights would mean you
would move men out of their occupations.

36
15. Nontraditional occupations are defined by the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education
Improvement Act of 2006 (as well as preceding legislation) as “occupations or fields of work,
including careers in computer science, technology, and other current and emerging high skill
occupations, for which individuals from one gender comprise less than 25 percent of the
individuals employed in each such occupation or field of work.”

16. Median weekly earnings for full-time wage and salary workers.

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