Juvenile Idiopathic

Arthritis
Peter J. Gowdie, MBBS, FRACP, Shirley M.L. Tse, MD, FRCPC*

KEYWORDS
 Juvenile idiopathic arthritis  Epidemiology  Classification
 Treatment

Key Points

 Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is defined as arthritis 6 weeks duration in child 16 years
old without other known cause.
 Juvenile idiopathic arthritis is a diagnosis of exclusion; it is important to consider the
potential mimickers of JIA.
 Early referral to pediatric rheumatology should be considered.
 Use of nonsteroidal antinflammatory drugs is appropriate before review with a pediatric
rheumatology specialist.
 Surveillance for and prevention of complications of JIA is critical (eg, uveitis and growth
disturbance).
 Aim for early detection and treatment of flares of disease.
 In patients on immune-modulatory and biologic medication:
 Monitor for side effects
 Beware of infections
 Avoid live vaccines.
 Goals of therapy: achieve remission, minimize medication toxicity, maximize function,
optimize growth and development and improve quality of life.

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) encompasses a complex group of disorders

comprising several clinical entities with the common feature of arthritis. Each subtype
of JIA is characterized by a different mode of presentation, disease course, and
outcome.
An increased understanding of the underlying pathogenesis of JIA, the development
of targeted biologic therapies and rigorous clinical trials studying these new therapies

Division of Rheumatology, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: shirley.tse@sickkids.ca

Pediatr Clin N Am 59 (2012) 301–327

doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2012.03.014 pediatric.theclinics.com
0031-3955/12/$ – see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
302 Gowdie & Tse

as well as increasing international collaborative efforts have seen major advances in

the management and outcome of children with JIA.

EPIDEMIOLOGY

JIA remains an uncommon, but by no means rare, condition affecting children world-
wide.1 It is the most common rheumatic disease of childhood. Estimates of incidence
and prevalence have been difficult to ascertain because of variations in diagnostic
criteria, differences in data ascertainment or study design, low disease frequency,
and small study numbers.2
Epidemiologic studies report prevalence rates between 0.07 and 4.01 per 1000 chil-
dren and annual incidence between 0.008 and 0.226 per 1000 children.2–5 The large
difference in reported rates is likely because of varying study characteristics. The high-
est prevalence was reported in community-based studies, in which children were
examined in classrooms or homes.3 On the other hand, clinic-based studies seem
to report lower prevalence rates, perhaps reflecting that many clinicians fail to recog-
nize JIA and that these children therefore do not come to the attention of clinicians in
large study centers, hence the true prevalence is underestimated.6
There are few data outlining the prevalence of JIA in populations other than those of
European descent. In the most heavily populated areas of the world, epidemiologic
data are scarce. Lower frequencies of JIA have been reported in children in Japan
and Costa Rica (annual incidence 0.0083 and 0.068 per 10000, respectively).7–9
Many of these studies are limited by small sample size and selection bias. One retro-
spective study reported lower frequency of JIA in Hawaiians of Filipino, Japanese, and
Samoan descent compared with White Hawaiians.10
One questionnaire-based study addressed ethnicity in a large multiethnic single-
center cohort.11 European descent appeared to be an important predisposing factor
for oligoarticular JIA and psoriatic JIA. Black and native North American patients
were less likely to have oligoarticular JIA and more likely to have rheumatoid factor
(RF)-positive polyarthritis.11

CAUSE AND PATHOGENESIS

The underlying cause and pathogenesis of JIA remain unclear. JIA is a heterogeneous
disorder, and the subtypes have varying clinical and laboratory features that may
reflect distinct immunopathogenic processes. The pathogenesis for each subtype is
undoubtedly multifactorial and likely triggered by environmental stimuli in genetically
susceptible individuals.
Oligoarticular and RF-positive polyarticular JIA seem to be autoimmune diseases of
the adaptive immune system. Positive antinuclear antibody (ANA) and RF are common
and these subtypes are consistently associated with HLA genes.
Identified genetic susceptibility genes include genes in the HLA group and also non-
HLA-related genes such as genes related to cytokines and other immune functions.
The association of HLA class I and II alleles with JIA is well established and suggests
the likely involvement of T cells and antigen presentation in the pathogenesis of JIA.
In the genetically susceptible individual, environmental triggers are considered
important in the pathogenetic process of JIA. This trigger may cause an uncontrolled
innate and adaptive immune response toward self-antigen, resulting in inflammation
and disease. Autoantigens from cartilage and other joint tissues are believed to play
important roles and to contribute to the activation of CD41 T cells, leading to prolifer-
ation and the production of proinflammatory cytokines.
 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis 303

By contrast, there is increasing evidence to suggest that systemic JIA (sJIA) may be
an autoinflammatory disease, primarily involving the innate immune system. sJIA does
not have HLA gene associations and is not associated with autoantibodies. sJIA is char-
acterized by uncontrolled activation of phagocytes (including macrophages, mono-
cytes, and neutrophils) caused by unknown triggers and leads to increase of
phagocyte secreted inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 1 (IL-1), IL-6, and IL-18.
Distinct pathogenic processes seem to be involved within the subtypes of JIA, and
further definition of these immunogenetic and inflammatory pathways may help
explain the considerable clinical heterogeneity seen in patients with JIA and impor-
tantly help direct therapy.

DIAGNOSIS AND CLASSIFICATION

The diagnosis of JIA requires the persistence of arthritis for more than 6 weeks in a child
less than 16 years of age in whom there is no other identified cause for arthritis. The
differential diagnosis for inflammatory arthritis is broad and should be considered in
all patients presenting with arthritis. This subject is discussed by Roberta Berrard in
detail elsewhere in this issue.
JIA is a complex, heterogeneous group of disorders without clearly defined cause;
classifying the various subtypes in to distinct homogeneous groups has been prob-
lematic. The International League of Associations for Rheumatology (ILAR) criteria
for classification of JIA were first proposed in 1993 and are now the commonly agreed
on terminology.12,13 The aim of this classification system is to attempt to create
homogeneous subtypes of JIA. The ILAR classification divides JIA into 7 subtypes: oli-
goarticular JIA, seropositive polyarticular JIA, seronegative polyarticular JIA,
systemic-onset JIA (sJIA), enthesitis-related arthritis (ERA), psoriatic JIA (PsJIA),
and undifferentiated JIA (Table 1).
There continues to be much debate in the literature about the classification of JIA.
The current classification criteria have allowed for international consistency; however,
some problems continue to arise in assigning patients to particular subtypes, resulting
in a substantial proportion of patients designated as undifferentiated. Advances in the
understanding of the immunogenetic pathogenesis of JIA may help refine this classi-
fication further.

CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF JIA

Arthritis is clinically characterized by joint effusion, joint line tenderness and warmth,
restricted range of movement, and limitation of movement secondary to pain.
The common feature of all the subtypes of JIA is arthritis. Joint inflammation results in
pain, loss of function, and morning stiffness. The distribution of joint involvement varies
between subtypes of JIA. Systemic symptoms typically occur in systemic and polyar-
ticular subtypes and can include fatigue, weight loss, anemia, anorexia, or fever.
Growth abnormalities can complicate JIA and result in short stature or localized growth
disturbance such as bony overgrowth, prematurely fused epiphyses, and limb length
discrepancies. Table 1 describes the common features of the subtypes of JIA.

OLIGOARTICULAR JIA

Oligoarticular JIA is defined as JIA involving 4 or fewer joints in the first 6 months of
disease. This subgroup is further divided into persistent and extended disease based
on the number of additional joints involved beyond the first 6 months. Children with
persistent oligoarthritis often enter remission, although they remain at risk for disease
 304
Table 1
Characteristics of JIA

Gowdie & Tse

Age, Sex, and %
ILAR JIA Subtype Total Patients with JIA Typical Joint Involvement Occurrence of Uveitis Other Features
Oligoarticular F>M 4 joints Common (30%) ANA 60%–80% positive
 Persistent Early childhood Large joints: knees, ankles, wrist especially if ANA-
 Extended 40%–50% Persistent disease: never >4 joints positive
affected Usually asymptomatic
Extended disease: involves >4 joints
after first 6 mo of disease
Polyarticular F>M 5 joints Common (15%) ANA 25% positive
(RF-negative) 2 peaks: 2–4 y and Symmetric  C spine and TMJ
6–12 y
20%–25%
Polyarticular F>M Symmetric small and large joints Rare (<1%) ANA 75% positive
(RF-positive) Late childhood/early Erosive joint disease Rheumatoid nodules
adolescence
5%
Systemic M5F Poly or oligoarticular Rare (<1%) Daily (quotidian) fever for 2 weeks
Throughout childhood Evanescent rash
5%–10% Lymphadenopathy
Hepatosplenomegaly
Serositis
Enthesitis-related M>F Weight-bearing joint especially hip Symptomatic acute Enthesitis
arthritis Late childhood/ and intertarsal joints uveitis (w7%) HLA-B27-positive
adolescence History of inflammatory back pain Axial involvement (including sacroiliitis)
5%–10% or sacroiliac joint tenderness Family history of HLA-B27-associated disease
Psoriatic arthritis F>M Asymmetric or symmetric small or Common (10%) Nail pits, onycholysis
2 peaks: 2–4 y large joints Dactylitis
and 9–11 y Psoriasis
5%–10% Family history psoriasis
Undifferentiated 10% Does not fulfill criteria for any above
category or fulfills criteria for >1 category

Abbreviations: F, female; M, male.

 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis 305

flares. Approximately 50% of patients with oligoarthritis progress to develop extended

disease and within 2 years of disease onset have polyarthritis. This group have a more
guarded prognosis, because fewer children with extended oligoarthritis enter
remission.
Oligoarticular JIA predominantly affects the large joints, most commonly the knees,
ankles, wrists, and elbows (Fig. 1). Uveitis may occur in up to 30% of children with oli-
goarthritis. Other extra-articular symptoms rarely occur.

POLYARTICULAR JIA

Polyarticular JIA is defined as JIA involving 5 or more joints and is further divided into
RF-positive and RF-negative polyarthritis, based on the presence or absence of RF.
RF-negative patients have a variable disease onset and course, which contribute to
the heterogeneity in this JIA subgroup. The onset of joint involvement can be acute or
insidious, and large or small joints may be involved. Other than the number of inflamed
joints, patients with RF-negative ANA-positive polyarticular JIA are often difficult to
distinguish clinically from patients with ANA-positive extended oligoarticular JIA.
According to current ILAR criteria, these 2 groups of patients are classified separately.
However, the joint count and the timing of joint involvement may not be the most
appropriate criteria to aid in defining homogeneous groups of JIA, and future refine-
ment of the classification criteria may be needed.
RF-positive patients share many clinical and immunogenetic characteristics with
adult patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The disease onset occurs typically in adoles-
cence and the arthritis is often erosive and symmetric, involving the wrists and small
joints of the hands and feet (Fig. 2). Systemic features such as fever and constitutional
upset may occur at onset, and patients may have rheumatoid nodules.

Fig. 1. Patient with oligoarticular JIA. Note the swollen right knee and limited extension.
306 Gowdie & Tse

Fig. 2. Radiograph of the hands and wrist in a patient with RF-negative polyarticular JIA.
Note: soft tissue swelling around proximal interphalangeal joints and wrist; periarticular
osteopenia; joint space narrowing at the wrist joint; and premature maturation of the
carpal bones on the right side.

Polyarticular JIA is a chronic disease, with many patients entering adulthood with
active disease or functional disability.

SJIA

sJIA is characterized by arthritis and systemic features such as fever and rash. The
arthritis is frequently polyarticular but can be limited to few joints, and large or small
joints can be involved. The arthritis may be preceded by the systemic symptoms by
months. The fever is typically high, spiking daily or twice daily, with rapid return to
normal or subnormal temperatures in between (Fig. 3). The fever is often accompanied
by a well-circumscribed evanescent salmon-pink macular rash commonly present on
the trunk and proximal extremities (see Fig. 3). Lymphadenopathy and hepatospleno-
megaly are common features of sJIA. Cardiac disease is well described, and pericar-
dial effusions occur in approximately 10% of children with sJIA.14 Myocarditis is less
common.
Laboratory findings in sJIA reflect systemic inflammation and include leukocytosis,
thrombocytosis, anemia, increased transaminase levels, and increased inflammatory
markers. ANA is positive in only 5% to 10%, and RF is rarely seen.
In the absence of arthritis, the clinician should remain cognizant of the broad differ-
ential diagnosis of sJIA, including infection, malignancy, inflammatory bowel disease,
acute rheumatic fever, and other rheumatic diseases such as vasculitis and systemic
lupus erythematosus. Leukemia frequently presents with musculoskeletal symptoms
at diagnosis and may mimic JIA.15–17 Information that may differentiate leukemia
from sJIA includes low white cell count, low or normal platelet count, and the presence
of nighttime pain.18 In contrast, positive ANA, high lactate dehydrogenase level, rash,
and fever may not be helpful in discriminating between leukemia and JIA.18 See article
elsewhere in this issue for a review of the differential diagnosis.
Heterogeneity also is evident amongst patients with sJIA as seen by the different
disease course and severity. Approximately 40% of patients have a monophasic
illness, whereas more than half have a chronically persistent disease course. A small
group of patients have a relapsing polycyclic course. In general, systemic features
subside over the initial months to years; however, they may recur with disease
 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis 307

Fig. 3. Fever chart showing spiking fever pattern in patient with sJIA. Typical systemic rash
composed of salmon-pink macules. Also note Koebner phenomenon.

exacerbations. In many patients, the progressive and destructive arthritis is the most
significant complication, leading to significant morbidity and functional impairment.
Early predictors of destructive arthritis include polyarthritis, hip involvement, thrombo-
cytosis, or presence of active systemic disease (fever or need for systemic corticoste-
roids) at 6 months after diagnosis.19–21
Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS, see article elsewhere in this issue) is
a potentially life-threatening complication of sJIA characterized by activation of T cells
and macrophages, leading to an overwhelming inflammatory response. It is thought by
some to be integral to the pathogenesis of sJIA.22 MAS can be difficult to distinguish
from sJIA because it shares some features. MAS is characterized by sustained fever
(compared with the quotidian fever of sJIA), hepatosplenomegaly, anemia, liver func-
tion abnormalities, rash, coagulopathy, and central nervous system dysfunction.
Several laboratory features suggestive of MAS include decreasing white cell count
and platelets, decreasing erythrocyte sedimentation rate, increased ferritin level,
hypertriglyceridemia, hypofibrinogenemia, and evidence of hemophagocytosis on
bone marrow aspirate. Preliminary guidelines for the diagnosis of MAS in association
with sJIA have been suggested but are yet to be validated.23 Early diagnosis and
aggressive treatment of MAS are necessary to avoid significant morbidity and
mortality. High-dose corticosteroids and supportive care are the first-line therapies;
however, agents such as cyclosporin, etoposide, and intravenous immunoglobulin
have also been used.

ENTHESITIS-RELATED JIA

As defined by the ILAR classification, ERA is characterized by the presence of arthritis

or enthesitis. The arthritis in ERA typically involves the lower limb, especially the hip
308 Gowdie & Tse

and intertarsal joints. The sacroiliac joint is frequently involved, although often not until
later in the clinical course. ERA represents the undifferentiated forms of spondyloar-
thritis in children.
Enthesitis is the term used to describe inflammation at the insertion of tendons, liga-
ments, or joint capsules to the bone. It is characterized by tenderness, warmth, and
swelling. The typical locations for enthesitis in ERA are in the lower limbs, in particular
at the iliac crest, posterior and anterior superior iliac spine, femoral greater trochanter,
ischial tuberosity, patella, tibial tuberosity, Achilles, and plantar fascia insertions. ERA
should be considered in patients presenting with significant heel or foot pain. Other
features of this category are outlined in Table 1. Another unique feature of this subtype
of JIA is the involvement of the axial skeleton, especially in the sacroiliac joints, with
some children developing ankylosing spondylitis within 10 to 15 years of disease
onset.

PSJIA

PsJIA is characterized by the presence of arthritis and psoriasis. Other common

features (Fig. 4) include dactylitis (defined as sausagelike swelling of the involved
digits), nail changes (pitting or onycholysis), or a family history of relatives with psori-
asis. PsJIA further clusters into 1 of 2 subgroups. The first group has similar charac-
teristics to oligoarticular JIA, occurring typically in young ANA-positive girls with
a high risk of asymptomatic anterior uveitis. However, unlike oligoarticular JIA, dacty-
litis and involvement of the small joints may occur. The second group, resembling
ERA, occurs in older children and adolescents, has a male predominance, and has
an increased risk of spondyloarthritis.24,25
Psoriasis and arthritis may not occur concurrently, and arthritis may precede the
development of psoriasis by many years. The psoriasis may be subtle and mandates
a careful examination in children, in whom it may involve the extensor surfaces in the
limbs, scalp, posterior auricular, axilla, umbilicus, or gluteal fold.

COMPLICATIONS OF JIA
Uveitis
One of the most significant complications of JIA is anterior uveitis. This is a chronic
nongranulomatous inflammation of the anterior chamber of the eye, affecting the iris
and ciliary body. It is usually insidious in onset and asymptomatic, mandating frequent
ophthalmologic surveillance. However, patients with ERA are more likely to present

Fig. 4. Dactylitis involving the third right toe and onycholysis in patient with psoriatic
arthritis.
 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis 309

with acute symptomatic uveitis. The risk of uveitis is based on the JIA subtype, age at
disease onset, and ANA status. The highest risk group of patients is oligoarticular JIA,
especially if the patient is female, ANA-positive, and less than 4 years of age. Table 2
summarizes the recommended frequency of ophthalmologic screening in children
with JIA.26 Uveitis disease activity does not necessarily correlate with the course of
arthritis.
The management of uveitis should be supervised by an eye care expert (ophthal-
mologist or optometrist) in conjunction with a pediatrician or pediatric rheumatologist.
Uveitis is usually managed with topical corticosteroids and a mydriatic agent. Oral,
periocular, or intravenous corticosteroids may be required to achieve relief of inflam-
mation, and children with disease that is difficult to control may require additional
immunomodulatory medication such methotrexate or biologic agents. Complications
of uveitis include band keratopathy and cataracts (occurring in 42%–58% patients),
glaucoma (19%–22% patients),27 and blindness.

Abnormalities of Growth
JIA may be complicated by linear or localized growth disturbance. Linear growth
abnormalities are particularly observed in patients with chronic active disease and
are therefore most common in children with polyarticular or sJIA.
The mechanisms of poor linear growth in children with JIA are likely multifactorial.
Chronic inflammation and high levels of circulating proinflammatory cytokines may
play a role in growth suppression through effects on the growth plate28 and impair-
ment on insulinlike growth factor 1 (IGF-1).29,30 Overexpression of IL-6, in particular,
may play an important role in abnormal skeletal development, as shown in the murine
model via several possible mechanisms such as a reduction of circulating IGF-1 levels,
growth plate and ossification center abnormalities, and induction of osteoclast
activity.30 Severe growth restriction is now uncommon, possibly as a result of more
aggressive immunomodulatory therapy with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs
(DMARDs) and biologic agents (Tables 3 and 4). When severe growth retardation
does occur, growth hormone may be considered.
Localized growth abnormalities are more commonly observed and are likely a direct
result of active arthritis. Accelerated growth at the ossification center because of
inflammation may result in overgrowth of the affected limb and longer limb on the
affected side. However, premature epiphyseal fusion later in the course caused by
persistent inflammation may result in a shortened limb on the affected side. Uncon-
trolled or untreated arthritis of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) may cause consider-
able micrognathia, hypoplasia, and asymmetry (Fig. 5). Early recognition of TMJ

Table 2
Modified recommended guidelines for ophthalmologic screening in JIA

Age at Onset Duration of Disease

ILAR JIA Subtype ANA of Disease £4 y >4 y
Oligoarticular JIA, Positive 6 y 3 monthly 6 monthly
Polyarticular JIA, and >6 y 6 monthly 12 monthly
ERA Negative 6 y 6 monthly 12 monthly
>6 y 12 monthly 12 monthly
sJIA Not applicable Not applicable 12 monthly 12 monthly

Data from American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Rheumatology and Section on Ophthal-
mology: guidelines for ophthalmologic examinations in children with juvenile rheumatoid
arthritis. Pediatrics 1993;92(2):295–6.
 310
Gowdie & Tse
Table 3
DMARDs

DMARD Action/Mechanism Dosing Common Side Effects Precautions Monitoring Other Comments
Methotrexate Inhibits purine synthesis. Weekly GI upset, Avoid sulfamethoxazole CBC and LFTs Folate supplementation
Multiple possible PO or SC mouth ulceration and trimethoprim (bone 4-weekly to important to alleviate
sites of action, Transient liver enzyme marrow suppression) 12-weekly GI side effects and mouth
including inhibition abnormalities, Avoid pregnancy (fetal ulcers
of dihydrofolate hematologic death and congenital Avoid live vaccines
reductase and AICAR abnormalities (rare) abnormalities)
transformylase, Avoid alcohol consumption
adenosine deaminase
Sulfasalazine Not clearly understood, Twice Rash, GI upset, Safe in pregnancy CBC and LFTs Beware possible additive
possibly multiple a day myelosuppression, liver 4-weekly to hepatotoxicity in
immunomodulatory PO function abnormalities, 12-weekly conjunction with MTX
and antiinflammatory hypersensitivities
effects Hypogammaglobulinemia
Leflunomide Inhibits pyrimidine Daily GI upset, rash Teratogenic CBC and LFTs Cholestyramine can be used
synthesis through PO Hypertension 4-weekly to to enhance elimination
inhibition of dihydro- Liver enzyme abnormalities 12-weekly
orotate dehydrogenase

Abbreviations: AICAR, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide; CBC, complete blood count; GI, gastrointestinal; LFT, liver function tests; MTX, metho-
trexate; NSAIDs, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs; PO, by mouth; SC, subcutaneously.
 Table 4
Biologic medications

Biologic Class Example of Drug Administration Common Side Effects Precautions Monitoring
TNF inhibitors Etanercept Etanercept SC Hypersensitivity infusion For all biologic medication: For all biologic medication:
Adalimumab every week, reactions Avoid in patients with Ensure negative TB test
Infliximab adalimumab SC active infection and hold before commencement
every 2 wk, biologic in event of active and annually
infliximab IV every 2 infection requiring Routine laboratory
wk to 8 wk treatment investigations including
Avoid in presence of TB CBC, LFT, renal function
infection
IL inhibition Anakinra (IL-1) Anakinra daily Injection site or Avoid live vaccines For rituximab consider
Canakinumab Canakinumab every 4 wk infusion reactions measurement of B-cell
(IL-1b) Rilonacept every week subsets
Tocilizumab (IL-6) Tocilizumab every 2 wk
Rilonacept (IL-1)
B-cell depletion Rituximab Every week  2 doses Infusion reactions Consider concomitant use
of methotrexate to

Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

prevent development of
immunogenicity
T-cell costimulatory Abatacept Weeks 0, 2, 4 Infusion reaction
modulator then every 4 wk uncommon

Abbreviations: CBC, complete blood count; LFT, liver function tests; TB, tuberculosis; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.

311
312 Gowdie & Tse

Fig. 5. Chronic arthritis of the TMJs resulting in micrognathia.

involvement is important, and patients presenting with jaw pain, jaw deviation, or
limited jaw opening may warrant further investigation. The mechanism of growth retar-
dation at the TMJ is caused by destruction of the joint and the mandibular condyle.
Reduced masseter muscle development as a result of pain may also play an important
role in the shortening of the mandibular ramus seen in patients with TMJ disease.
Bone Health
Children with JIA are at risk of osteopenia and osteoporosis, leading to an increased risk
of fracture. Risk factors for reduced bone mineral density include chronic active arthritis
and persistent inflammation, decreased physical activity, poor sunlight exposure, and
exposure to corticosteroids. Strategies for the prevention of osteopenia and osteopo-
rosis should include optimal control of inflammatory disease, encouragement of
weight-bearing exercise, minimization of steroid exposure, and nutritional support.
Bisphosphonates may be considered in the treatment of osteoporosis-related
fractures.

TREATMENT

The care of patients with arthritis requires a family-centered approach and should be
provided by a multidisciplinary team familiar with the complexities of these diseases
and their treatment. The British Society of Pediatric and Adolescent Rheumatology
(BSPAR) recently published guidelines defining the minimum standards of care for
children with arthritis. These standards include an emphasis on: (1) early recognition
of JIA and access to specialist and multidisciplinary care; (2) access to information,
treatment options, and support; (3) empowering patients and care givers; and (4)
a planned, coordinated transition to adult care.31
 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis 313

The goal of treatment in JIA is disease remission. With the introduction of many new
JIA therapies, complete disease remission and normalization of physical and psycho-
social development are now achievable objectives.

NONPHARMACOLOGIC THERAPY

Occupational and physical therapy are integral in the management of JIA. They aim to
help manage pain, improve mobility and range of joint motion, and to prevent defor-
mity. Techniques may include strength and stretching exercises, serial casting,
splints, pain management techniques, orthotics, and shoe lifts to correct leg length
discrepancy.
Children with JIA and particularly those children on long-term corticosteroids are at
risk of osteopenia and osteoporosis. Children should be encouraged to optimize their
calcium intake, and consideration should be given to the use of calcium and vitamin D
supplementation, especially at times of corticosteroid administration. Calcium supple-
mentation has been shown to be effective in improving bone mineral density in
a randomized controlled study.32 Increasing weight-bearing exercise may also be
beneficial in improving bone mineral density.
Studies have suggested that physical activity may result in improved physical func-
tion and quality of life in children with JIA.33–36 Exercise within the individual’s capacity
and the limitations of their disease should generally be encouraged in children with
JIA. Involvement in aerobic-based exercise regimes is safe in children with JIA and
may result in improved physical function.33
Consideration should be given to the child’s general nutrition, growth, and develop-
ment. The psychosocial impact of this chronic illness must also be addressed, and
social work, mental health, and adolescent medicine are frequently engaged as impor-
tant members of the management team.
Pain may significantly affect the physical and psychosocial quality of life of children
with JIA. Increasing pain may reflect active disease; however, there are many other
determinants that influence the individual’s experience of pain. In addition to the phar-
macologic approach, nonpharmacologic techniques and supports are an important
part of the self-management of pain in JIA.

PHARMACOLOGIC THERAPY
Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used in JIA for the symptomatic
management of joint pain and stiffness. There are no randomized controlled trials
(RCTs) assessing efficacy; however, it seems that 25% to 33% of patients respond
to NSAIDs as monotherapy.37 NSAIDs require 4 to 6 weeks of therapy for beneficial
therapeutic effects.38
It does not seem that any particular NSAID is more efficacious than the others, and
the choice of NSAID is therefore often directed by other determinants such as dosing
frequency, availability in liquid or pill form, cost, tolerability, and individual patient
response. Naproxen is the most commonly used NSAID in many centers because it
has a favorable dosing regimen and toxicity profile. Indomethacin is often favored in
ERA and also in the treatment of fever and serositis in sJIA. The use of multiple NSAIDs
concurrently is not recommended. Indomethacin seems to have the least favorable
toxicity profile and ibuprofen the most favorable.37
Gastrointestinal upset is common with NSAID use, and serious gastrointestinal
adverse events are rare but possible.39,40 Pseudoporphyria is a photodermatitis asso-
ciated with naproxen that may cause skin scarring but mostly resolves with
314 Gowdie & Tse

discontinuation. Pseudoporphyria is most commonly seen in fair-skinned children.

Renal complications (renal insufficiency, acute interstitial nephritis, nephrotic
syndrome, and papillary necrosis) are rare but all children requiring long-term use of
NSAIDs should have routine renal monitoring. Increased transaminase levels may
also occur, and liver function should be monitored in those patients administered
long-term NSAIDs.

CORTICOSTEROIDS
Oral
Systemic oral and parenteral corticosteroid therapy may be used in the treatment of
patients with JIA; however, attempts are made to minimize exposure given the potential
side effects encountered with prolonged steroid used. Furthermore, they do not induce
disease remission. Corticosteroids are particularly used in the treatment of sJIA, espe-
cially in the setting of fever, serositis, and MAS. Oral steroid therapy is also administered
in the treatment of severe polyarthritis, with the goal of using the steroids as a bridging
therapy while other steroid-sparing treatment regimes take effect.
Intra-articular Steroid Injections
The benefits of intra-articular steroid (IAS) injections are well established. Studies have
reported sustained remission after IAS.41–43 IAS injections performed under general
anesthesia along with concomitant use of weekly systemic methotrexate may be
predictive factors for sustained remission.42 Choice of steroid used in IAS is important,
and triamcinolone hexacetonide is believed to be superior to triamcinolone aceto-
nide.43 There is some evidence in the adult literature to suggest that 24 hours’ bed
rest after IAS improves efficacy.44
Young children often require the use of general anesthetic or sedation. IAS injec-
tions are generally well tolerated. Subcutaneous atrophy is reported to occur at
approximately 2% of injection sites41–43,45 and other complications such as infection
are rarely seen.
DMARDs
DMARDs are used for their long-term beneficial effects in controlling disease activity.
These medications also play an important role in reducing the long-term exposure to
medications such as prednisone and NSAIDs. Historically, DMARDs were used late in
the course of disease because there were initial concerns regarding toxicity and
safety. Moreover, the illnesses treated were not often considered life threatening
and therefore DMARD therapy was considered unwarranted. However, it is now
recognized that not only are many of these medications safe and effective for use in
children but also that their use early in the disease course may prevent irreversible
damage and decrease the burden of disease.
Methotrexate
Methotrexate is the most widely used DMARD in the treatment of JIA and is given
either orally or by subcutaneous injections. The significant therapeutic benefit of meth-
otrexate has been shown in RCTs46,47and also a Cochrane meta-analysis.48 Benefit
has also been shown in many retrospective and uncontrolled studies. The appropriate
dose is approximately 15 mg/m2 and full therapeutic effect may be appreciated only
after 6 to 12 months of therapy.49
Differential responses to methotrexate may be seen amongst the various subtypes
of JIA. Woo and colleagues47 found a significant better response to methotrexate
therapy in patients with extended oligoarticular JIA compared with patients with
 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis 315

sJIA. Ravelli and colleagues50 reported similar findings in patients with extended oli-
goarticular JIA treated with methotrexate compared with patients with sJIA and poly-
articular JIA.
The optimal time to discontinue methotrexate after disease remission is also
unclear. Gottleib and colleagues51 found that after a mean of 8 months of sustained
remission before methotrexate discontinuation, relapses occurred in 52% at a mean
of 11 months. Most patients responded when methotrexate was restarted.51 A recent
study did not show a difference between continuous methotrexate therapy for 6 or 12
months before discontinuation and rates of sustained disease remission, implying
weaning and discontinuation of methotrexate is possible after at least 6 months of
no disease activity.52
Oral methotrexate is absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract by a saturable process
and subcutaneous administration may increase the bioavailability of methotrexate.
Subcutaneous dosing should be considered in patients with poor response to oral
methotrexate, gastrointestinal side effects, or poor adherence to oral therapy. The
initiation of subcutaneous methotrexate requires patient and family education to
ensure that the delivery and handling of the medication are appropriate. Live vaccines
should be avoided in patients on methotrexate, and, although there are no consensus
guidelines, varicella immunization may be considered before commencing therapy for
susceptible patients.
Methotrexate is generally well tolerated in children. The most common side effect
is gastrointestinal upset. Nausea and vomiting can be distressing and result in poor
adherence or stopping of the medication. Subcutaneous administration may over-
come this symptom. Folic acid has been shown to be beneficial in reducing adverse
events. Mild liver function abnormalities occur in approximately 9% of children on
low-dose therapy.53 These changes are usually transient and improve with a period
of cessation. There are only a few reports of hepatic fibrosis in children and no
reports of cirrhosis secondary to methotrexate. Increased risk of developing hepatic
fibrosis in patients with inflammatory disorders treated with methotrexate has been
associated with alcohol consumption, hepatitis, obesity, or diabetes. Screening for
these associated diseases before the start of methotrexate and ongoing counseling
about alcohol consumption should be part of routine care in the prevention of hepatic
toxicity arising from methotrexate. Oral ulceration, alopecia, hematologic abnormal-
ities, mood changes, rash, diarrhea, and headache have been reported to occur.
Because of the risk of fetal abnormalities, methotrexate must be avoided in preg-
nancy and patients should be counseled about the appropriate use of contraception.
Long-term methotrexate use requires regular clinical and laboratory monitoring both
for the response to the medication and for its potential toxicities, including screening
of liver function and complete blood count.

Leflunomide
Leflunomide is effective in the treatment of polyarticular JIA. However, when
compared with methotrexate in an RCT, the rate of clinical improvement was not as
high as that seen with methotrexate.54 The role of leflunomide in the management
of JIA is not clearly defined. In many centers it is used when methotrexate is not toler-
ated or is considered in combination with methotrexate.
Common side effects include gastrointestinal upset, headache, rash, and alopecia.
Liver function abnormalities are less frequently reported54 but increase with concom-
itant use of methotrexate.55 Regular blood pressure monitoring is also recommended
for patients. Leflunomide is teratogenic. As with methotrexate, surveillance with
316 Gowdie & Tse

complete blood count and liver function test (LFT) is recommended on a regular basis.
In the event of toxicity, cholestyramine can be used to enhance elimination.
Sulfasalazine
Sulfasalazine has shown efficacy in a double-blind, placebo RCT of patients with oli-
goarticular and polyarticular JIA.56 Adverse events were more frequent but tended to
be transient and reversible.56 In a placebo RCT with patients with ERA, the response
rates were similar, with significant improvement confined to the physician and patient
global assessment of disease activity in the sulfasalazine-treated patients.57 Uncon-
trolled studies have shown additional benefit of sulfasalazine.58–60
Sulfasalazine seems most effective in polyarticular and oligoarticular disease and
perhaps ERA. Current evidence suggests that sulfasalazine is not effective in the
management of sJIA and its use may contribute to increased risk of toxicity in these
patients.61
Adverse effects resulting from sulfasalazine leading to discontinuation have been
reported in approximately 30% of patients.56 Gastrointestinal intolerance is the
most frequently reported side effect. Liver function abnormalities occur in approx
4% patients. More severe, and potentially fatal, hepatotoxicity has been reported in
association with DRESS (drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms)
syndrome (a hypersensitivity reaction believed to be caused by the sulfapyridine
metabolite). Hematologic side effects such as leukopenia have an incidence across
the literature of 3%.61 Although leukopenia is reversible with cessation of the drug,
other more rare but severe hematologic side effects such as agranulocytosis have
been reported.62 Routine monitoring should include complete blood counts and LFTs.

BIOLOGIC AGENTS

Despite the increasingly aggressive approach to therapy over the past 20 years with
early use of DMARDs such as methotrexate, many children continue to have chroni-
cally active disease into adulthood. The introduction of biologic agents has added
to the treatment options for children with JIA and offers an opportunity to decrease
the rates of chronic debilitating disease and aim for complete disease remission.
Biologic agents targeting different pathogenic pathways are now available. The
choice of agent depends largely on the JIA subtype, but patient preference must
also be considered with respect to the route and frequency of administration. Although
there seems to be vast enthusiasm regarding the biologic medications and their appli-
cation in pediatric rheumatology, there remain limited long-term safety data. In addi-
tion, all of these medications come with a significant financial burden to families and
health care systems.

TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR a INHIBITORS

Tumor necrosis factor a (TNF-a) is a proinflammatory cytokine believed to play an

important role in the inflammatory pathogenesis of JIA and high levels have been
found in both the synovial fluid and serum in children with JIA. Moreover, the serum
level of soluble TNF receptors has also been shown to correlate with disease
activity.63,64
Etanercept
Etanercept is a fully humanized soluble TNF receptor. Etanercept was approved in
1999 by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in children with polyartic-
ular course JIA.
 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis 317

The efficacy of etanercept in the treatment of JIA was first reported by Lovell and
colleagues65 in a multicenter RCT in children with polyarticular course disease resis-
tant to methotrexate. All patients received 0.4 mg/kg of etanercept subcutaneously
twice weekly for up to 3 months. The responders were then randomized to either
continuing etanercept or switching to placebo. Patients assigned to the etanercept
group had significantly fewer disease flares and the median time to flare was longer.65
Several other studies have shown the safety and effectiveness of weekly double
dosing of etanercept (0.8 mg/kg per week) instead of the traditional biweekly dosing
(0.4 mg/kg).66,67
There have subsequently been several observational studies and patient registries
that have also supported the effectiveness of etanercept in JIA. A multicenter open-
label North American registry found etanercept to be efficacious and safe over the 3
years of the study.68 This study also found that combination therapy with methotrexate
was safe and effective. An open-label extension study of the multicenter RCT enrolled
58 patients and followed patients for 8 years. Only 26 (45%) patients entered the
eighth year of the study. Reasons for withdrawal included lack of efficacy in 7 patients
(12%), adverse events in 4 (7%), physician decision in 5 patients (9%), parent or
guardian refusal in 5 (9%), and 3 patients (5%) each for patient refusal, lost to
follow-up, and protocol issues. There were no reports in this study of malignancy or
demyelinating disorders and etanercept was considered to be safe when used
long-term.69 Etanercept has also been found to improve quality of life and functional
ability in children with JIA.70,71
Although etanercept has been shown to be of benefit in different JIA subtypes,
many observational and uncontrolled studies have observed etanercept to be less
effective in sJIA.72–75 The use of etanercept in ERA is based on evidence from uncon-
trolled studies and observational cohort studies that report its safety and also rapid
and sustained response to therapy.76–79
In general, TNF-a inhibitors are recommended for patients with arthritis refractory to
standard therapy and in patients with clinical and radiologic evidence of active sacro-
iliac disease after an adequate trial of NSAIDs.80 Few studies have examined guide-
lines about the discontinuation of etanercept. It has been suggested that careful
weaning off etanercept could be considered after 1.5 years of remission.81

Infliximab
Infliximab is a human-derived and mouse-derived chimeric anti-TNF-a antibody with
cytotoxic properties. It binds to both soluble and membrane-bound TNF-a. Infliximab
has been shown to be beneficial in the treatment of JIA. As opposed to etanercept, it
must be administered intravenously every 4 to 8 weeks. A placebo RCT of infliximab
and methotrexate in the treatment of polyarticular JIA showed efficacy at 1 year of
treatment.82 However, there was no significant difference between infliximab and
placebo for the primary efficacy end point at 16 weeks. This trial did show important
side effects with infliximab. In particular, a higher incidence of infusion reactions and
anti-infliximab antibody formation was noted in patients who received 3 mg/kg of
infliximab compared with 6 mg/kg.82 The open-label extension of this trial reported
efficacy and safety data for up to 4 years.83 Because of the large discontinuation rates
in this trial, comments on efficacy and safety are difficult to interpret. The rate of infu-
sion reactions occurred in up to one-third of patients and more frequently in patients
with anti-infliximab antibodies. Many centers advocate the use of higher-dose inflixi-
mab (>5–6 mg/kg) or concomitant low-dose methotrexate to reduce the risk of anti-
body formation.
318 Gowdie & Tse

The efficacy of infliximab has been examined in children with ERA and juvenile spon-
dyloarthropathies. Efficacy, including remission of the arthritis and enthesitis, was
shown in a double-blind, placebo RCT84,85 and from observational studies and case
series.78,79,86,87

Adalimumab
Adalimumab is a fully humanized chimeric anti-TNF-a antibody that also has cytotoxic
properties. The benefit of adalimumab with or without concomitant methotrexate has
been shown in a randomized placebo-controlled withdrawal trial.88 During the 16-
week open-label phase of this trial, 74% patients on adalimumab alone and 94% of
patients on combination therapy (methotrexate and adalimumab) improved.
Responders were then randomized to receive placebo or to continue on adalimumab.
At the 48-week assessment, response rates were significantly better in the group
receiving adalimumab and methotrexate compared with methotrexate and placebo.88
Other case series and case reports have documented the benefit of adalimumab. In
1 series of 6 patients with disease refractory to methotrexate, etanercept, or infliximab,
adalimumab was beneficial in 3 patients and no adverse effects were observed. This
finding shows the possible benefit of switching TNF-a inhibitors despite previously
documented nonresponse to other TNF-a inhibition.89
Several trials are addressing the efficacy and long-term safety of adalimumab in chil-
dren with JIA. A double-blind, placebo RCT of adalimumab in polyarticular JIA has
recently ceased recruitment and results are pending (clinicaltrials.gov NCT00048542).

IL INHIBITORS
Anakinra
Anakinra is an IL-1 receptor antagonist and there has been much interest in its use in
the management of sJIA. IL-1 is believed to be an important cytokine involved in the
pathogenesis of sJIA.
A recent retrospective review examined the efficacy and safety of anakinra in 46
newly diagnosed patients with sJIA treated with anakinra alone or in combination (corti-
costeroids or DMARDs). Resolution of fever and rash was seen in 86% within 1 week
and 97% within 1 month. Complete remission was observed in 59% of patients.90
A small multicenter double-blind RCT comparing anakinra with placebo in 24
patients with sJIA reported that 83% of patients on anakinra met the definition of
response at 1 month. However, reduced response to anakinra was observed over
time, possibly explained by the high numbers of patients with diffuse polyarthritis
without systemic symptoms. Also, patients included in this trial had disease for
more than 6 months and were steroid dependent, perhaps representing a group of
patients with more severe disease.91
Differential responses to anakinra have been observed in patients with sJIA refrac-
tory to other DMARDs. One study reported approximately 40% response rate to ana-
kinra in this group of patients.92 The nonresponsive group had improved systemic
features; however, arthritis and inflammation was not controlled. The group of patients
that responded to anakinra had lower joint count and higher neutrophil count at base-
line, suggesting that early treatment may be most beneficial.92
Anakinra is generally well tolerated and serious adverse events are uncommon. An
erythematous pruritic rash at the injection site is frequently observed. This rash tends
to improve with time and can be relieved with ice packs. Opportunistic infections have
not been reported.
 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis 319

Canakinumab
Canakinumab is a newer biologic agent with fewer studies in patients with JIA. It is
a fully humanized IL-1b antibody. A recent phase II study of canakinumab addressing
dosing and safety in children with sJIA has revealed promising preliminary safety and
efficacy data.93

Rilonacept
Rilonacept is a human dimeric protein that binds to IL-1 inhibiting IL-1 signaling. A
double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 21 patients with sJIA showed improvement.94
Further studies are needed to clarify the role of rilonacept in the management of JIA.

Tocilizumab
Tocilizumab is a monoclonal anti-IL-6 receptor antibody that binds to IL-6 receptors,
inhibiting the formation of IL6-IL6R complex.
Results from a phase III double-blind, placebo RCT of tocilizumab in 56 patients with
sJIA showed an excellent response rate, with 91% of patients meeting the primary end
point after 6 weeks.95 Forty-three patients, deemed to be responders, entered the
double-blind, randomized phase, and after a further 6 weeks of therapy, 80% of the
tocilizumab group maintained a clinical response compared with only 17% of the
placebo group. In the open-label extension, 90% of patients achieved good disease
control (American College of Rheumatology Pediatric 70 criteria) and 98% had total
absence of systemic features. Common adverse events included upper respiratory
tract infection, nasopharyngitis, bronchitis, and gastroenteritis. An anaphylactoid
reaction occurred in 1 patient. LFT abnormalities were also noted and tended to
subside during continuation of treatment. There were no reports of tuberculosis.

T-CELL AND B-CELL TARGETED THERAPY

Abatacept
Abatacept is a T-cell costimulatory pathway inhibitor approved by the FDA for use in
children older than 6 years with polyarticular JIA. The evidence for its use is based on
the results of a multicenter international randomized, double-blind withdrawal trial of
children with polyarticular JIA refractory or intolerant to at least 1 DMARD including
biologic agents such as TNF inhibitors.96 Patients first entered a 4-month open-
label lead-in phase (n 5 190), with responders (n 5 122) randomized to continue aba-
tacept monthly or to receive placebo for 6 months. At 6 months, the rate of flares
between the groups was significantly different, favoring treatment with abatacept
(control group 53% compared with treatment group 20%). No serious adverse events
were described in the abatacept group. A long-term open-label extension phase of
this trial reported ongoing clinically significant efficacy.97 Some patients who failed
to respond initially during the open-label phase were noted to have responded at
follow-up, suggesting that a long-term trial of abatacept may be necessary before
treatment is considered to be a failure. Abatacept was generally well tolerated. There
were no cases of malignancy or tuberculosis attributed to abatacept. However, 6
serious infections were seen and 1 patient developed multiple sclerosis.97
Health-related quality-of-life measures have also been shown to improve with the
use of abatacept.98

Rituximab
Rituximab is a monoclonal mouse antibody that induces B-cell apoptosis and causes
CD20 B-cell depletion. Antibody production is not entirely depleted because plasma
320 Gowdie & Tse

cells are not removed. There is little evidence for the use of rituximab in children with
JIA. The best evidence for its use is provided by an observational study and several
case reports.
A recent observational study reviewed the use of rituximab in 55 patients with
severe refractory polyarticular or sJIA and reported significant improvement in disease
activity and remission in many patients.99 Other case reports have supported the
improvement with rituximab in JIA but the exact role of rituximab remains unclear.
Rituximab is administered intravenously in 2 doses 2 weeks apart for the treatment of
JIA and RA. It is generally well tolerated and side effects are unusual. Infusion reactions
such as flushing and itch may be observed and are generally avoided with
premedication.

ADVERSE EFFECTS OF BIOLOGIC AGENTS

In 2008, the FDA reported several cases of malignancy in patients with JIA receiving bio-
logic therapy. There has been much controversy about the implication of this warning
and how to apply this information in the clinical setting, especially given that the back-
ground incidence of malignancy in JIA is unknown and the role of concomitant immu-
nosuppressive medications is also unclear. Although some studies have suggested
a possible link between JIA treatment and cancer occurrence, a direct causal relation-
ship between biologic agents and cancer has not been established.100–102
Reported serious infections include opportunistic infection and tuberculosis. In
general, patients do not require treatment with prophylactic antibiotics while on bio-
logic therapy. Tuberculosis screening with Mantoux skin test is recommended before
commencing any biologic medication and repeating on an annual basis.
Other side effects include the development of autoimmune disorders such as demy-
elinating disorders (multiple sclerosis), inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis,
systemic lupus erythematosus, vasculitic rashes, and uveitis. The safety data suggest
that these medications are safe, but long-term safety data in children are not available.
Clinicians must remain vigilant in the monitoring of adverse effects in any patient on
biologic therapy.

Outcome
The disease outcome and prognosis in JIA are variable and to some degree predict-
able based on the different disease subtypes. Many children with JIA have an excel-
lent prognosis and for the most part remain free from significantly debilitating disease.
However, a considerable proportion of children with JIA have chronic disease activity.
Rates of remission are highest in persistent oligoarticular JIA and lower in polyarticular
JIA (RF-positive and RF-negative), ERA, and PsJIA.103 Active disease continues into
adulthood in 50% to 70% of patients with systemic and polyarticular disease and
40% to 50% of oligoarticular arthritis.103–107 Functional disability is estimated in up
to 20% of children transitioning to adulthood107 and 30% to 40% have other long-
term disabilities, including unemployment.108 Major surgery, including joint replace-
ment, is required in 25% to 50%.108 Delay in referral and initiation of acceptable
therapy is associated with poorer outcome.1
There remains considerable difficulty in acquiring data relating to estimates of the
global burden of JIA. The impact of juvenile arthritis on disability and handicap, the
educational and vocational disadvantages, life expectancy, and quality of life as
well as the cost of medical care have yet to be evaluated.
 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis 321

SUMMARY

JIA encompasses a diverse group of disorders with a complex multifactorial patho-

genesis and cause. Considerable advances have been made in understanding the
pathogenesis of JIA; however, further definition of the underlying immunogenetic
mechanisms is required. This knowledge may enable more refined homogeneous
classification of JIA and allow the clinician to individualize therapy based on each
patient’s unique biologic and genetic parameters.
In recent years, new biologic medications have added significantly to the management
of children with JIA. Despite this situation, many children with JIA continue to have persis-
tently active arthritis into adulthood. Sustained and multinational collaborative efforts
addressing disease manifestations and outcome, as well as treatment efficacy and safety
surveillance, are central to future advances in the management of children with JIA.

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