Combining Functions;

Shifting and Scaling Graphs

Combining Functions
Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (except
where the denominator is zero) to produce new functions. If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions,
then for every x that belongs to the domains of both 𝑓 and g (that is, for 𝑥 ∊
𝐷 𝑓 ∩ 𝐷(𝑔)), we define functions 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔 and𝑓𝑔 by the formulas

(ƒ + 𝑔)(𝑥) = ƒ(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)

ƒ − 𝑔 𝑥 = ƒ 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥)
(ƒ𝑔)(𝑥) = ƒ(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)

Notice that the + sign on the left-hand side of the first equation represents the
operation of addition of functions, whereas the + on the right-hand side of the
equation means addition of the real numbers 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔 𝑥 .
At any point of 𝑥 ∊ 𝐷 𝑓 ∩ 𝐷(𝑔) at which 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0, we can also
define the function ƒ > 𝑔 by the formula

ƒ ƒ 𝑥
(𝑥) =
𝑔 𝑔 𝑥

If c is a real number, then the function 𝑐ƒ is defined for all 𝑥 in the

domain of ƒ by
(𝑐ƒ)(𝑥) = 𝑐ƒ(𝑥).
Example: Let
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and g 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥
The domain 𝐷 𝑓 = [0, ∞), whereas 𝐷 𝑓 = (−∞, 1].
Composition of Functions
DEFINITION: If ƒ and 𝑔 are functions, the composite function ƒ ∘ 𝑔 (“ƒ
composed with 𝑔”) is defined by
(ƒ ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = ƒ(𝑔(𝑥)).
The domain of ƒ ∘ g consists of the numbers 𝑥 in the domain of g for
which 𝑔(𝑥) lies in the domain of ƒ.

The definition implies that ƒ ∘ 𝑔 can be formed when the range of 𝑔 lies
in the domain of ƒ.

To find (ƒ ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥), first find 𝑔(𝑥) and second find ƒ(𝑔(𝑥)).

EXAMPLE
If ƒ 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1,find
1. (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)
2. (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
3. (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
4. (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)
Exercise:
write a formula for ƒ ∘ 𝑔 ∘ ℎ.

𝑥+2 𝑥!
ƒ= ,𝑔 𝑥 = ! , ℎ(𝑥) = 2 − 𝑥.
3−𝑥 𝑥 +1
Exercise:
Exercise:
Let
−𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 − 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
ƒ 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑥 and g(𝑥) = @
𝑥 − 1, 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
Find
𝑓 𝑔 0 ,𝑔 𝑓 3 ,𝑔 𝑔 1
Vertical and Horizontal shift
Vertical Shifts
𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) + 𝑘
Shifts the graph of ƒ up 𝑘 units if 𝑘 > 0, shifts it down 𝑘 units if 𝑘 < 0.

Horizontal Shifts
𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥 + ℎ)
Shifts the graph of ƒ left ℎ units if ℎ > 0, shifts it right ℎ units if ℎ < 0
Vertical and Horizontal shift
Vertical Shifts
𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) + 𝑘
Shifts the graph of ƒ up 𝑘 units if 𝑘 > 0, shifts it down 𝑘 units if 𝑘 < 0.

Horizontal Shifts
𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥 + ℎ)
Shifts the graph of ƒ left ℎ units if ℎ > 0, shifts it right ℎ units if ℎ < 0.
To shift the graph of ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 ! up (or
down), we add positive (or negative)
constants to the formula for ƒ
To shift the graph of ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 ! up (or To shift the graph of ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 ! to the left, we
down), we add positive (or negative) add a positive constant to x. To shift the graph
constants to the formula for ƒ to the right, we add a negative constant to x.
If 𝑐 is positive, then
Exercise:
Draw the graph of
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 +2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 −2
Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and Reflecting Formulas For c >1, the
graph is scaled:
• 𝑦 = 𝑐ƒ(𝑥) Stretches the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
"
• 𝑦 = # ƒ(𝑥) Compresses the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ 𝑐𝑥 Compresses the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥/𝑐) Stretches the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
For c = −1, the graph is reflected:
𝑦 = −ƒ(𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the x-axis.
𝑦 = ƒ(−𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the y-axis.
Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and Reflecting Formulas For c >1, the
graph is scaled:
• 𝑦 = 𝑐ƒ(𝑥) Stretches the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
"
• 𝑦 = # ƒ(𝑥) Compresses the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ 𝑐𝑥 Compresses the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥/𝑐) Stretches the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
For c = −1, the graph is reflected:
𝑦 = −ƒ(𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the x-axis.
𝑦 = ƒ(−𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the y-axis.
Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and Reflecting Formulas For c >1, the
graph is scaled:
• 𝑦 = 𝑐ƒ(𝑥) Stretches the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
"
• 𝑦 = # ƒ(𝑥) Compresses the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ 𝑐𝑥 Compresses the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥/𝑐) Stretches the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
For c = −1, the graph is reflected:
𝑦 = −ƒ(𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the x-axis.
𝑦 = ƒ(−𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the y-axis.
Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and Reflecting Formulas For c >1, the
graph is scaled:
• 𝑦 = 𝑐ƒ(𝑥) Stretches the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
"
• 𝑦 = # ƒ(𝑥) Compresses the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ 𝑐𝑥 Compresses the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥/𝑐) Stretches the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
For c = −1, the graph is reflected:
𝑦 = −ƒ(𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the x-axis.
𝑦 = ƒ(−𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the y-axis.
Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and Reflecting Formulas For c >1, the
graph is scaled:
• 𝑦 = 𝑐ƒ(𝑥) Stretches the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
"
• 𝑦 = # ƒ(𝑥) Compresses the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ 𝑐𝑥 Compresses the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥/𝑐) Stretches the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
For c = −1, the graph is reflected:
𝑦 = −ƒ(𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the x-axis.
𝑦 = ƒ(−𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the y-axis.
Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and Reflecting Formulas For c >1, the
graph is scaled:
• 𝑦 = 𝑐ƒ(𝑥) Stretches the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
"
• 𝑦 = # ƒ(𝑥) Compresses the graph of ƒ vertically by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ 𝑐𝑥 Compresses the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
• 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥/𝑐) Stretches the graph of ƒ horizontally by a factor of c.
For c = −1, the graph is reflected:
𝑦 = −ƒ(𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the x-axis.
𝑦 = ƒ(−𝑥) Reflects the graph of ƒ across the y-axis.
 The graph of 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙

Vertically stretching and Horizontally stretching and Reflections of the graph

compressing the graph y = 𝑥 compressing the graph y = 𝑥 y = 𝑥 across the coordinate
by a factor of 3 by a factor of 3 axes
Graph of 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
EXAMPLE:
Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 10.
SOLUTION Completing the square, we write the equation of the graph
as
𝑦 = 𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 10 = 𝑥 + 3 ! + 1
This means we obtain the desired graph by starting with the parabola
𝑦 = 𝑥 ! and shifting 3 units to the left and then 1 unit upward
EXAMPLE:
Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 10.
SOLUTION Completing the square, we write the equation of the graph
as
𝑦 = 𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 10 = 𝑥 + 3 ! + 1
This means we obtain the desired graph by starting with the parabola
𝑦 = 𝑥 ! and shifting 3 units to the left and then 1 unit upward
EXAMPLE:
Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 10.
SOLUTION Completing the square, we write the equation of the graph
as
𝑦 = 𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 10 = 𝑥 + 3 ! + 1
This means we obtain the desired graph by starting with the parabola
𝑦 = 𝑥 ! and shifting 3 units to the left and then 1 unit upward
EXAMPLE:
Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 10.
SOLUTION Completing the square, we write the equation of the graph
as
𝑦 = 𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 + 10 = 𝑥 + 3 ! + 1
This means we obtain the desired graph by starting with the parabola
𝑦 = 𝑥 ! and shifting 3 units to the left and then 1 unit upward
Example:
Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − sin 𝑥
Example:
Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − sin 𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
Example:
Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − sin 𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥
Example:
Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − sin 𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − sin 𝑥
 ! "
Example:𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 7𝑥
Stretch the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a reflection
across the y-axis.
Stretch: multiply x by (1/2), reflection across the y-axis: multiply x by -1
1 1 $ 1 % 7
𝑓 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥
2 16 2 2
 ! "
Example:𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 7𝑥
Stretch the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a reflection
across the y-axis.
Stretch: multiply x by (1/2), reflection across the y-axis: multiply x by -1
1 1 $ 1 % 7
𝑓 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥
2 16 2 2
 ! "
Example:𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 7𝑥
Stretch the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a reflection
across the y-axis.
Stretch: multiply x by (1/2), reflection across the y-axis: multiply x by -1
1 1 $ 1 % 7
𝑓 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥
2 16 2 2
 ! "
Example:𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 7𝑥
Stretch the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a reflection
across the y-axis.
Stretch: multiply x by (1/2), reflection across the y-axis: multiply x by -1
1 1 $ 1 % 7
𝑓 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥
2 16 2 2
Following link can be used to plot any graph of a function

https://www.desmos.com/calculator
Summery
 Example:
The transformation rules applied to the sine function give the general sine
function or sinusoid formula
2𝜋
ƒ 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝑥 − 𝐶 + 𝐷 ,
𝐵
where 𝐴 is the amplitude, 𝐵 is the period, C is the horizontal shift, and D is
the vertical shift. A graphical interpretation of the various terms is given below.
 Example:
The transformation rules applied to the sine function give the general sine
function or sinusoid formula
2𝜋
ƒ 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝑥 − 𝐶 + 𝐷 ,
𝐵
where 𝐴 is the amplitude, 𝐵 is the period, C is the horizontal shift, and D is
the vertical shift. A graphical interpretation of the various terms is given below.
 Example:
The transformation rules applied to the sine function give the general sine
function or sinusoid formula
2𝜋
ƒ 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝑥 − 𝐶 + 𝐷 ,
𝐵
where 𝐴 is the amplitude, 𝐵 is the period, C is the horizontal shift, and D is
the vertical shift. A graphical interpretation of the various terms is given below.
Definition:
• A function ƒ(𝑥) is one-to-one on a domain 𝐷 if ƒ 𝑥" ≠
ƒ(𝑥! ) whenever 𝑥" ≠ 𝑥2 in 𝐷.

• A function 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) is one-to-one if and only if its graph intersects

each horizontal line at most once.

• Suppose that ƒ is a one-to-one function on a domain 𝐷 with range 𝑅.

The inverse function ƒ&" is defined by ƒ&" 𝑏 = 𝑎 if ƒ 𝑎 = 𝑏. The
domain of ƒ&" is 𝑅 and the range of ƒ&" is 𝐷.
Definition:
• A function ƒ(𝑥) is one-to-one on a domain 𝐷 if ƒ 𝑥" ≠
ƒ(𝑥! ) whenever 𝑥" ≠ 𝑥2 in 𝐷.

• A function 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) is one-to-one if and only if its graph intersects

each horizontal line at most once.

• Suppose that ƒ is a one-to-one function on a domain 𝐷 with range 𝑅.

The inverse function ƒ&" is defined by ƒ&" 𝑏 = 𝑎 if ƒ 𝑎 = 𝑏. The
domain of ƒ&" is 𝑅 and the range of ƒ&" is 𝐷.
Definition:
• A function ƒ(𝑥) is one-to-one on a domain 𝐷 if ƒ 𝑥" ≠
ƒ(𝑥! ) whenever 𝑥" ≠ 𝑥2 in 𝐷.

• A function 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) is one-to-one if and only if its graph intersects

each horizontal line at most once.

• Suppose that ƒ is a one-to-one function on a domain 𝐷 with range 𝑅.

The inverse function ƒ&" is defined by ƒ&" 𝑏 = 𝑎 if ƒ 𝑎 = 𝑏. The
domain of ƒ&" is 𝑅 and the range of ƒ&" is 𝐷.
Example:
Suppose a one-to-one function y = ƒ(x) is given by a table of values:
𝒙 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝒇(𝒙) 3 4.5 7 10.5 15 20.5 27 34.5

Then the inverse function is defined by simply interchanging the values:

𝒚 3 4.5 7 10.5 15 20.5 27 34.5

𝒇"𝟏 (𝒚) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Composing a function and its inverse has the same effect as doing
nothing.

(ƒ&" ∘ ƒ)(𝑥) = 𝑥, for all 𝑥 in the domain of ƒ.

(ƒ ∘ ƒ&" )(𝑦) = 𝑦, for all 𝑦 in the domain of ƒ&" (or range of ƒ).
Example:
'
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = , find a function 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) such that ƒ ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥
'&!

1. Solve the equation y = ƒ(x) for x. This gives a formula x = ƒ-1(y) where
x is expressed as a function of y.

2. Interchange x and y, obtaining a formula y = ƒ-1(x) where ƒ-1 is

expressed in the conventional format with x as the independent
variable and y as the dependent variable.
Graph of the inverse of a function:
• We want to set up the graph of ƒ&" so that its input values lie along
the 𝑥-axis, as is usually done for functions, rather than on the 𝑦 -axis.
• To achieve this we interchange the 𝑥 - and 𝑦 -axes by reflecting across
the 45° line, that is 𝑦 = 𝑥.
• After this reflection we have a new graph that represents ƒ&" .
Example: Find the inverse of the function
!
𝑦 = 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ! then 𝑓 &" 𝑥 = 𝑥
Logarithmic Functions
The logarithm function with base 𝒂, 𝑦 = log ( 𝑥, is the inverse of the
base 𝑎 exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑎 ' (𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1).

log ) 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑒 * = 𝑥.
Logarithmic Functions
The logarithm function with base 𝒂, 𝑦 = log ( 𝑥, is the inverse of the
base 𝑎 exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑎 ' (𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1).

log ) 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑒 * = 𝑥.