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INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 16842

First edition
2014-10-01

Metallic materials — Sheet and strip

— Biaxial tensile testing method using
a cruciform test piece
Matériaux métalliques — Tôles et bandes — Méthode d’essai de
traction biaxiale sur éprouvette cruciforme

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Reference number
ISO 16842:2014(E)

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ISO 16842:2014(E)


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ISO 16842:2014(E)


Contents Page

Foreword......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... iv
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................v
1 Scope.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1
2 Normative references....................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
3 Terms and definitions...................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
4 Principle......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
5 Test piece....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
5.1 Shape and dimensions....................................................................................................................................................................... 2
5.2 Preparation of the test pieces..................................................................................................................................................... 2
6 Testing method........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
6.1 Testing machine...................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
6.2 Measurement method of force and strain........................................................................................................................ 4
6.3 Installation of the test piece to a biaxial tensile testing machine................................................................. 6
6.4 Testing methods...................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
7 Determination of biaxial stress-strain curves........................................................................................................................ 7
7.1 General............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
7.2 Determination of the original cross-sectional area of the test piece......................................................... 7
7.3 Determination of true stress........................................................................................................................................................ 7
7.4 Determination of true strain........................................................................................................................................................ 8
7.5 Determination of true plastic strain...................................................................................................................................... 8
8 Test report................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
8.1 Information in the report............................................................................................................................................................. 10
8.2 Additional note..................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Annex A (informative) Method for measuring a yield surface.................................................................................................12
Annex B (informative) Factors affecting the maximum equivalent plastic strain applicable to the
gauge area of the test piece.....................................................................................................................................................................17

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Annex C (informative) Biaxial tensile testing machine...................................................................................................................19
Bibliography.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23

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Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards
bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out
through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical
committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International
organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.
ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of
electrotechnical standardization.
The procedures used to develop this document and those intended for its further maintenance are
described in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 1.  In particular the different approval criteria needed for the
different types of ISO documents should be noted.  This document was drafted in accordance with the
editorial rules of the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2 (see www.iso.org/directives).
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.  Details of
any patent rights identified during the development of the document will be in the Introduction and/or
on the ISO list of patent declarations received (see www.iso.org/patents).
Any trade name used in this document is information given for the convenience of users and does not
constitute an endorsement.
For an explanation on the meaning of ISO specific terms and expressions related to conformity
assessment, as well as information about ISO’s adherence to the WTO principles in the Technical Barriers
to Trade (TBT) see the following URL:  Foreword - Supplementary information
The committee responsible for this document is ISO/TC 164, Mechanical testing of metals, Subcommittee 2,
Ductility testing.

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ISO 16842:2014(E)


Introduction
This International Standard specifies the testing method for measuring the biaxial stress-strain curves
of sheet metals subject to biaxial tension at an arbitrary stress ratio using a cruciform test piece made of
flat sheet metals. The International Standard applies to the shape and strain measurement position for
the cruciform test piece. The biaxial tensile testing machine is described in Annex C, only in terms of the
typical example of the machine and the requirements that the machine should comply with.
The cruciform test piece recommended in this International Standard has the following features:
a) the gauge area of the test piece ensures superior homogeneity of stress, enabling measurement of
biaxial stress with satisfactory accuracy;
b) capability of measuring the elasto-plastic deformation behaviour of sheet metals at arbitrary stress
or strain rate ratios;
c) free from the out-of-plane deformation as is encountered in the hydrostatic bulge testing method;
d) easy to fabricate from a flat metal sheet by laser cutting, water jet cutting, or other alternative
manufacturing methods.

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INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 16842:2014(E)

Metallic materials — Sheet and strip — Biaxial tensile

testing method using a cruciform test piece

1 Scope
This International Standard specifies the method for measuring the stress-strain curves of sheet
metals subject to biaxial tension using a cruciform test piece fabricated from a sheet metal sample. The
applicable thickness of the sheet shall be 0,1 mm or more and 0,08 times or less of the arm width of the
cruciform test piece (see Figure 1). The test temperature shall range from 10 °C to 35 °C. The amount
of plastic strain applicable to the gauge area of the cruciform test piece depends on the force ratio, slit
width of the arms, work hardening exponent (n-value) (see Annex B), and anisotropy of a test material.

2 Normative references
The following documents, in whole or in part, are normatively referenced in this document and are
indispensable for its application. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated
references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 10275, Metallic materials — Sheet and strip — Determination of tensile strain hardening exponent
ISO 80000-1, Quantities and units — Part 1: General

3 Terms and definitions

For the purpose of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.
3.1
cruciform test piece
test piece which is recommended in the biaxial tensile test and whose geometry is specified in this

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International Standard (see Figure 1)
3.2
gauge area
square area which is located in the middle of the cruciform test piece and is enclosed by the four arms of
the cruciform test piece (see Figure 1)
3.3
arm
generic name for all areas other than the gauge area in the cruciform test piece. The arms play a role of
transmitting tensile forces in two orthogonal directions to the gauge area of the cruciform test piece
(see Figure 1)
3.4
biaxial tensile testing machine
testing machine for applying biaxial tensile forces to a cruciform test piece in the orthogonal directions
parallel to the arms of the test piece (see Annex C)
3.5
yield surface
a group of stress determined in a stress space, at which a metal starts plastic deformation when probing
from the elastic region into the plastic range[1] (see Annex A)

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ISO 16842:2014(E)


3.6
yield function
mathematical function used to generate the conditional equation (yield criterion) which the stress
components should comply with when the material subject to the stress is in the plastic deformation
state (see Annex A)
3.7
contour of plastic work
graphic figure derived by subjecting the material to plastic deformation along various linear stress
paths and plotting the stress points in stress space at the instance when the plastic work consumed per
unit volume along each stress path becomes identical; and the plotted stress points are approximated
into either a smooth curve or curved surface (see Annex A)

4 Principle
Measurement is made at room temperature, on the yield stress and the stress-strain curves of sheet
metals under biaxial tensile stresses by measuring simultaneously and continuously the biaxial tensile
forces and strain components applied to the gauge area of a cruciform test piece while applying biaxial
tensile forces in the orthogonal directions parallel to the arms of the test piece. The test piece is made
of a flat sheet metal and has a uniform thickness. The measured biaxial stress-strain curves are used to
determine contours of plastic work of the sheet samples (see Annex A). According to the finite element
analyses of the cruciform test piece as recommended in Clause 5 and the strain measurement position
as specified in Clause 6.2.4, the stress calculation error is estimated to be less than 2,0 %.[2][3]

5 Test piece

5.1 Shape and dimensions

Figure 1 shows the shape and dimensions of the cruciform test piece recommended in this International
Standard. The test piece shall be as described below.
a) In principle, the thickness of a test piece, a, shall be the same as that of the as-received sheet sample,
without any work done in the thickness direction. See 5.1 b) for an exception to the rule.

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b) The arm width, B, should be 30  mm or more, except that it can be determined according to the
agreement between parties involved in transaction. It shall satisfy a ≤ 0,08B and should be accurate
to within ± 0,1 mm for all four arms. The sheet thickness can be reduced to satisfy a ≤ 0,08B according
to the agreement between parties involved in transaction.
c) Seven slits per one arm shall be made. Specifically, one slit shall be made on the centerline (x-axis or
y-axis) of the test piece with a positional accuracy of ± 0,1 mm, and three slits shall be made at an
interval of B/8 with an positional accuracy of ± 0,1 mm on each side of the centerline. All slits shall
have the same length, L, and should be accurate to within ±0,1 mm. The relationship of B ≤ L ≤ 2B
should be established. The opposing slit ends shall be made at an equal distance, BSx/2 and BSy/2,
from the centerline with a positional accuracy of B/2 ± 0,1 mm.
d) The slit width, wS, should be made as small as possible (see Figure B.2), preferably less than 0,3 mm.
e) The grip length, C, is considered to be enough if it can secure the test piece to the grips of the biaxial
tensile testing machine and can transmit the necessary tensile force to the test piece. The standard
grip length would be B/2 ≤ C ≤ B, but can be determined arbitrarily according to the agreement
between parties involved in transaction.
f) An alternative test piece geometry can be used. In the use of the alternative cruciform test pieces, the
evidence of the stress measurement accuracy has to be clarified between the contractual partners.

5.2 Preparation of the test pieces

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ISO 16842:2014(E)


a) The permitted variations in thickness and the permitted variations from a flat surface of the sheet
metal sample from which the cruciform test pieces are taken shall be in accordance with relevant
product standards or national standards.
b) The standard sampling direction of the test piece shall be such that the directions of arms are
parallel to the rolling (x) and transverse ( y) directions of the sheet sample, respectively. The test
piece sampling direction can be determined according to the agreement between parties involved
in transaction.
c) For the fabrication of the test piece (including making of slits), any method, e.g. laser cutting, water
jet cutting, or other alternative manufacturing methods, demonstrated to work satisfactorily can
be used if agreed upon by the parties.
d) Unless otherwise specified and except for the sampling work, unnecessary deformation or heating
to the test piece shall be avoided.
a y
t0 Corner
R=(0,0034~0,1)B
R :R
radius
1 BSx
2 w
Slit widthw
:wSs
S
C
L

B x

L BSy

3
4
B/8
B

Key
1 gauge area
2 arm

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3 grip
4 slit
a thickness of a test piece
B arm width
BSx distance between opposing slit ends in the x direction
BSy distance between opposing slit ends in the y direction
C grip length
L slit length
R corner radius at the junctions of arms to the gauge area
wS slit width

Figure 1 — Standard shape and dimensions of the recommended cruciform test piece[2][3]

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ISO 16842:2014(E)


6 Testing method

6.1 Testing machine

The specifications required for the biaxial tensile testing machine (hereinafter referred to as testing
machine) are as follows (for examples of typical testing machines, see Annex C).
a) It shall have sufficient functions and durability to hold four grips of a cruciform test piece (hereinafter
referred to as test piece) in one single plane with a tolerance of ±0,1 mm during testing.
b) Two opposing grips shall move along a single straight line (hereinafter referred to as x-axis and
y-axis), and the x- and y-axes shall intersect at an angle of 90° ± 0,1° (The plane that contains the x-
and y-axes is referred to as the reference plane, while the intersection of x- and y-axes as the centre
of testing machine).
c) It shall have a function for adjusting the two opposing grips to the position at an equal distance from
the centre of the testing machine with a tolerance of ± 0,1 mm before the installation of a test piece
to the grips.
d) It shall have a function for enabling the installation of a test piece to the grips while aligning the
centre of the test piece to the centre of the testing machine.
e) It shall have a function for enabling equal displacement of two opposing grips or the maintenance of
the centre of the test piece always on the centre of the testing machine with a tolerance of ±0,1 mm
during biaxial tensile test (for example, the testing machines shown in Figures C.1 and C.2 use a link
mechanism to ensure equivalent displacement of two opposing grips).
f) It shall have a capability of servo-controlled biaxial tensile testing to perform a test with a constant
nominal stress ratio (constant force ratio) and/or a test with a constant true stress ratio, and/or a
test with a constant strain-rate ratio, according to the purpose of the test (see Annex C.2). For a link
type biaxial tensile testing machine, it shall ensure equal displacement of two opposing grips (see
Annex C.3).
g) Modern control electronics allow independent and combined control of each actuator — it is called
modal control (see Annex C.4).

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h) It shall have a function for measuring and storing the values of the tensile forces (two channels for
the x- and y-axes) and strain components (two channels for the x- and y-axes) during biaxial tensile
test with the specified accuracy and time interval agreed by the parties concerned.

6.2 Measurement method of force and strain

6.2.1 General

This subclause specifies the method for measuring the tensile forces (Fx, Fy) and nominal strain
components (ex, e y) applied to the x and y directions of a cruciform test piece.

6.2.2 Measurement method of force

For measurement of (Fx, Fy), load cells shall be used in the x and y directions. The force-measuring
system of the testing machine shall be calibrated in accordance with ISO 7500-1, class 1, or better.

6.2.3 Measurement method of strain

For measurement of (ex, e y), strain gauges or other methods, e.g. an optical measurement system, shall
be used. Measure ex and e y to the nearest 0,000 1 or better.

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ISO 16842:2014(E)


6.2.4 Strain measurement positions

Figure 2 shows the position(s) of a strain gauge (or strain gauges) for measuring (ex, ey). (ex, ey) shall be
measured at a position, with a distance of (0,35 ± 0,05)B from the centre of test piece, on the centerline
parallel to the maximum tensile force. The strain measurement position can also be determined
according to the agreement between parties involved in transaction.
NOTE According to the finite element analyses of the cruciform test piece as recommended in Clause 5 and
the strain measurement position as specified in Figure 2, the stress calculation error is estimated to be less than
2,0 %.[2][3]

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ISO 16842:2014(E)


Fy Fy

(0,35± 0,05)B
(0,35± 0,05)B

Fx Fx Fx Fx

B
B

Fy Fy

a1) Fx ≥ Fy a2) Fx ≤ Fy

a) A case of measuring ex and ey, using a biaxial foil strain gauge

Fy Fy

(0,35± 0,05)B (0,35± 0,05)B

Fx Fx Fx Fx
B

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Fy Fy

b1) Fx ≥ Fy b2) Fx ≤ Fy

b) A case of measuring ex and e y, using two pieces of uniaxial strain gauge

Key
B arm width
ex nominal strain in the x direction
ey nominal strain in the y direction
Fx tensile force in the x direction
Fy tensile force in the y direction

Figure 2 — Strain measurement position[2][3]

6.3 Installation of the test piece to a biaxial tensile testing machine

The test piece shall be fixed by four grips of a biaxial tensile testing machine. Care shall be taken to
ensure alignment of the centre of test piece with that of the testing machine.

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ISO 16842:2014(E)


6.4 Testing methods

While keeping the force ratio, true stress ratio, strain-rate ratio, or the grip displacement-rate ratio
constant, biaxial tensile forces shall be applied to the test piece. (Fx, Fy) and (ex , e y) shall be measured
with constant time intervals and the data shall be recorded on appropriate equipment. The test ends
when achieving the desired strain or stress level, or should be ended when fracture or localized necking
occurred in the arm or gauge area. The recommended strain-rate is 0,1 s−1 to 0,0001 s−1.
NOTE A similar testing method has been used for abrupt strain path changes (see Annex A.3).

7 Determination of biaxial stress-strain curves

7.1 General
Using the measured values of (Fx, Fy) and (ex , e y), the stress-strain curves in the x and y directions of the
cruciform test piece shall be determined. These curves are used to determine contours of plastic work
for the test material (see Annex A.2).

7.2 Determination of the original cross-sectional area of the test piece

Calculate the original cross-sectional areas of the gauge area perpendicular to the x- and y-axes, ASx and
ASy, from Formulae (1) and (2):
ASx = a × BSy (1)

ASy = a × BSx
(2)

where
a is the sheet thickness, expressed in mm;

BSx is the distance between opposing slit ends on the x axis, expressed in mm;

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BSy is the distance between opposing slit ends on the y axis, expressed in mm.

Measure a to the nearest 0,01 mm or better using a micrometer with sufficient resolution. BSx and BSy
shall be determined to the nearest 0,1 mm or better using a measuring device with sufficient resolution.
The calculated values of ASx and ASy shall be rounded to 0,1 mm2 according to ISO 80000-1.

7.3 Determination of true stress

Calculate the true stress components in the x and y directions, σx and σy, from Formulae (3) and (4):
Fx
σx = (1 + e x ) (3)
AS x

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Fy
σy = (1 + e y ) (4)
AS y
where
ASx is the original cross-sectional areas of the gauge area perpendicular to the x-axes, expressed
in mm2;

ASy is the original cross-sectional areas of the gauge area perpendicular to the y-axes, expressed
in mm2;

ex is the nominal strain in the x direction measured by the method, as described in 6.2;

e y is the nominal strain in the y direction measured by the method, as described in 6.2;

Fx is the tensile force in the x direction, expressed in N;

Fy is the tensile force in the y direction, expressed in N.

7.4 Determination of true strain

Calculate the true strain components in the x and y directions, ε x and ε y, from Formulae (5) and (6):
εx = ln(1 + ex)
(5)

εy = ln(1 + e y)
(6)

where
ex is the nominal strain in the x direction measured by the method, as described in 6.2;

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e y is the nominal strain in the y direction measured by the method, as described in 6.2.

εx and εy shall be calculated to the digit of 10−5 from Formulae (5) and (6), and the result shall be rounded
to the digit of 10−4 according to ISO 80000-1.
Examples of the measured biaxial true stress-true strain curves for a cold rolled ultralow carbon steel
sheet are shown in Figure 3.

7.5 Determination of true plastic strain

Calculate the true plastic strain components in the x and y directions, ε xp and ε yp , from Formulae (7)and
(8):
σx
ε xp = ε x − (7)
Cx

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σy
ε yp = ε y − (8)
Cy
where
Cx is the slope of the elastic part of the σx − εx curve measured in the biaxial tensile test,
expressed in MPa;

Cy is the slope of the elastic part of the σy − εy curve measured in the biaxial tensile test,
expressed in MPa;

εx is the true strain in the x direction;

εy is the true strain in the y direction;

σx is the true stress in the x direction, expressed in MPa;

σy is the true stress in the y direction, expressed in MPa.

ε xp and ε yp shall be calculated to the digit of 10−5 from Formulae (7) and (8), and the result shall be
rounded to the digit of 10−4 according to ISO 80000-1.

400 400
σy -εy σx -εx
σx - εx
300 Cy 300
MPa

σy - εy
σx , σy / MPa

Cx
200 200
σx , σy /

σx - εx (uniaxial in RD) σx - εx (uniaxial in RD)

100 100

0 0

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0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03
εx , εy εx , εy

a) A case of Fx:Fy = 1:1 b) A case of Fx:Fy = 2:1

Key
Cx slope of the elastic part of the σx − εx curve measured in the biaxial tensile test, in MPa
Cy slope of the elastic part of the σy − εy curve measured in the biaxial tensile test, in MPa
Fx tensile force in the x direction, in N
Fy tensile force in the y direction, in N
εx true strain in the x direction
εy true strain in the y direction
σx true stress in the x direction, in MPa
σy true stress in the y direction, in MPa

NOTE The uniaxial tensile true stress-true strain curve in the rolling direction (RD) of the same material is
also shown for comparison.

Figure 3 — Examples of true stress-true strain curves measured in the biaxial tensile test of
cold rolled ultralow carbon steel sheet

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Examples of measured true stress-true plastic strain curves corresponding to Figure 3 are shown in
Figure 4.
400 400
p
σy εy
p
- σx εx- p
σx -εx
300 300

MPa
MPa

p
σy - εy
200 200

σx , σy /
σx , σy /

p
p
σx - εx (uniaxial in RD) σx -εx (uniaxial in RD)
100 100

0 0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03
p p p p
εx , εy εx , εy

a) A case of Fx:Fy = 1:1 b) A case of Fx:Fy = 2:1

Key
Fx tensile force in the x direction, in N
Fy tensile force in the y direction, in N
true plastic strain in the x direction
εx
p

true plastic strain in the y direction

ε yp
σx true stress in the x direction, in MPa
σy true stress in the y direction, in MPa

NOTE The uniaxial tensile true stress-true plastic strain curve in the rolling direction (RD) of the same
material is also shown for comparison.

Figure 4 — Examples of true stress-true plastic strain curves measured in the biaxial tensile

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test of cold rolled ultralow carbon steel sheet

8 Test report

8.1 Information in the report

The test report shall contain at least the following information unless otherwise agreed by the parties
concerned:
a) identification of the test piece;
b) specified material, if known;
c) thickness of the original sheet sample and the test piece;
d) dimensions of the test piece: arm width, B; grip length, C; slit length, L; corner radius at the junctions
of arms to the gauge area, R; slit width, wS (see Figure 1);
e) location and direction of sampling of the test pieces, if known, and the fabrication method of the test
pieces;
f) strain measurement method;

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g) test temperature;
h) testing machine;
i) loading conditions (force ratio, true stress ratio, strain-rate ratio, or grip displacement ratio for the
link type biaxial tensile testing mechanism shown in Figure C.2, strain-rate, etc.);
j) test results: data specified according to the agreement between the parties involved in transaction
(force-time diagram, strain-time diagram, contour of plastic work, stress path in stress space, strain
path in strain space, etc.).

8.2 Additional note

It is recommended that the record of the following items is added in the test report:
a) sample mill sheet;
b) photo of overall appearance of the test piece after test.

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Annex A
(informative)

Method for measuring a yield surface

A.1 General
This annex specifies methods for measuring a yield surface of a sheet metal. A yield surface is effective
when the plastic deformation characteristics of sheet metals are to be evaluated quantitatively and when
an optimum yield function is to be identified for the metals under biaxial stress. The determination of an
appropriate yield function based on the biaxial tensile tests is useful to improve the predictive accuracy
of FEA for sheet metal forming processes.[4][5][6][7]

A.2 Method for measuring contours of plastic work

Figure A.1 shows a method for measuring a contour of plastic work for sheet metals. A uniaxial tensile
test in the rolling direction of the material is conducted first, and the uniaxial true stress, σ0, and plastic
work, W0, dissipated per unit volume are determined for a predetermined value of the uniaxial true
plastic strain, ε 0p . In this case, W0 is determined as an area below the measured true stress-true plastic
strain curve. Then, the biaxial tensile tests with the force ratios, Fx:Fy, or the true stress ratio, σx:σy, held
at specific proportions and the uniaxial tensile test in the transverse direction are also carried out.
Finally, groups of true stress points, (σ0, 0), (σx, σy), and (0, σ90), for which the same amount of plastic
work as W0 is required, are plotted in the principal stress space to form a contour of plastic work
associated with ε 0p . When ε 0p is sufficiently small, the associated work contour can be practically
viewed as an initial yield surface for the material.

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Key
Wx plastic work per unit volume dissipated by the tensile force in the x direction
Wy plastic work per unit volume dissipated by the tensile force in the y direction
W0 plastic work per unit volume dissipated in the uniaxial tensile test to
a strain of ε 0 in the x direction
p

uniaxial true plastic strain reached in the uniaxial tensile test in the x direction
ε 0p
σx true stress in the x direction
σy true stress in the y direction
σ0 tensile true stress reached in the uniaxial tensile test in the x direction and associated with W0
σ90 tensile true stress reached in the uniaxial tensile test in the y direction and associated with W0

Figure A.1 — A schematic diagram for the determination of a contour of plastic work

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Figure A.2 shows examples of contours of plastic work measured for different sheet metals using
cruciform test pieces as shown in Figure 1. The force ratio, Fx:Fy, was set to 1:0, 4:1, 2:1, 4:3, 1:1, 3:4, 1:2,
1:4, and 0:1. For the force ratios of 1:0 and 0:1, a standard uniaxial tensile test piece was used.

(a) High-strength steel sheet with a tensile (b) SUS304 stainless steel sheet
strength of 780 MPa
300
ε0p 300
0.001
0.0025
0.005
200 0.01
200
σy / MPa

0.02
σy / MPa

0.03
0.04
0.05 p
100 ε0
0.06 100 0.001

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0.002
0.004
0.006
0 0.008
0 100 200 300 0
0 100 200 300
σx / MPa
σx / MPa

(c) 5 000 series aluminium alloy sheet (d) AZ31 magnesium sheet

Key
uniaxial true plastic strain reached in the uniaxial tensile test in the x direction
ε 0p
σx true stress in the x direction, in MPa
σy true stress in the y direction, in MPa

Figure A.2 — Examples of contours of plastic work measured using cruciform test pieces

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A.3 Use of abrupt strain path change for detecting a yield vertex and subsequent
yield surface
Conventionally, a yield surface is determined by probing in many different stress directions from the
elastic region into the plastic range. In considering the possibility that a corner exists on the subsequent
yield surface at the point of loading, as predicted by crystal plasticity, Reference [1] has argued that any
such corner will be erased by the unloading needed to probe the yield surface.
Reference [8] proposed a new method for determining the shape of the subsequent yield surface in the
vicinity of a current loading point. They prescribe a proportional strain path until the loading point of
interest has been reached, and prescribe an abrupt strain path that will cause the stress point to move
quickly along the yield surface. This determination can be done without any unloading, which would be
required if the subsequent yield surface was to be determined by probing from the elastic region. This
method is therefore capable of detecting a yield vertex formed at the point of loading.
Reference [9] applied the abrupt strain path change method to a cruciform test piece, and successfully
measured a yield vertex and non-normality behaviour of the plastic strain-rate. Figure A.3 shows the
observed stress paths for an aluminium alloy and an IF steel, using the cruciform test piece shown in
Figure 1, in a closed-loop, servo-controlled biaxial tensile testing machine. In the first step of straining,
equibiaxial stretching, D11 = D22 > 0, was prescribed. At a nominal strain, e11 = e22 = 0,01, the prescribed
strain-rates were abruptly changed to D11 = −D22 > 0, or alternatively, D22 = −D11 >0. It is apparent that
the stress paths for the abrupt strain path change with D22 = −D11 cannot be non-yielding stress paths
in the elastic region. It is therefore inferred, that a yield surface vertex exists at the point of loading in
the figure.
Similar tests were performed for a metastable austenitic stainless cast steel,[10] although the geometry
of the test piece used is different from that shown in Figure 1.

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(a) cold rolled ultralow carbon steel sheet (b) 6 000-series aluminium alloy sheet

Key
σ11 true stress in the x direction, in MPa
σ22 true stress in the y direction, in MPa
D11 stretching in the x direction
D22 stretching in the y direction
DP plastic strain-rate
Δεp accumulated equivalent (von Mises) plastic strain measured from the strain path change point

NOTE The curve marked with · is a work contour measured for the as-received material subjected to linear
stress paths.

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Figure A.3 — Subsequent yield surfaces observed with abrupt strain path changes following
equibiaxial tension[9]

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Annex B
(informative)

Factors affecting the maximum equivalent plastic strain applicable

to the gauge area of the test piece

B.1 General
For the cruciform test piece covered by this International Standard, the arms are subjected to uniaxial
tension, so that the test is over at a time when the nominal stress of the arm reaches the material tensile
strength. Accordingly, the maximum equivalent plastic strain, ε maxp
, applicable to the gauge area can be
estimated using the Considère condition for maximum load in a strip in tension.[11] ε max p
depends
mainly on the force ratio, Fx:Fy, the work hardening exponent, n (n-value, see ISO  10275), of the test
material, the slit width of the cruciform test piece, wS, and the anisotropy of the test material. This annex
shows the effects of the work hardening exponent and the slit width on ε max p
.

B.2 Effect of work hardening exponent (n-value)

Figure B.1 shows the effect of n-value on ε max
p
when the slit width of the cruciform test piece is 1 % of
the arm width and the number of slits is seven. For materials having larger n-value, ε max p
becomes
larger. This is because the material with larger n-value has the higher stress increase-rate along with
increase in the arm’s plastic deformation, which in turn causes increase in the stress acting on the gauge
area. Note here that the values of ε max
p
in Figure B.1 should be viewed only for reference, because these
are numerical analysis solutions based on the simple mechanics of plasticity, the maximum load
condition for the arm,[11] by assuming the isotropy of the material.

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Key
Fx tensile force in the x direction, in N
Fy tensile force in the y direction, in N
wS slit width, in mm
B arm width, in mm
n work hardening exponent (n-value)
ε max
p maximum equivalent plastic strain applicable to the gauge area

Figure B.1 — Effects of n-value on the maximum equivalent plastic strain applicable to the
gauge area of a cruciform test piece. Material model: Von Mises yield criterion

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B.3 Effect of slit width

Figure B.2 shows the effects of the slit width on ε max
p
when the force ratios, Fx:Fy, are 2:1 and 1:1 and the
number of slits is seven. As the effective sectional area of the arm decreases with increasing wS, the
force transmitted to the gauge area decreases, resulting in the decrease of ε max p
. Note that the results
shown in Figure B.2 should be viewed only for reference, because they are numerical analysis solutions
based on the simple mechanics of plasticity, the maximum load condition for the arm,[11] by assuming
the isotropy of the material.

Key
Fx tensile force in the x direction, in N
Fy tensile force in the y direction, in N
wS slit width, in mm
B arm width, in mm
n work hardening exponent (n-value)

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maximum equivalent plastic strain applicable to the gauge area
ε max
p

Figure B.2 — Effects of the slit width on the maximum equivalent plastic strain applicable to
the gauge area of a cruciform test piece. Material model: Von Mises yield criterion[2]

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ISO 16842:2014(E)


Annex C
(informative)

Biaxial tensile testing machine

C.1 General
This annex shows examples of the testing machine applicable to the biaxial tensile testing method.

C.2 Servo controlled biaxial tensile testing machine

Figure C.1 shows the structural example of a servo-controlled biaxial tensile testing machine.[12][13]
The main body consists of the frame, four actuators (hydraulic cylinder or servo motor) arranged in
two orthogonal directions, grip connected to each actuator, and one load cell installed in each axis.
Opposing hydraulic cylinders are connected to common hydraulic lines so that they are subjected to
the same hydraulic pressure. The hydraulic pressure of each pair of opposing hydraulic cylinders is
servo-controlled independently. Displacements of opposing hydraulic cylinders are equalized using
the pantograph-type link mechanism proposed by Reference [14], so that the centre of the cruciform
test piece is always kept at the centre of the testing machine during biaxial tensile tests. A load cell is
included in each loading direction. This testing machine can control the stress ratio[12][13] or strain-rate
ratio[9] by means of the servo actuators.

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Key
1 actuator
2 centre of the testing machine
3 grip
4 load cell
5 link mechanism
6 loading axis
7 frame

Figure C.1 — Example of servo-controlled biaxial tensile testing machine[12][13]

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C.3 Link type biaxial tensile testing machine
C.3.1 Link type biaxial tensile testing mechanism with adjustable displacement ratio
Figure C.2 shows the link type biaxial tensile testing mechanism.[15] A user can easily apply biaxial
tensile forces to a cruciform test piece by simply installing the mechanism into an existing uniaxial
tensile testing machine and applying a uniaxial compressive force “C” to the top of the machine. It is
capable of keeping the displacement-rate ratio between the orthogonal grips constant.

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Key
C compressive force

Figure C.2 — Link type biaxial tensile testing machine[15]

C.3.2 Link type biaxial tensile testing machine with adjustable force ratio
Figure C.3 shows a high-force biaxial testing machine with a centralized application of force through a
lifting gear and adjustable force ratio.[16] The adjustment of the tensile force in each direction is carried
out with variable angles. The tensile force is measured with load cells in each direction. With the link
type testing machine, it is possible to set different force ratios without expensive control.

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Figure C.3 — Link type biaxial tensile testing machine[16]

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C.4 Biaxial testing machine with electro-mechanically driven spindle drives

Figure C.4 shows the structural example of a servo-controlled biaxial tensile testing machine with a
vertical frame (horizontal frame is also possible).[17][18] There are four orthogonally arranged electro-
mechanically driven spindle drives. Each of the four actuators is individually controlled. Each actuator
includes sensors for position, force, and strain. Position stability of the test piece centre is video-optically
controlled. Because of independent and combined control of each actuator, any variety of stress ratio
and strain ratio can be applied.

Key
1 electromechanical actuator
2 load cell

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3 grips
4 load frame

Figure C.4 — Biaxial tensile testing machine with electro-mechanically driven spindle drives
and vertical frame[17][18]

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Bibliography

[1] Hecker S.S. Experimental studies of yield phenomena in biaxially loaded metals. In: Constitutive
Equations in Viscoplasticity: Computational and Engineering Aspects, (Stricklin J.A., & Saczalski
K.H. eds.). ASME, New York, 1976, pp. 1–33.
[2] Hanabusa Y., Takizawa H., Kuwabara T. Numerical verification of a biaxial tensile test method
using a cruciform specimen. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2013, 213 pp. 961–970
[3] Hanabusa Y., Takizawa H., Kuwabara T. Evaluation of accuracy of stress measurements
determined in biaxial stress tests with cruciform specimen using numerical method. Steel
Research Int. 2010, 81 pp. 1376–1379
[4] Yoon J.W., Barlat F., Dick R.E., Karabin M.E. Prediction of six or eight ears in a drawn cup based
on a new anisotropic yield function. Int. J. Plast. 2006, 22 pp. 174–193
[5] Kuwabara T. Advances in experiments on metal sheets and tubes in support of constitutive
modeling and forming simulations, Int. J. Plast. 2007, 23 pp. 385-419
[6] Kuwabara T., Hashimoto K., Iizuka E., Yoon J.W. Effect of anisotropic yield functions on the
accuracy of hole expansion simulations. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2011, 211 pp. 475–481
[7] Yanaga D., Kuwabara T., Uema N., Asano M. Material modeling of 6000 series aluminum
alloy sheets with different density cube textures and effect on the accuracy of finite element
simulation. Int. J. Solids Struct. 2012, 49 pp. 3488–3495
[8] Kuroda M., & Tvergaard V. Use of abrupt strain path change for determining subsequent yield
surface: illustrations of basic idea. Acta Mater. 1999, 47 pp. 3879–3890
[9] Kuwabara T., Kuroda M., Tvergaard V., Nomura K. Use of abrupt strain path change for
determining subsequent yield surface: experimental study with metal sheets. Acta Mater. 2000,
48 pp. 2071–2079
[10] Kulawinskia D., Nagela K., Henkela S., Hübnerb P., Fischerc H., Kunac M. et al. Characterization

University of Toronto User.

of stress–strain behavior of a cast TRIP steel under different biaxial planar load ratios. Eng.
Fract. Mech. 2011, 78 pp. 1684–1695
[11] Marciniak Z., Duncan J.L., Hu S.J. Mechanics of Sheet Metal Forming, ( 2002), 63, Butterworth-
Heinemann, Oxford
[12] Kuwabara T., Ikeda S., Kuroda T. Measurement and analysis of differential work hardening in
cold-rolled steel sheet under biaxial tension. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 1998, 80/81 pp. 517–523
[13] Kuwabara T., Van Bael A., Iizuka E. Measurement and analysis of yield locus and work hardening
characteristics of steel sheets with different r-values. Acta Mater. 2002, 50 pp. 3717–3729
[14] Shiratori E., & Ikegami K. Experimental study of the subsequent yield surface by using cross-
shaped specimens. J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 1968, 16 pp. 373–394
[15] Nagayasu T., Takahashi S., Kuwabara T. Development of compact biaxial tensile testing machine
using conventional compression testing machine and evaluation of the test results, Proc. IDDRG
2010, ( 2010), pp.593-602
[16] Merklein M., & Biasutti M. Development of a biaxial tensile machine for characterization of
sheet metals. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2013, 213 pp. 939–946
[17] Nowack H., Hanschmann D., Ott W., Trautmann K.H., Maldfeld E. Crack Initiation Life
Behavior under Biaxial Loading Conditions. ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ. 1997, 1280 pp. 159–183

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[18] Lohr R.D. System Design for Multiaxial High-Strain Fatigue Testing in ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ. 2000,


1387 pp. 355–368
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ICS 77.040.10