Calculus of One Variable

Calculus of One Variable

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1 Real Functions of a Real Variable

1.1 Functions or Mappings

Example: The equation y = x 2 + 2 x + 1 associates to each real number x another real

number y. We say that y is a function of x .

General notion of functions

Definition: Let X and Y be any nonempty sets. A function or mapping f from X to

Y , denoted by f : X → Y , is a rule that assigns to each element of X exactly one
element of Y . We say that X is the domain of f and Y is the codomain of f.
We write y = f ( x ) or f : x → y to indicate that the element y ∈ Y is the value
assigned by the function f to element x ∈ X . In this case, we say that y is the image
of x .

The set of all images { f ( x) x∈ X } is called the range or image set of f, denoted by
Rf .
Note that if the domain and the codomain of a function f are both ℜ ,then f : ℜ → ℜ
is called a real-valued function of a real variable, or simply a real function.

Remark
In order to specify a real-valued function completely, the domain must be stated
explicitly. Otherwise the domain is taken as the largest possible subset of ℜ for
which the real-valued function can be defined.

Example: Suppose that

 − x 2 if x < −1,
f ( x) = 
 x + 1 if x ≥ −1.
Find f (−2), f (−1), f (2) and f ( π2 ). Find the domain D f and the range R f .
Solution: f (−2) = −(−2)2 = −4, f (−1) = −1 + 1 = 0, f (2) = 2 + 1 = 3, and
f ( π2 ) = π
2 + 1.
Clearly, f ( x) is well defined for all x ∈ ℜ , thus D f = ℜ . Note that if x < −1, then
f ( x) = − x 2 < −1 , and f ( x) ≥ 0 for every x ≥ 1. We conclude that
R f = (−∞, − 1) U [0, ∞).

1.2 Graphs of Functions

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 Calculus of One Variable

Let f be a function. The graph of f is the set consisting of all points ( x , f ( x ))

in the Cartesian coordinate plane, for all x ∈ D f , i.e., the graph is the set

{( x, y) x ∈ D f and y = f ( x) .}

Vertical Line Test.

Not every curve is the graph of a function. A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a
function when it satisfies the vertical line property: any vertical line (a line parallel to
the y-axis) intersects the curve at most once.

Symmetry.
The graph of y = f ( x ) is symmetric with respect to the y-axis if and only if
f ( x) = f (− x) for all x ∈ D f . A function with this property is called an even
function.
.
The graph of y = f (x) is symmetry with respect to the origin if and only if
f ( − x) = − f ( x) for all x ∈ D f . A function with this property is called an odd
function.

Example: f ( x) = x 2 + 5 is an even function,while f ( x) = x 3 is an odd function.

1.3 Operations on Functions

Sums, Differences, Products and Quotients
Let f and g be two functions. Then for every x ∈ D f I Dg , we define the new
functions f + g , f − g and f ⋅ g by the formulas

( f + g )( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x ),

( f − g )( x) = f ( x) − g ( x),

( f ⋅ g )( x) = f ( x) g ( x).
They are called the sum, difference and product of functions, respectively. The
natural domain for each of these is the set of x-values for which both f ( x) and g ( x)
are defined, i.e., D f I Dg . Moreover, at any point of x ∈ D f I Dg at which g ( x ) ≠ 0,
we can also define the quotient function f g by the formula
f f ( x)
  ( x) = .
 g g( x)
For the functions f + g , f − g and f ⋅ g the domain is defined to be the intersection

of the domains of f and g , and for f g the domain is the intersection of the

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 Calculus of One Variable

domains of f and g with the elements where g ( x) = 0 excluded. Note also that
functions can also be multiplied by a constant c : defined by

( c f ) ( x) = c( f ( x)) for all x ∈ D f .

Sometimes we shall write f 2 to denote the product f ⋅ f . Similarly, we have

f 3 = f ⋅ f ⋅ f . In general, for any positive integer n, we define

f n ( x) = f ( x) ⋅ f ( x) ⋅ L ⋅ f ( x)
144424443
n factors

for all x ∈ D f . We see some examples.

Example: Given f ( x) = x and g ( x) = 3 x + x. Find f + g , f − g , f ⋅ g .

Solution Observe that D f = [0, ∞) and Dg = [0, ∞). Then
(i) ( f + g )( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) = 4 x + x for all x ∈ D f I Dg = [0, ∞).
(ii) ( f − g )( x) = f ( x) − g ( x) = −2 x − x for all x ∈ D f I Dg = [0, ∞).

( x)
2
(iii) ( f ⋅ g )( x) = f ( x) ⋅ g ( x) = 3 + x x for all x ∈ D f I Dg = [0, ∞). Hence

( f ⋅ g )( x) = 3 x + x x for all x ∈ [0, ∞).

( x) ( x)
2 2
Note also that ≠ x since is not well-defined for all x < 0. But, if we

( x)
2
consider x ∈ [0, ∞), then = x.

Composition of functions
Let X , Y and Z be nonempty sets. Given two functions f : X → Y and g : Y → Z ,
Suppose that R f ⊆ Dg , then the composite function g o f function defined by

( g o f ) ( x) = g ( f ( x) )
for all elements x ∈ D f .

X Y Z

f g
x f (x)
( g o f )( x)
xxx x = g ( f ( x))

go f

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 Calculus of One Variable

Example: Given f ( x) = 1 x and g ( x) = x 2 − 7. Find g o f .

Solution We first note that D f = ℜ \ {0} , R f = ℜ \ {0} , D f = ℜ , we have
( g o f )( x ) = g ( f ( x)) = (1 x 2 ) − 7

for all x ≠ 0.

1.4 Some Properties of Functions

Monotone Functions
Let A be a subset of ℜ and let f : A → ℜ be a function. We say that f ( x) is
increasing on A if f ( x) > f ( y ) for all x, y ∈ A such that x > y;
decreasing on A if f ( x) < f ( y ) for all x, y ∈ A such that x > y;
nondecreasing on A if f ( x) ≥ f ( y ) for all x, y ∈ A such that x > y;
nonincreasing on A if f ( x) ≤ f ( y ) for all x, y ∈ A such that x > y;
monotone on A if f is either nondecreasing on A or nonincreasing on A.

Example: The function f1 ( x) = x is an increasing function on ℜ . The function

f 2 ( x) = − x is a decreasing function on ℜ . The function f 3 ( x) = 0 is a nondecreasing
and nondecreasing function on ℜ . Hence, f1 , f 2 and f3 are monotone functions.

Example:
The function f 3 ( x) = 0 is an even function on ℜ since f 3 (− x) = 0 = f 3 ( x) for all
x ∈ ℜ . The function f1 ( x ) = x is an odd function on ℜ as f1 ( − x ) = − x = − f1 ( x ) for
all x ∈ ℜ .
.

One-to-One or Injective Functions

Let X and Y be nonempty sets. A function f : X → Y is said to be one-to-one,

f ( x) = f ( y ) implies x = y. Equivalently, we see that a function f : X → Y is one-
to-one if f ( x) ≠ f ( y ) whenever x ≠ y .
Example: The function g ( x) = x3 is one-to-one.

Onto or Surjective Functions

Let X and Y be nonempty sets. A function

f : X →Y

is said to map X onto Y (or a surjective function), if for any y ∈ Y , there exists at
least one a ∈ X such that f ( a ) = y.

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 Calculus of One Variable

Example:
(a) The function f1 ( x) = x is a surjective function on ℜ since f 1 (ℜ) = ℜ .
(b). The function f 2 ( x) = − x is a surjective function on ℜ since f 2 (ℜ) = ℜ .
(c). The function f 3 ( x) = x 2 is not surjective on ℜ , since f 3 (ℜ) = [0, ∞) ≠ ℜ .
We define a function h; ℜ → [0, ∞) by h( x) = x 2 . Then the function h is surjective
since Rh = [0, ∞).

Inverse Function
Let X and Y be nonempty sets. Let f : X → Y and g : Y → X be functions. If f
and g satisfy the following two conditions

(i) ( f o g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) = x for all x∈ Y

(ii) ( g o f )( x) = g ( f ( x)) = x for all x ∈ X
then we say that f is an inverse of g , and g is an inverse of f . However, it can be
shown that if a function f has an inverse, then it is unique, and hence the inverse of
f is commonly denoted by f −1 , read as ‘ f inverse’. Therefore, we have the
following cancellation equations:

( f o f −1 )( x) = f ( f −1 ( x)) = x for all x∈ Y

( f −1 o f )( x) = f −1 ( f ( x)) = x for all x ∈ X

Example : Show that the functions f1 ( x) = 2 x and f 2 ( x) = 2x are the inverse pair.
Solution: Observe that
( f1 o f 2 )( x) = f1 ( f 2 ( x)) = f1 ( 2x ) = 2( 2x ) = x , x ∈ D2 = ℜ , D2 = domain of f 2
( f 2 o f1 )( x) = f 2 ( f1 ( x)) = f 2 (2 x) = 2x
2 = x , for all x ∈ D1 = ℜ , D1 = domain of f 1

Theorem: Let f : X → Y be a function. Then f has an inverse if and only if it is 1:1

and onto.

The following algebraic procedure will produce the formula for f −1 :

Step I: Write y = f ( x).

Step II: Interchange the variables x and y in the equation y = f ( x ) to obtainthe
equation x = f ( y ); solve, if possible, the equation x = f ( y) for y in terms
of x.
Step III: The resulting equation in Procedure II will be y = f −1 ( x).

Example: Find the inverse of the function f ( x) = x 3 .

Solution We see that f ( x) = x3 is one-to-one and onto. Therefore, it has the inverse.
Let y = f ( x) = x 3 . Interchanging x and y in this equation and then solving for y;
1 1
this yields x = y 3 . Then we have x 3 = y. Hence, we have f −1 ( x) = x 3 for all x ∈ ℜ .

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 Calculus of One Variable

1.5 Elementary Functions

Polynomials
A polynomial or polynomial function is a function defined by
p ( x ) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 + L + a1 x + a0 , x ∈ℜ .

where n is a nonnegative integer and a0 , a1 ,K , an −1 , an are constant real numbers. If

an ≠ 0 then the integer n is called the degree of the polynomial p ( x). The constant

an is called the leading coefficient and the constant a0 is called the constant term of

the polynomial p ( x). The domain of p ( x), D p is ℜ . In particular, we have

a constant function is the zero degree polynomial: p ( x) = a;

a linear function is the first degree polynomial: p ( x) = ax + b;
a quadratic function is the second degree polynomial: p ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c;
a cubic function is the third degree polynomial: p ( x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d ;
where a, b, c, d and s are constant real numbers.

Rational Functions
A rational function is a function iof the form
p ( x)
r ( x) =
q ( x)
where p(x) and q(x) are two polynomials, defined for values of x for which its
denominator is not 0..
4x − 8
Example: r ( x) = 2 , x ≠ −1, 3. is a rational function
x − 2x − 3

The Absolute Value Function

We see that the absolute value function can also be expressed as a piecewise defined
function as follows.
 x if x ≥ 0,
f ( x) = x = 
 − x if x < 0.
The domain of f ( x), D f = ℜ . The graph of the absolute value function f ( x) = x
appears in the following Figure:
y = f ( x)

−1 0 1 x

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 Calculus of One Variable

Real-valued nth-Root Functions

For any even n ∈ N, the real-valued nth-root function is the nonnegative real-valued
function f : [0, ∞) → ℜ defined as
1
f ( x) = x = n n x for all x ∈ [0, ∞).

For any odd n∈ N, the real-valued nth-root function is the function f : ℜ → ℜ

defined as
1
f ( x) = x n = n x for all x ∈ ℜ .

Theorem :

(i) For any even n∈ N

n xy = n x n y for all x, y ∈ [0, ∞);

(ii) For any odd n∈ N

n xy = n x n y for all x, y ∈ ℜ

( x)
n
(iii) For any even n∈ N
n
= x for all x ∈ [0, ∞);

(iv) For any even n∈ N

n
xn = x for all x ∈ ℜ .

( )
n
(v) For any odd n∈ N
n
x = x = n xn for all x ∈ ℜ .

(x )
m
= x = (x )
1 m 1
n n m n
(vi) For any m ,n∈ N , for all x ∈ [0, ∞).

Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Let θ be an angle measured in radians, satisfying the inequality 0 ≤ θ < 2π . Let
P be the point on the circle of radius r.
Angles measured counterclockwise (ie, anticlockwise) form the positive x-axis
are assigned positive measures).
Angles measured clockwise are assigned negative measures.
When angles are used to describe counterclockwise or clockwise rotations, our
measurements can go arbitrarily far beyond 2π . In view of Figure 1.6.1, we note that
the point P on the circle will come back to the same coordinate when θ = θ + 2kπ
for all integer k.

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 Calculus of One Variable

An angle measured in radians in standard position.

We define the six trigonometric functions of the angle θ in terms of the
coordinates of the point P ( x, y ) as follows:
y
Sine function: f (θ ) = sin θ = ;
r
x
Cosine function: f (θ ) = cosθ = ;
r
y
Tangent function: f (θ ) = tan θ = ;
x
x
Cotangent function: f (θ ) = cot θ = ;
y
r
Secant function: f (θ ) = sec θ = ;
x
r
Cosecant function: f (θ ) = cscθ = .
y
These functions are defined for all real numbers θ , which use radians as the unit
of measurement, except for those values of θ at which the denominators of the
fractions vanish.
As we can see, sin θ and cosθ are well defined for all θ ∈ ℜ . But, tan θ and sec θ
are not defined for value of θ . When x = 0, this means θ = π2 + kπ , k an integer.
Similarly, cot θ and cscθ are not defined for values of θ for which y = 0, namely,
θ = kπ , k an integer. Therefore, we have

f (θ ) = sin θ for all θ ∈ ℜ .

f (θ ) = cosθ for all θ ∈ ℜ .
sin θ π
f (θ ) = tan θ = for all θ ∈ ℜ . with θ ≠ + kπ , k an integer.;
cos θ 2
1
f (θ ) = cot θ = for all θ ∈ ℜ . with θ ≠ kπ , k an integer.;
tan θ
1 π
f (θ ) = secθ = for all θ ∈ ℜ . with θ ≠ + kπ , k an integer.;
cos θ 2

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 Calculus of One Variable

1
f (θ ) = cscθ = for all θ ∈ ℜ . with θ ≠ kπ , k an integer..
sin θ

When we graph trigonometric functions in the coordinate plane, we usually

denote the independent variable (radians) by x instead of θ . In what follows, we will
use the variable x to denote the angle θ measured in radians.

It is also useful to know the values of the trigonometric functions for particular
angles and their signs in the four quadrants.

x 0 π 6 π 4 π 3 π 2 π 3π 2 2π
sin x 0 12 1 2 3 2 1 0 -1 0
cos x 1 3 2 1 2 12 0 -1 0 1
tan x 0 1 3 1 3 0 0
cot x 3 1 1 3 0 0

Theorem (Periodicity):
For any k ∈ Z , we have
(i) sin( x + 2kπ ) = sin x , for all x ∈ ℜ and k intege,.
(ii) , cos( x + 2kπ ) = cos x for all x ∈ ℜ and k integer;

(iii) tan( x + kπ ) = tan x , for all x ∈ ℜ and k integer;

(iv) cot( x + kπ ) = cot x , for all x ∈ ℜ and k integer;
(v) sec( x + 2kπ ) = sec x , for all x ∈ ℜ and k integer;
(vi) csc( x + 2kπ ) = csc x , for all x ∈ ℜ and k integer.
We summarize:
sin x cos x tan x cot x sec x csc x
period 2π 2π π π 2π 2π

Theorem (Odd and Even Properties):

(i) The sine function is odd, i.e., sin( − x) = − sin x for all for all x ∈ ℜ .
(ii) The cosine function is even, i.e., cos(− x) = cos x for all for all x ∈ ℜ .
(iii) The tangent function is odd, i.e., tan( − x) = − tan x , for all
π
x∈ ℜ \ { + kπ , k int eger } . .
2

Theorem:
(i) sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 , for all x ∈ ℜ ;
π
(ii) tan 2 x + 1 = sec2 x , for all x ∈ ℜ \ { + kπ , k int eger }
2
(iii) cot x + 1 = csc x , for all x ∈ ℜ \ {π + kπ , k int eger } .
2 2

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 Calculus of One Variable

Theorem(Addition Formulas):
(i) sin( x + y ) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y , for all x, y ∈ ℜ
(ii) cos( x + y ) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y , for all x, y ∈ ℜ
tan x + tan y
(iii) tan( x + y ) = , for all x, y ∈ ℜ with x + y ≠ π2 + kπ , k integer.
1 − tan x tan y
(vii) sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x , for all x ∈ ℜ
(viii) cos 2 x = cos 2 x − sin 2 x = 2 cos 2 x − 1 = 1 − 2sin 2 x , for all x ∈ ℜ .

Theorem (Product to Sum Formulas):

(i) sin x cos y = 12 ( sin( x − y ) + sin( x − y ) ) for all x, y ∈ ℜ .
1
(ii) sin x sin y = ((cos( x − y) − cos( x + y) ) for all x, y ∈ ℜ
2
1
(iii) cos x cos y = (cos( x − y ) + cos( x + y ) ) for all x, y ∈ ℜ .
2

Theorem 1.6.7( Sum to Product Formulas)

(i) ( (
sin x + sin y = 2 sin x+ y
2 ) cos ( x− y
2 )) , for all x, y ∈ ℜ .

(ii) sin x − sin y = 2 ( cos ( x+ y

2 ) sin ( x− y
2 )) , for all x, y ∈ ℜ .

(iii) cos + cos y = 2 ( cos ( x+ y

2 ) cos ( x− y
2 )) , for all x, y ∈ ℜ .
(iv) cos x − cos y = 2 ( sin ( x+ y
2 ) sin ( x− y
2 ) ) , for all x, y ∈ ℜ .
Trigonometric Functions are periodic, and hence, in general, they are not one-to-
one functions. However, we can restrict their domain setsto makethem 1:1, and so,
we can define their inverses The following table shows the restricted domains that
will make the functions one-to-one.

Function Restricted Domain Range

sin x [- π2 , π2 ] [− 1, 1]
cos x [0, π ] [− 1, 1]
tan x (- π2 , π2 ) R
cot x (0, π ) R
sec x [0, 2 ) U ( π2 , π ]
π ( −∞, − 1] U [1, ∞)
csc x [ − π2 , 0) U (0, π2 ] ( −∞, − 1] U [1, ∞)

Definition (Inverse Trigonometric Functions):

(i) For any −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, and − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2 , the arc-sine function, denoted as sin −1 x,
is defined by
y = sin −1 x ⇔ sin y = x.

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 Calculus of One Variable

(ii) For any −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, and 0 ≤ y ≤ π , the arc-cosine function, denoted as

cos −1 x, is defined by
y = cos −1 x ⇔ cos y = x.

(iii) For any x ∈ ℜ and − π2 < y < π2 , the arc-tangent function, denoted as tan −1 x, is
defined by
y = tan −1 x ⇔ tan y = x.

(iv) For any x ∈ ℜ and 0 < y < π , the arc-cotangent function, denoted as cot −1 x,
is defined by
y = cot −1 x ⇔ cot y = x.

(v) For any (−∞, − 1] U [1, ∞), and 0 ≤ y ≤ π , y ≠ π2 , the arc-secant function, denoted
as sec −1 x, is defined by
y = sec −1 x ⇔ sec y = x.
−π
(vi). For any (−∞, − 1] U [1, ∞), and 2 ≤ y ≤ π2 , y ≠ 0, the arc-cosecant function,
denoted as csc −1 x, is define by
y = csc −1 x ⇔ csc y = x

The following is a list of the principal value of the inverse trigonometric

functions.
Inverse Function Principal value
y = sin −1 x − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2
y = cos −1 x 0≤ y ≤π
y = tan −1 x − π2 < y < π2
y = cot −1 x 0< y <π
y = sec −1 x 0 ≤ y ≤π, y ≠ π
2

y = csc −1 x − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2 , y ≠ 0

Thereom :
(i) sin(sin −1 x) = x for all x ∈ [ −1, 1].
(ii) sin −1 (sin x) = x for all x ∈ [ −2π , π2 ].
(iii) cos(cos −1 x) = x for all x ∈ [ −1, 1].
(iv) cos −1 (cos x) = x for all x ∈ [0, π ].
(v) tan(tan −1 x) = x for all x ∈ ℜ .
(vi) tan −1 (tan x) = x for all x ∈ ( −2π , π2 ).

Exponential and Logarithm Functions

Let a be a positive real number other than 1. Let x be a real number. If x is rational,
q
say x =
p
, where p,q are integers,and q>0, then ax = a p .Suppose x is not a
q

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 Calculus of One Variable

rational number , then how do we define ax ? By a theorem which will not be

x
proved here, there is a unque number, denoted by a , such that if α < x < β , where
α and β are rational numbers, then
α β
a <a <ax
.
Thus we can define the function
f ( x) = a x for all x ∈ ℜ

This function is called the exponential function with base-a. When a = e, then we
called f ( x ) = e for all x ∈ ℜ , the natural exponential function. We first have the
x

following elementary properties of exponential functions.

Theorem. Let a and b be positive real numbers with a, b ≠ 1. Then:

(i) a 0 = 1 and a x > 0 for all x ∈ ℜ
(ii) a x = a y if and only if x = y; x, y ∈ ℜ
(iii) a x a y = a x + y for every x, y ∈ ℜ .
(iv) a x a y = a x − y for every x, y ∈ ℜ
(v) ( a x ) y = a x y for every x, y ∈ ℜ
(vi) ( ab) x = a x b x for every x ∈ ℜ
(vii) ( a b) x = a x b x for every x, y ∈ ℜ .
(viii) a − x = 1 a x for every x ∈ ℜ
(ix) if 0 < a < 1, then a x ≤ a y whenever x ≥ y in ℜ .
(x) if a > 1, then a x ≥ a y whenever x ≥ y in ℜ .

The exponential function g ( x) = a x , where a > 0 with a ≠ 1, has the inverse.

We called this inverse function the logarithm of x to the base a, or simply, base-a
logarithm or logarithm if the base is understood, and it is denoted by

f ( x ) = log a ( x ) for all x ∈ (0, ∞).

Evidently, the natural domain and the range of logarithm are (0, ∞) and
ℜ respectively because the range and the domain of exponential are respectively
(0, ∞) and ℜ .

Theorem: Let a be a positive real number such that a ≠ 1. Then we have the
following results.
(i) The base-a logarithm function is an injective function on x ∈ (0, ∞ ) ;
(ii) for any x, y ∈ (0, ∞ ), x = y ⇔ log a x = log a y ;

(iii) y = log a x ⇔ ay = x for all x ∈ (0, ∞ ) ;

(iv) a log a x = x for all x ∈ (0, ∞ ) ;

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 Calculus of One Variable

(v) log a a x = x for all x ∈ ℜ .

(vi) log a 1 = 0.

There are two frequently used bases for logarithms. If the base a = 10 is used,
then the logarithm log10 ( x), is called a common logarithm, and denoted by log( x). If
the base a = e is used, then the logarithm log e ( x ), is called a natural
logarithm, and is denoted by ln( x).
.

Theorem: Let a be positive real numbers such that a ≠ 1. Then the following
assertions hold true.
(i) log a ( xy ) = log a x + log a y for all x, y ∈ (0, ∞).
(ii) log a ( x y ) = log a x − log a y for all x, y ∈ (0, ∞).
(iii) log a x y = y log a x for all x ∈ (0, ∞) and x ∈ ℜ .

Theorem: Let a be positive real numbers such that a ≠ 1. Then every exponential
function is a power of the natural exponential function

a x = e x ln a for all x ∈ ℜ

Theorem: Let a be positive real numbers such that a ≠ 1. Then every base-a
logarithm is a constant multiple of the natural logarithm
ln x
log a x = for all x ∈ (0, ∞ ) .
ln a

x −3 2 −3 x
Example: Solve the following equation 4 ⋅5 = 20.
Solution
4 x −3 ⋅ 52 −3 x = 20 ⇒ ( x − 3) log 4 4 + (2 − 3 x) log 4 5 = log 4 4 + log 4 5
⇒ x − 3 + 2 log 4 5 − (3log 4 5) x = 1 + log 4 5
⇒ (1 − 3log 4 5) x = 4 − log 4 5
⇒ x = (4 − log 4 5) (1 − 3log 4 5).

Hyperbolic Functions and their Inverses

Definition: The six hyperbolic functions are defined as follows:

The hyperbolic sine function, denoted by sinh x , is defined by
e x − e− x
sinh x = for all x ∈ ℜ
2

The hyperbolic cosine function, denoted by cosh x, is defined by
e x + e− x
cosh x = for all x ∈ℜ
2

13
 Calculus of One Variable

The remaining hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of sinh x and cosh x as
follows:

The hyperbolic tangent function, denoted by tanh x, is defined by
sinh x e x − e − x
tanh x = = for all for all x ∈ ℜ
cosh x e x + e − x

The hyperbolic cotangent function, denoted by coth x , is defined by
cosh x e x + e − x
coth x = = for all for all x ∈ ℜ \ {0} .
sinh x e x − e − x

The hyperbolic secant function, denoted by sec h x , is defined by
1 2
sec h x = = x , for all x ∈ℜ
cosh x e + e− x

The hyperbolic cosecant function, denoted by csch x , is defined by
1 2
csc h x = = x , for all x ∈ ℜ \ {0} ..
sinh x e − e − x

Theorem: (Odd and Even Properties)

(i) The hyperbolic sine function is odd, i.e., sinh( − x) = − sinh x for all x ∈ ℜ .
(ii) The hyperbolic cosine function is even, i.e., cosh(− x) = cosh x for all x ∈ ℜ .
(iii) The hyperbolic tangent function is odd, i.e., tanh( − x) = − tanh x for all x ∈ ℜ

We note that the hyperbolic functions satisfy various identities similar to the identities
for the trigonometric functions.

Theorem: (Hyperbolic Identities)

(i) cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 for all x ∈ ℜ .
(ii) 1 − tanh 2 x = sech 2 x for all x ∈ ℜ .
(iii) coth 2 x − 1 = csch 2 x for all x ∈ ℜ \ {0} .

Theorem:(Hyperbolic Addition Formulas)

(i) sinh( x + y ) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y for all x, y ∈ ℜ .
(ii) cosh( x + y ) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y for all x, y ∈ ℜ .
tanh x + tanh y
(v) tanh( x + y ) = for all x, y ∈ ℜ .
1 + tanh x tanh y

2 Limits and Continuity

2.1 Limits of Real Functions

14
 Calculus of One Variable

The concept of limits is the cornerstone on which the development of calculus rests
and it is the basic for all calculus problems. A good understanding of limit concept
will help explain many theorems in calculus. Before we try to give a definition of a
limit of a real function, let us look at more examples.

Example: Guess the value of the function f ( x) = sinx x , where x is in radians, near
x = 0.
Solution Evidently, the function f ( x) = sinx x is defined for all real number x except
x = 0. Although f ( x) is not well-defined at x = 0, it still makes sense to ask what
happens to the value of f ( x) as x approaches 0 without actually taking on the value
x = 0. We construct the following table of values correct to seven decimal places.
x f ( x) = sin x
x
x f ( x) = sin x
x
1.0 0.8414710 0.1 0.9983342
0.5 0.9588511 0.05 0.9995834
0.4 0.9735459 0.01 0.9999834
0.3 0.9850674 0.001 0.9999999
0.2 0.9933467 0.0000001 0.9999999999999

From the table we guess that f ( x) = sin x

x approaches 1 as x approaches arbitrarily
close to 0.In fact, this is true.

We first suggest the following informal definition of limit.

Definition: Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval about a, except
possibly at a itself. We say that f ( x) approaches the limit L as x approaches a if
f ( x) can be made arbitrarily close to L for all x sufficiently close to a (x approach a
from either direction) but not equal to a , and we write

lim f ( x) = L
x→a

This definition is informal since the phrases such as arbitrarily close and all x
sufficiently close are imprecise. However, this definition should be clear enough to
enable us to recognize, evaluate and compute limits of specific functions.

15
 Calculus of One Variable

It should be noticed that the point ( a, L ) is not assumed to belong to the graph of
y = f ( x ). This emphasizes the fact that lim x →a f ( x) = L depends only on the
behavior of f ( x) near x = a , but not on the number f ( a ) itself. An alternative
notation for lim x →a f ( x) = L is f ( x) → L as x → a.

Theorem (Uniqueness of Limits): Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open

interval about a, except possibly at a itself. If lim x →a f ( x) = L, then the number L is
unique.

2.2 One-Sided Limits

However, there is certain information to be conveyed the two-sided limit fails to exist.
For this reason, we define the left-hand limit and right-hand limit of f ( x) at x = a as
follows.

Definition (Right-hand Limit): Let f ( x) be a real function defined on some open

interval (a, b) We write

lim f ( x) = L
x→a+

and say that f ( x) has right-hand limit at x = a if we can make the values of f ( x)
arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the right (or positive side)
of a.

Definition:(Left-hand Limit): Let f ( x) be a real function defined on some open

interval (c, a ) . We write

lim f ( x) = M
x→a−

and say that f ( x) has left-hand limit at x = a if we can make the values of f ( x)
arbitrarily close to M by taking x to be sufficiently close to the left (or negative
side) of a.

16
 Calculus of One Variable

x− 2
Example: Evaluate lim x →2+ f ( x ) and lim x →2− f ( x), if f ( x) = x2 + x −6
.
Solution: First note that
 x − 2 if x ≥ 2,
x−2 = 
 2 − x if x < 2.
Then we have
x−2 2−x
lim f ( x) = lim+ lim f ( x) = lim −=
x → 2+ x→2 x + x−62 x → 2− x→2 x + x−6
2

x−2 −( x − 2)
= lim+ = lim−
x → 2 ( x − 2)( x + 3) x → 2 ( x − 2)( x + 3)

1 1 −1 1
= lim+ = . = lim− =− .
x→2 x + 3 5 x →2 x + 3 5

Theorem: Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval about a, except

possibly at a itself. Then lim x →a f ( x) = L if and only if

lim f ( x) = L = lim− f ( x).

x→a+ x→a

x−2
Example: Evalate lim x →2 x2 + x −6
or explain why it does not exist.
x−2 x−2 x−2
Solution: Since lim x →2+ x2 + x −6
≠ lim x→ 2− x 2 + x −6
, we conclude that lim x →2 x2 + x−6
does
not exist.

2.3 Properties of Limits

Theorem: Let a be an arbitrary real number. Then:
(i) lim c = c for any c ∈ ℜ .
x→a

(ii) lim x = a.
x →a

Theorem: Let f ( x) and g ( x) be two real functions defined on an open interval

about a, except possibly at a itself, and let c be any real constant. Suppose that

17
 Calculus of One Variable

lim x →a f ( x) = L and lim x →a g ( x) = M , where L and M are real numbers. Then the
following results hold true.
(i) lim( f ( x ) + g ( x )) = lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x ) = L + M .
x →a x →a x →a

(ii) lim( f ( x ) − g ( x )) = lim f ( x ) − lim g ( x ) = L − M .

x→a x→a x→a

(iii) lim( cf ( x )) = c lim f ( x ) = cL.

x →a x→a

(iv) lim( f ( x ) g ( x )) =  lim f ( x )  lim g ( x ) = LM .

x →a x→a x→a

 f ( x)  lim f ( x) L
(v) lim   = x→a = , provided M ≠ 0
x→a g ( x)
  lim
x→a
g ( x) M
(vi) If f ( x) ≤ g ( x) on an open interval containing a, then lim f ( x) ≤ lim g ( x).
x→a x→a

Example: Let a ∈ ℜ . Evaluate limx→a x2 + 3x + 7. Show that limx→a p( x) = p(a), where

p ( x) is a polynomial function.
Solution: limx→a x2 = (limx→a x) × (lim x → a x) = a 2 , limx→a 3x = 3(limx→a x) = 3a and
limx→a 7 = 7. Hence limx→a x + 3x + 7 = a + 3a + 7.
2 2

Let p ( x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + L + an x n , Since limx→a an xn = an (limx→a xn ) = an an for

all positive integers, and limx→a a0 = a0 , it follows that
limx→a p(x) = limx→a ( a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 +L+ an xn ) = limx→a a0 + a1 (limx→a x) +L+ an (limx→a xn )
= a0 + a1 a + L + an a n = p ( a ).

x 2 −1
Example: Evaluate lim x →1 x 3 −1
.
Solution Note that x3 − 1 = ( x − 1)( x 2 + x + 1). Since x → 1 , and so x ≠ 1, it follows
that ( x 2 − 1) ( x3 − 1) = ( x − 1)( x + 1) ( x − 1)( x 2 + x + 1) = ( x + 1) ( x 2 + x + 1). Therefore,
( x +1) lim x →1 ( x +1)
we obtain lim x →1 x 2 −1
x3 −1
= lim x →1 ( x 2 + x +1)
= lim x →1 ( x 2 + x +1)
= 23 .

Theorem: (Sandwich or Squeeze Theorem): Let f ( x), g ( x) and h( x) be real

functions, and let a ∈ ℜ . Suppose that f ( x) ≤ g ( x ) ≤ h( x) for all x in some open
interval containing a, except possibly at x = a itself. If lim x →a f ( x) = lim x →a h( x) =
L, then lim x →a g ( x) = L.

18
 Calculus of One Variable

Example: Let a ∈ ℜ and f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval about a,

except possibly at a itself.
Remark: lim x →a f ( x) = 0 if and only if lim x →a f ( x) = 0.

Theorem:
sin x
(i) lim = 1.
x →0 x
cos x − 1
(ii) lim = 0.
x →0 x

2.4 Limits at Infinity and Infinite Limits

In this section we will extend the concept of limit to allow for two situations not
covered by the definition of two-sided limit or one-sided limit in the previous section:

• limits at infinity, where x becomes arbitrarily large, either positive or negative;

• infinite limits, which are not really limits at all (and we are not saying that the
limit exists) but provide us a useful symbolism for describing the behavior of
real functions whose values become arbitrary large positive or become negative
and arbitrarily large in absolute values.

Consider the functio f ( x) = 1x . It is clear that, D f = ℜ \ {0} and the values of

f ( x) approach 0 as x takes on larger and larger positive values. Likewise, f(x)
approaches 0 as x takes on large and larger negative values.

19
 Calculus of One Variable

The horizontal lines y = 0 is the so-called horizontal asymptote of the curve.

Similarly, x=0 is the vertical asymptote of the curve.

Definition: Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval ( a, ∞). We say

that f ( x) approaches the limit L as x approaches infinity and we write

lim f ( x) = L
x →∞

if f ( x) gets arbitrarily close to L as x gets arbitrary large through positive values.

Definition:Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval (−∞, b). We say

that f ( x) approaches the limit M as x approaches negative infinity and we write
lim f ( x) = M
x →−∞

if f ( x) gets arbitrarily close to M as x gets negative and arbitrary large in absolute

values.
Recall that the symbol ∞ , called infinity, does not represent a real number. We
cannot use “ ∞ ” or “ −∞ ” in arithmetic in the usual way. However, we can use the
phrase “approaches ∞ ” to mean “becomes arbitrarily large positive”, and the phrase
“approaches −∞ ” to mean “becomes negative and arbitrary large in absolute values”.
2 x2 + x − 2
Example: Evaluate lim x →∞ 3 x2 + 5
.
Solution Since x → ∞, it follows that
1
x2
→ 0, and so 1
x2
≠ 0. Thus,
lim x →∞ 2 x2 + x −2
3 x2 +5
=
2
2 + (1 x ) − (1 x 2 )
lim x →∞ 2 x2 + x −2
3 x2 +5
× 11 xx2 = lim x →∞ 3+ 5(1 x 2 )
= 23 .

Example: Evaluate lim x →∞ f ( x ) and lim x→−∞ f ( x) where f ( x) = x x 2 + 1.

Solution Observe that

20
 Calculus of One Variable

x x x
f ( x) = = =
x2 + 1 x 2 (1 + (1 x 2 )) x 2 1 + (1 x 2 )
as a, b > 0 ⇒ ab = a b . Since x = x 2 , we have

x x 1 
f ( x) = =  .
x 1 + (1 x 2 ) x  1 + (1 x 2 ) 
 
Since 1 + (1 x2 ) → 1 and x x = x x → 1 as x → ∞ , it follows that lim x→∞ f ( x) = 1.
Similarly, 1 + (1 x2 ) →1 and x x = x (− x) → −1 as x → ∞, thus lim x→−∞ f ( x) = −1.

We next turn our attention to the notion of infinite limits. Sometimes, a function
whose values grow arbitrary large can be said that to have an infinite limit. Since
infinity ∞ is not a real number, it follows that infinite limits are not really limits at all,
however they provide a method of describing the behavior of functions which grow
arbitrarily large positive, or become negative and arbitrarily large in absolute values.

Definition: Let a ∈ ℜ and f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval about

a, except possibly at a itself. Then

lim f ( x) = ∞
x→a+

means that the values of f ( x) can take arbitrarily large positive values by taking x
sufficiently close to a from the right, but not equal to a.

Definition: Let a ∈ ℜ and let f ( x) a real function defined on an open interval about
a, except possibly at a itself. Then

lim f ( x) = −∞
x→a+

means that the values of f ( x) can take arbitrarily large negative values by taking x
sufficiently close to a from the right, but not equal to a.

Definition: Let Let a ∈ ℜ and f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval

about a, except possibly at a itself. Then limx→a f ( x) = ∞ if lim x→a+ f ( x) = ∞ and
limx→a− f ( x) = ∞ .

Definition: Let Let a ∈ ℜ and f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval

about a, except possibly at a itself. Then limx→a f ( x) = −∞ if lim x → a+ f ( x) = − ∞ and
lim x → a − f ( x ) = − ∞ .

1 1 1
Example: Discuss about the behavior of lim x →3+ x −3 , lim x→3− x −3 and lim x →3 x −3 .
Solution Observe that when x → 3+ , then x − 3 → 0+ . Thus, 1
x− 3 → ∞ (sometimes
we denote 1
x− 3 → +∞ ). So, we denote lim x →3+ 1
x −3 = ∞. Clearly, the limit lim x →3+ 1
x −3

21
 Calculus of One Variable

does not exist, but we are describing the behavior of f ( x) near positive side of 3 by
saying that the values of f ( x) become arbitrarily large positive as x approaches
sufficiently close to 3. Similarly, since x → 3− , then x − 3 → 0− . Thus, 1
x− 3 → −∞ .
Hence we denote lim x→3+ 1
x −3 = − ∞. Hence lim 1
x →3 x − 3 does not exist.

2.5 Continuity

Definition: Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval containing a. We

say that the function f ( x) is continuous at x = a if lim x →a f ( x) = f (a ).

Note that Definition 2.5.1 implicitly requires three things if f ( x) is continuous at

x =a:
• f ( a ) is defined;
• lim x →a f ( x) exists;
• lim x →a f ( x) = f ( a).

If f ( x) is not continuous at x = a, then we will say that the function f ( x) is

discontinuous at x = a, or f ( x) has a discontinuity at x = a. This is the case either
f ( a ) is not well defined (undefined), or lim x →a f ( x) fails to exist, or f ( a ) is well
defined and lim x → a f ( x) exists but their values are not equal.

In particular, a function f ( x) is said to have a removeable discontinuity at x = a if

the limit lim x →a f ( x) exists, but lim x → a f ( x) ≠ f (a ) either because f ( a ) is
undefined or the value of f (a ) differs from the value of the limit. This refers to the
cases (i) and (iii).
The discontinuity at x = a in case (ii) is called jump discontinuity because the
function “jump” from one value to another. Nevertheless, there is another type of
discontinuity illustrated in the following figures, is called infinite discontinuity
whenever either one of the following four cases lim x →a f ( x) = ∞, or
lim x →a f ( x) = −∞ , or lim x →a + f ( x) = ∞ and limx→a− f ( x) = −∞ , or lim x→a+ f ( x) = −∞
and lim x→ a− f ( x) = ∞ hold true.

22
 Calculus of One Variable

Example: Where are the following functions discontinuous ?

(a) f ( x) = x −x 2 .
 1 x 2 if x ≠ 0,
(b) f ( x) = 
 2 if x = 0.
 x − 4 if x ≠ 2,
2

(c) f ( x ) =  x − 2
 2 if x = 2.
Solution: (a). Note that f (2) is undefined, so f ( x) is discontinuous at x = 2.
(b) Evidently, f (0) = 2 , but lim x→0 f ( x) does not exist. So, f ( x) has a
discontinuity at x = 0.
(c) Observe that limx→2 f (x) = limx→2 x + 2 = 4 and f (2) = 2. Thus, lim x→2 f ( x)
≠ f (2), hence f ( x) is discontinuous at x = 2.

Definition: Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval containing a.

We say that the function f ( x) is continuous from the right at the point x = a if
lim x→a+ f ( x) = f (a).

Definition: Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval containing a. We

say that the function f ( x) is continuous from the left at the point x = a if
lim x →a − f ( x) = f ( a ).

Definition: Let a, b ∈ ℜ with a < b, and let f ( x) be a real function defined on

(a, b). We say that the function f ( x) is continuous on (a, b) if f ( x) is continuous at
every x ∈ ( a, b).

Definition: Let a, b ∈ ℜ . with a < b, and let f ( x) be a real function defined on

[ a, b]. We say that the function f ( x) is continuous on [ a, b] if the following
conditions are satisfied: (i) f ( x) is continuous on (a, b) ; (ii) f ( x) is continuous
from the right at x = a ; and (iii) f ( x) is continuous from the left at x = b.

23
 Calculus of One Variable

A real funciton that is continuous on ( −∞, + ∞) is said to be continuous

x −1
everywhere or simply continuous. For example, the function f ( x) = x 2 −1
is
continuous on the intervals ( −∞, 1) and (1, + ∞) .

Theorem: Let c be any real number, and let f ( x) and g ( x) be real functions
defined on an open interval containing a. If f ( x) and g ( x) are continuous at x = a,
then
(i) ( f + g )( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) is continuous at x = a;
(ii) ( f − g )( x ) = f ( x) − g ( x ) is continuous at x = a;
(iii) (cf )( x) = cf ( x) is continuous at x = a;
(iv) ( fg )( x) = f ( x) g ( x ) is continuous at x = a;
(v) ( f g )( x) = f ( x) g ( x) is continuous at x = a provided g ( a ) ≠ 0, and is
discontinuous at x = a if g ( a ) = 0.

Theorem: Let a, b ∈ ℜ . Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval

containing b, let g ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval containing a. If
lim x →a g ( x) = b, and f ( x) is continuous at x = b, then

lim f ( g ( x)) = f (lim g ( x)) = f (b) .

x→a x→a

Corollary: Let a ∈ ℜ and g ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval

containing a, and let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval containing
g ( a). If g ( x) is continuous at x = a, and f ( x) is continuous at x = g (a ), then the
composition function ( f o g )( x) is continuous at x = a.

Theorem: The following type of real functions are continuous at every point in their
domains: (i) polynomial functions; (ii) rational functions; (iii) real n-th root
functions; (iv). trigonometric functions; (v) exponential functions; (vi) logarithm
functions; and (vii) hyperbolic functions.

Theorem (The Intermediate Value Theorem): Let a, b ∈ ℜ with a < b. Suppose that
f ( x) is continous on the closed interval [ a, b] and that k is any real number between
f (a ) and f (b). en there exists at least one real number c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = k .

24
 Calculus of One Variable

Example: Show that the function f ( x) = x 3 + 3 x − 4 x + 9 has at least one real zero in
the interval [ −3, 3].
Solution: Observe that f ( −3) = −15 < 0, and f (3) = 33 > 0. Since f (−3) < 0 < f (3),
by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists c ∈ ( −3, 3) such that f (c) = 0.

3 Differentiation
3.1 The Derivative

Suppose that y = f (x) is a function. We want to computer the slope of the graph
of f (x) at ( x0 , f ( x0 ) . We take a point near by (x0 + ∆x, f (x0 + ∆x)). Then the slope of
the secant from ( x0 , f ( x0 ) to the point (x0 + ∆x, f (x0 + ∆x)) is
∆y f ( x 0 + ∆ x ) − f ( x 0 )
=
∆x ∆x

Next we let ∆x approach 0. We define the slope of the graph at ( x0 , f ( x 0 )) to be

∆y f ( x 0 + ∆x ) − f ( x 0 )
lim =
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x

Definition: Let f ( x) be a function defined on an open interval about a point x = a.

The derivative of f ( x) at x = a, denoted by f '(a ), is

f (a + h) − f (a )
lim
h →0 h
if this limit exists.
We say that f ( x) is differentiable at x = a or f ( x) has a derivative at x = a if f’(a)
exists.

Example: By using definition, find the derivative of the polynomial p ( x) = x 2 + 8 x at

x = a.
Solution:

25
 Calculus of One Variable

p ( a + h) − p ( a ) ((a + h) 2 + 8(a + h)) − (a 2 + 8a )

lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h
h(h + 2a + 8)
= lim
h →0 h
= lim(h + 2a + 8) = 2a + 8.
h →0

Note also that the value of the derivative of a real function f ( x) at a particular
point x = a in its domain can also be expressed in several ways:

d df (a ) df ( x)
f '(a) = f (a) = = = Dx f ( x) x=a .
dx dx dx x = a
Let f ( x) be a differentiable real function of x, and y = f ( x ) . Then in view of
the notation of the derivative of f ( x), we have

dy df ( x)
= = f '( x).
dx dx
It is sometimes useful to be able to refer, or view, the quantities dy and dx in such a
way that their quotient is the derivative dy dx . We can justify this by regarding dx =
∆x as a new independent variable, called the differential of x, and defining a new
dependent variable dy , called the differential of y, as a function of x and dx by

df ( x)
dy = dx = f '( x ) dx,
dx
or simply, df ( x) = f '( x) dx.
For example, if y = x 2 , then we have dy dx = 2 x, or equivalently, we obtain
dy = 2 x dx.

Example: Determine whether the following functions are differentiable at x = 0. (i)

f ( x) = sin x . (ii) f ( x) = x .
Solution:
(i) lim h →0 ( f (0 + h) − f (0)) h = lim h →0 (sin h − sin 0) h = lim h →0 sin h h = 1 . So, the
function f ( x) = sin x is differentiable at x = 0 , and f '(0) = 1.

(ii) Firstly, we consider the right-hand limit,

f (0 + h) − f (0) f (h) − f (0) h
lim = lim+ = lim+ = 1,
h → 0+ h h → 0 h h → 0 h
and the left-hand limit,
f (0 + h) − f (0) −h − 0 −h
lim = lim− = lim− = −1.
h → 0− h h → 0 h h → 0 h

26
 Calculus of One Variable

Hence lim h →0 ( f (0 + h) − f (0)) h does not exist. We conclude that the function
f ( x) = x is not differentiable at x = 0.

Let a, b ∈ ℜ with b > a, and let f ( x) be a function defined on (a, b). We say that
f ( x) is differentiable on (a, b) if f ( x) is differentiable at every point x ∈ ( a, b), and
we say that f ( x) is differentiable everywhere, or simply, differentiable if f ( x) is
differentiable on (−∞, ∞).
For instance, f ( x) = x is a differentiable function. Let x be an arbitrary real number.
Then we have
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) x+h−x h
lim = lim = lim = lim1 = 1.
h →0 h h → 0 h h → 0 h h →0
Thus, f ( x) is differentiable throughout (−∞, ∞) with f '( x) = 1 for all x ∈ ( −∞, ∞).

Example:
Consider the function f ( x) = x . Although it is differentiable from the right at x = 0 ,
and is differentiable from the left at x = 0 , it is not differentiable at 0. Other than that,
it is differentiable everywhere. ( x ≠ 0 ).

Example: By using definition, evaluate the derivative at any x ∈ ℜ for the following
functions. (i). f ( x) = c , where c is a real constant. (ii) f ( x) = sin x.
Solution
f ( x + h) − f ( x) c−c
(i). Given f ( x) = c, then we have lim = lim = lim 0 = 0.
h →0 h h → 0 h h →0

(ii). Let f ( x) = sin x. Then we have

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) sin( x + h) − sin x
lim = lim
h →0 h h → 0 h
(sin x cos h + cos x sin h) − sin x
= lim
h →0 h
cos − 1 sinh
= lim ( sin x + cos x ( )
h→ 0 h h
cosh − 1 sinh
= sin x lim + cos x lim
h →0 h h→0 h

= (sin x) 0 + (cos x)1

= cos x

3.2 Differentiability Theorems

Theorem: Let c be an arbitrary real number, and let x ∈ ℜ Then
d
(i) c = 0;
dx
d
(ii) x = 1;
dx

27
 Calculus of One Variable

d n
(iii) x = nx n −1 for any positive integer n.
dx
d −n
(iv) x = −nx − n −1 for any positive integer n, and any x ∈ ℜ \ {0} .
dx

Theorem: Let a, b be any real numbers, and let f ( x) and g ( x) be real functions
defined on an open interval containing x. If f ( x) and g ( x) are differentiable at x,
then the following rules hold true.
(i) The function (af + bg )( x) = af ( x) + bg ( x) is differentiable at x, and
d d d
dx
( af ( x ) + bg ( x )) = a
dx
f ( x ) + b g ( x ).
dx
(ii) The function ( fg )( x) = f ( x) g ( x) is differentiable at x, and

d d  d 
dx
( f ( x ) g ( x )) = 
 dx
f ( x ) g ( x ) + f ( x )  g ( x ) .
  dx 

(iii) The function ( f g )( x) = f ( x) g ( x) is differentiable at x, provided

g ( x) ≠ 0 , and
d  d 
 f ( x)  g ( x) − f ( x)  g ( x) 
d  f ( x)   dx   dx .
 = 2
dx  g ( x)  g ( x)

In more convenient notations ,we have:

(af + bg )' = af '+bg '

( fg )' = f ' g + fg '

f f ' g − f g'
( )' =
g g2

Corollary: Let a1 , a 2, ..., a n ∈ ℜ and f ( x), f1 ( x),K , f n ( x) be real functions defined on

an open interval containing x. If f ( x), f1 ( x),K , f n ( x) are differentiable at x, then
the following hold true:
(i) The function (af )( x) = af ( x) is differentiable at x, and
d d
( af ( x) ) = a f ( x).
dx dx
(ii) The function (1 f )( x) = 1 f ( x) is differentiable at x, provided f ( x) ≠ 0 , and
d
− f ( x)
d  1  dx
  = .
dx  f ( x)  f ( x) 2

∑
n
(iii) The function i =1
a i f i ( x ) is differentiable at x, and

28
 Calculus of One Variable

d  n  n d
 ∑
dx  i =1
ai f i ( x)  = ∑ ai
 i =11 dx
f i ( x).

(iv). The function f1 ( x) f 2 ( x) L f n ( x) is differentiable at x, and

( f1 (x) f2 (x)L fn (x)) =  f1 (x)  f2 (x)L fn (x) + f1 (x)  f2 (x)  f3 (x)L fn (x)
d d d
dx  dx   dx 
d 
+ L+ f1 (x)L fn−1 ( x)  fn ( x) 
 dx 
------------------------------------------------------------------------
( f g h)’=f ’g h+f g’ h+f g h’ .

-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theorem: Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an open interval containing x. If
f ( x) is differentiable at x, then f ( x) is continuous at x.

In other words, if f ( x) is not continuous at x, then it is not differentiable at x.

Next, we list the derivatives for some elementary real functions.

1 Derivatives of Polynomials and n-th Root Functions

(a)
d
dx
( an x n + an −1 x n −1 + L + a1 x + a0 ) = nan x n −1 + (n − 1) an −1 x n − 2 + L + 2a2 x + a1 ,
for any real number x , where n is any positive integer, and a1 , a 2 ,..., a n ∈ ℜ

(b)
dx
( )
d n m d n m n ( n m ) −1
x =
dx
x = x
m
, for any nonnegative real number x , where
m, n are any positive integers.

2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

d d
sin x = cos x, x ∈ ℜ cos x = − sin x, x ∈ ℜ
dx dx
d d
tan x = sec2 x, cot x = − csc 2 x,
dx dx
π x ∈ ℜ \ {kπ } , k ∈ N .
x ∈ ℜ \ { + kπ } , k ∈ N .
2
d d
sec x = sec x tan x, csc x = − csc x cot x,
dx dx
π x ∈ ℜ \ {kπ } , k ∈ N .
x ∈ ℜ \ { + kπ } , k ∈ N .
2

d 1 d −1
sin −1 x = , x < 1. cot −1 x = , x∈ℜ
dx 1− x2 dx 1 + x2
d −1 d 1
cos −1 x = , x < 1. sec −1 x = , x > 1.
dx 1− x2 dx x x2 − 1

29
 Calculus of One Variable

d 1 d −1
tan −1 x = , x∈ℜ csc −1 x = , x > 1.
dx 1+ x 2
dx x x2 − 1
3 Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions.
d d 1
(a) ln x = log e x = , for any positive real number x.
dx dx x
d 1
(b) log a x = , for any positive real number x, where a is any positive
dx x ln a
real number with a ≠ 1.
d x
(c) e = e x , for any real number x.
dx
d x
(d) a = (ln a ) a x , for any real number x.
dx

4 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions.

d d
sinh = cosh x, x ∈ ℜ coth x = − csc h 2 x, x ∈ ℜ
dx dx
d d
cosh x = sinh x, x ∈ ℜ sec hx = − sec hx tanh x, x ∈ ℜ
dx dx
d d
tanh x = sec h 2 x, x ∈ ℜ csc hx = − csc hx coth x,
dx dx
x∈ℜ x ≠ 0

3.3 The Chain Rule

Theorem: (The Chain Rule): Let f ( x) and g ( x) be real functions. If g ( x) is
differentiable at x, and f ( x) is differentiable at g ( x), then ( f o g)( x) is
differentiable at x with
( f o g ) '( x ) = f '( g ( x)) g '( x ) .
In terms of Leibniz notation, if y = f (u ) and u = g ( x), then
dy dy du
= ,
dx du dx
r

Example: Find the derivatives of the following function. Simplify your answers
whenever possible. (i). Let y = f ( x) = (3 x 3 + 7) 4 . (ii) y = f ( x) = sec 2 x + e x .

Solution:
(i). Let u = 3 x 3 + 7 . Then y = f (u ) = u 4 . So

30
 Calculus of One Variable

dy dy du
= = 4u 3 (9 x 2 ) = ( 4(3x 3 + 7) 3 ) (9 x 2 ) = 36 x 2 ( 4 x 3 + 7) 3
dx du dx

(ii). Let u = sec 2 x + e x . Then y = u .By the chain rule, we have

dy dy du 1 2 sec 2 x tan x + e x
= = (2 sec 2 x tan x + e x ) = .
dx du dx 2 u 2 sec 2 x + e x

3.4 Higher Order Derivatives

Let f ( x) be a differentiable function, then we obtain f '( x); i.e., the first
derivative of f ( x) with respect to x. This derivative may itself be a differentiable
function; if so, we obtain the second derivative of f ( x) with respect to x , and we
write
d  df ( x)  d 2 f ( x)
f ''( x) = f (2) ( x) =  = .
dx  dx  dx 2
In general, the n-th derivative of f ( x) with respect to x, for any positive integer n, is
defined by induction as follows:
d
f ( n ) ( x ) = ( f ( n −1 ) ( x ) )
dx

where f ( n −1 ) ( x ) denotes the (n-1)th derivative of f and is denoted by

d n f ( x) d n
f (n)
( x) = = n ( f ( x )).
dx n dx

Example: Let p ( x) = x 4 and let q ( x) = ax n , a ∈ ℜ Find p ( k ) ( x) for k = 1, 2,3, 4,5,

and find q ( n −1) ( x), q ( n ) ( x) and q ( n +1) ( x).

Solution We see that p (1) ( x ) = p '( x) = 4 x 3 , p (2) ( x) = d dx (4 x 3 ) = 13x 2 , p (3) ( x) =

d dx (12 x 2 ) = 24 x, p(4) ( x) = d dx (24 x) = 24, and p (5) ( x) = d dx (24) = 0.

Similarly, we have q (1) ( x) = anx n−1 , q (2) ( x) = an(n − 1) x n− 2 ,

q (3) ( x) = an(n − 1)(n − 2) x n −3 , and hence, we have
q ( n −1) ( x) = an(n − 1)(n − 2)L 3 ⋅ 2 x,
q ( n ) ( x) = an(n − 1)(n − 2)L 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = an !,
q ( n +1) ( x) = 0.

3.5 Implicit Differentiation

31
 Calculus of One Variable

When a function is specified by an equation of the form y = f ( x ) , we say that y is

determined as an explicit function of x. However, some equations involving the two
variables x and y determine interesting relation ships between these variables even
though the equations cannot be brought into the explicit form y = f ( x ) . For instance,
x 2 + y 2 = 25 and sin( xy ) = 1 .
However, we can still regard it as defining y as one or more functions of x
implicitly, even if we cannot solve for these functions explicitly.
However we can find the derivative dy dx by a technique called implicit
differentiation. The main idea is to differentiate the given equation with respect to x,
noting that y is a function of x.

We summarize the procedures as follows:

(i) impose a condition on the variable y so that the given equation implicitly
defines y as a differentiable function of x;
(ii) differentiate both sides of the given equation, remembering that the factor
dy dx will occur in any differentiation of a term involving the function y,
according to the chain rule; and
(iii) solve the resulting equation for dy dx .

Example: Find dy dx if y sin x = y 3 + cos y.

Solution By differentiate the equation y sin x = y 3 + cos y with respect to x, we
obtain
d d
( y sin x) = ( y 3 + cos y ),
dx dx
dy dy dy
⇒ sin x + y cos x = 3 y 2 − sin y
dx dx dx
dy
⇒ (3 y 2 − sin y − sin x) = y cos x.
dx
Hence we conclude that
dy y cos x
= 2 .
dx 3 y − sin y − sin x

3.6 The Mean Value Theorem

Theorem:(Rolle’s Theorem): Let f ( x) be a continuous function on the closed
interval [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If f (a ) = f (b), then there exists c ∈ (a, b)
such that f '(c) = 0.

In other worlds, Rolle’s Theorem asserts that if function is continuous on a closed

interval and differentiable everywhere except possibly at endpoints and if the values
of the function are equal at the endpoints, then the graph of the function must have at
least one horizontal tangent.
:

32
 Calculus of One Variable

The hypotheses of the Rolle’s Theorem are all necessary for the conclusion: if
f ( x) fails to be continuous at even one point of [a, b], or fails to be differentiable at
even one point of (a, b), then there may be no horizontal.tangent line

The Rolle’s Theorem gives no indication of how many points c there may be on
the curve between a and b where the tangent is horizontal. If the graph of f ( x) is a
straight horizontal line, then every point on the line between a and b has the required
property. In general, there may be one or more than one point.

Theorem (Mean Value Theorem): Let f ( x) be a continuous function on [a, b] and

differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a )
f '(c) = .
b−a

Example: Show that sin x < x for all x > 0.

Solution Since −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ ℜ , it follows that
sin x < x for all x > 1.

Next we consider x ∈ (0,1]. Clearly, f ( x) = sin x is differentiable and continuous on

x ∈ (0,1]. For any x ∈ (0,1], we see that there exists c ∈ (0, x) such that

f ( x) − f (0) sin x − sin 0

= f '(c) ⇒ = cos(c) < 1 ⇒ sin x < x.
x−0 x−0
This completes the proof.

33
 Calculus of One Variable

Let f ( x) be a real function defined on an interval (a, b). We recall that f ( x) is

increasing (decreasing) on (a, b) if f ( x) > f ( y ) for any x, y ∈ (a, b) with x > y (if
f ( x) < f ( y ) for any x, y ∈ (a, b) with x < y ).
However, if f ( x) ≥ f ( y ) for any x, y ∈ (a, b) with x > y we say f ( x) is non-
decreasing on (a, b) ; and if f ( x) ≤ f ( y ) for any x, y ∈ (a, b) with x > y, then we say
f ( x) is non-increasing on (a, b).

Theorem: Let f ( x) be differentiable on an open interval (a, b), and continuous on

[a, b]. Then
(i) if f '( x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f ( x) is increasing on (a, b);
(ii) if f '( x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f ( x) is decreasing on (a, b);
(iii) if f '( x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f ( x) is non-decreasing on (a, b);
(iv) if f '( x) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f ( x) is non-increasing on (a, b).

Example: Show that f ( x) = x 3 is increasing on ℜ .

Solution Firstly, we note f '( x) = 3 x 2 . Clearly, f '( x) > 0 for all x ∈ (−∞, 0) U (0, ∞),
this implies f ( x) is increasing throughout (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞). Moreover, for any real
numbers x, y ∈ ℜ with y < 0 < x, we have f(y) < 0 < f(x). Hence, f ( x) is increasing
on ℜ .

There is a very effective rule, called l’Hôspital’s rule, for the computation of limit of a
quotient when the usual method discussed in Section 2.3 are not applicable, i.e., when
the limits of the numerator and the denominator are both zero, or both infinities.

Theorem: Let f ( x) and g ( x) be continuous functions on a open interval (a,b)

containing x0 . If f ( x) and g ( x) are differentiable on (a, b) except possibly at
x = x0 , g '( x) ≠ 0 for all x ∈ (a, b) \ { x0 } and lim f ( x ) = lim g ( x ) = 0 then
x → x0 x → x0

f ( x) f '( x)
lim = lim ,
x → x0 g ( x) x → x0 g '( x)

provided the second limit exists.

TheoreLet f ( x) and g ( x) be continuous functions on a open interval (a,b)

containing x0 . If f ( x) and g ( x) are differentiable on (a, b) except possibly at
x = x0 , g '( x) ≠ 0 for all x ∈ (a, b) \ { x0 } , and lim x → x0 f ( x) = ∞ or lim x → x0 f ( x) = −∞
and lim x → x0 g ( x) = ∞ or lim x → x0 g ( x) = −∞, then
f ( x) f '( x)
lim = lim ,
x → x0 g ( x) x → x0 g '( x)

provided the second limit exists.

However, we have other versions of l’Hôspital’s rule as follows.

34
 Calculus of One Variable

Theorem: Let f ( x) and g ( x) be differentiable for all x > M for some M ∈ N . If

g '( x) ≠ 0 for all x > M and lim x →∞ f ( x) = lim x →∞ g ( x) = 0, then
f ( x) f '( x)
lim = lim ,
x →∞ g ( x ) x →∞ g '( x )

provided the second limit exists.

Theorem: Let f ( x) and g ( x) be differentiable for all x > M for some M ∈ N .

If g '( x) ≠ 0 for all x > M and lim x →∞ f ( x) = ∞ or lim x →∞ f ( x) = −∞ and
lim x →∞ g ( x ) = ∞ or lim x →∞ g ( x) = −∞, then

f ( x) f '( x)
lim = lim ,
x →∞ g ( x) x →∞ g '( x)
provided the second limit exists.

Remarks

(i) We can sometimes handle the indeterminate forms of type 0 ⋅ ∞ and ∞ − ∞ by

using algebraic manipulations to convert them into the indeterminate form of type
0 0 or ∞ ∞ . Here again, we do not mean to suggest that there is a number 0 ⋅ ∞
or ∞ − ∞ any more than we mean to suggest that there is a number 0 0 or ∞ ∞ .
These forms are not numbers but descriptions of functions behavior.
(ii) Limits that lead to the indeterminate forms of type 00 , ∞ 0 , and 1∞ can be
sometimes be handled by taking logarithms first. We use l’Hôspital’s rule to find
the limit of the logarithm and the exponential to find the original function
behavior; i.e., if lim(ln f ( x)) = L < ∞, then
x→a

lim f ( x) = lim eln f ( x ) = e L .

x→a x→a

Here, a may be either finite or infinite.

Example: Evaluate each of the following limits ( if it exits)::

sin x ln x ln(2 + e x )
(i) lim . (ii). lim+ 1 . (iii) lim .
x →0 x x→0 x →∞ x
x

lim (1 + 1x ) .
x
(vi) (v) lim x x .
x→∞ x → 0+
Solution
sin x cos x
(i). lim = lim = lim cos x = 1.
x→0 x x→0 1 x→0
1
ln x
(ii). lim+ 1 = lim+ x 1 = lim+ (− x) = 0.
x→0 x →0 − x→0
x x2

ln(2 + e x ) e x (2 + e x ) ex ex
(iii). lim = lim lim = lim = lim1 = 1.
x →∞ x x →∞ 1 x →∞ 2 + e x x →∞ e x x →∞

35
 Calculus of One Variable

(iv). Find lim (1 + 1x ) .

x

x→∞

1 1
Let y = (1 + ) x . Then ln( y ) = x ln(1 + ) .
x x

lim ln( y ) = lim x ( ln (1 +

( ln (1 + )) = lim ( ) (1 + ) = lim
1 −1 1
1
)) x2
x x
1
= lim = 1.
x →∞ x →∞
x
x →∞ 1
x
x →∞ − 1
x2
x →∞
(1 + 1x )
1 lim ln( y )
Hence, lim(1 + ) x = lim y = lim e ln y = e x→∞ = e1 = e
x →∞ x x →∞ x →∞

(v). Consider lim+ x x . Firstl let y = x x Then ln y = x ln x .

x→0
1
ln x
lim ln y = lim+ ln( x x ) = lim+ x ln x = lim+ = lim+ x
= lim+ (− x) = 0.
x→∞ x→0 x →0 x →0 1
x
x →0 − x12 x→0

Therefore,
lim ln y
lim x =x lim y = lim e ln y = e x →∞ = e0 = 1
x →∞ x →∞ x →∞

3.7 Differentiability of Inverses

Now let us look at inverse function from the point of view of differentiability. We
recall from Theorem 1.4.6 that a real function f ( x) is one-to-one on an interval if and
only if the function f ( x) has the inverse on that interval, denoted by f −1 ( x). We first
have the following interesting result.

Theorem: Suppose that a function f has an inverse g. Assume that f is differentiable

1
on an open interval I and f(a) = b. Then g’(b) = .
f'(a )

−1 1
or, (f )' ( f ( x )) =
f'( x)
−1
or, if we write y = f ( x), then f ( x) = y, and hence we have
dy dx
=1 .
dx dy

Example: If f ( x) = 2 x + sin x, find ( f −1 ) '(π + 1).

Solution Firstly, we see that f ( x) is one-to-one since f '( x) = 2 + cos x > 0 for all
all x ∈ ℜ and hence the inverse exists. Furthermore, we notice that f ( π2 ) = π + 1,
hence, by the above theorem we have

36
 Calculus of One Variable

1 1 1
( f −1 ) '(π + 1). = = =
π π 2
f'( ) 2 + cos
2 2

3.8 Some Applications of Derivatives

Definition: (Local Extreme Value) A real valued function f ( x) has a local maximum
value (or relative maximum value) at x = x0 in its domain D f if there exists an open
interval I containing x0 such that

f ( x0 ) ≥ f ( x ) for all x ∈ I ⊆ D f .

Similarly, f ( x) has a local minimum value (or relative minimum value) at x = x0 in

its domain D f if there exists an open interval I containing x0 such that

f ( x0 ) ≤ f ( x ) for all x ∈ I ⊆ D f .

Local maximum and minimum values are called local extreme values.

We can extend the definition of local extreme value to the endpoint of intervals
by defining f ( x) to have a local maximum or local minimum value at the endpoint
x = x0 if the appropriate inequality holds for all x in some half-open interval in its
domain containing x0 .

The graph of a real function f ( x) with local maximum values at x = b, x = d , x = k

and x = q, and with local minimum values at x = a, x = c, x = h and x = p.

Definition: (Absolute Extreme Values): Let x0 be a real number, and let f ( x) be a

real-valued function with domain D f containing x0 . Then f has an absolute
maximum value (or global maximum value) at x0 ∈ D f if

f ( x0 ) ≥ f ( x ) for all x ∈ D f ,

37
 Calculus of One Variable

and the real value f ( x0 ) is called the maximum value of f ( x) on D f . Similarly,

f ( x) has an absolute minimum value (global minimum value) at x0 ∈ D f if

f ( x0 ) ≤ f ( x) for all x ∈ D f ,

and the real value f ( x0 ) is called the minimum value of f ( x) on D f .

The maximum and minimum values of f ( x) are called extreme values of f ( x).

The above figure shows the graph of a real function f ( x) with absolute maximum
and minimum values at x = b and x = a, respectively.

Example: Determine the extreme values of f ( x) = x 2 on (−1,1).

Solution: Note that f ( x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ (−1,1) since x 2 ≥ 0 for all x ∈ (−1,1).
Hence f ( x) has the absolute minimum value at x = 0. However, since x 2 < 1 for all
x ∈ (−1,1), and a 2 < b 2 for any 0 ≤ a < b < 1, and any −1 < b < a ≤ 0, it follows that
f ( x) has no absolute maximum values on (−1,1).
However, f has an absolute maximum f(1) =1 on [-1,1].

Definition: Let f(x) be a real-valued function. A critical point of the function f ( x) is

an element c ∈ D f such that either f '(c) = 0 or f '(c) fails to exist.

Example: Find the critical points of f ( x) = x3 5 (4 − x).

Solution First we have
12 − 8 x
f '( x) = 35 x − 2 5 (4 − x) − x 3 5 = .
5x2 5
Therefore f '( x) = 0 when x = 32 , and f '( x) does not exist when x = 0. Thus, the
critical points of f ( x) are x = 32 and x = 0.

Theorem: (The Closed Interval Method) .Let f ( x) be a continuous function on

[a, b]. The extreme values (either local or absolute) of f ( x) on [a, b] must occur
either
(i). at an endpoint of the closed interval [a, b]; or
(ii). at point x ∈ [a, b], where f '( x ) = 0; or
(iii). at point x ∈ [a, b], where f '( x) fails to exist.

38
 Calculus of One Variable

2
Example: Find the maximum and minimum values of f ( x ) = 3 x 3 − 2 x on [−1,1].
Solution: Firstly, we see that f ( x) is a continuous function on [−1,1].
Furthermore, we have f '( x) = 2 x −1 3 − 2 = 2( x −1 3 − 1) .

Notice that f '( x) is not well-defined at x = 0, and f '( x) = 0 when x = 1.

Hence x = 0 and x = 1 (it also happens that x = 1 is an endpoint of the domain of

f ( x)) are the critical points of f ( x).

Since the extreme values must occur either at x = −1, x = 0 or x = 1. Thus,

from f (−1) = 5, f (0) = 0 and f (1) = 1. we know that f ( x) has a maximum value 5
at x = −1 and a minimum value 0 at x = 0.

Theorem (First Derivative Test): Let f ( x) be a real continuous function, and let
x0 ∈ D f . Then the following test applies to f ( x).
At a critical point x0 :
(i) if f '( x) > 0 for x < x0 , and f '( x) < 0 for x > x0 , then f ( x) has a local
maximum value at x = x0 ;
(ii) if f '( x) < 0 for x < x0 , and f '( x) > 0 for x > x0 , then f ( x) has a local
minimum value at x = x0 ;
(iii) if f '( x) has the same sign on both sides of x = x0 , then f ( x) has no local
extreme value at x = x0 .
At a left endpoint x0 :
(i) if f '( x) < 0 for x > x0 , then f ( x) has a local maximum value at x = x0 ;
(ii) if f '( x) > 0 for x > x0 , then f ( x) has a local minimum value at x = x0 .
At a right endpoint x0 :
(i) if f '( x) < 0 for x < x0 , then f ( x) has a local minimum value at x = x0 ;
(ii) if f '( x) > 0 for x < x0 , then f ( x) has a local maximum value at x = x0 .

Example*: Find and classify the local and absolute extreme values of the
function f(x)=x3-3x + 15 on the interval [-2,2].

Solution: f’(x)=3x2-3.
Find the critical points by solving f’(x)=3x2-3=0.
So x = -1 , 1 are the critical points.

-1 1
x+1 - + +
x-1 - - +
f’(x) + - +

39
 Calculus of One Variable

Hence f has a local maximum at x = -1 and a local minimum at x = 1.

f(-1)=17 ,local maximum. f(1)=13 , local maximum.
f(-2)=13, f(2)=17.
Abslute maximum is f(2)=17 and absolute minimum is f(1)=13.

(The second Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values)

Let f ( x ) be differentiable on an interval I containing x = x0 and f '( x ) also
differentiable at x = x0 . Suppose that f '( x0 ) = 0.
(i) If f ''( x0 ) < 0, then f ( x0 ) is a local maximum.
(ii) If f ''( x0 ) > 0, then f ( x0 ) is a local minimum.
(iii) If f ''( x0 ) = 0, then no conclusion can be drawn.

Example and exercise: By using the second derivatives test, find the LOCAL
maximum and minimum of the following functions whose derivatives are given:
(i). f ( x) = 2 x 3 + 27 x 2 + 84 x + 1 . f ' ( x) = 6( x + 2)( x + 7)
1
(ii). f ( x) = x 4 + 3 x 3 − 2 x 2 − 96 x + 1 . f ' ( x) = ( x − 3)( x + 4)( x + 8)
4

4.1 Riemann Sums - The Definite Integral

Definition: Let P = { x0 , x1 ,K , xn } be a partition of [a, b] , and let f ( x ) be a real

function defined on [a, b]. A Riemann sum Sn of f ( x ) on [a, b] with respect to P is
a sum of the form
n
S n = ∑ f (ti )( xi − xi −1 ),
i =1

where t i is an arbitrary element of [ xi −1 , xi ] for all ,i = 1, 2,K , n.

Area of the first rectangle = f(t1)(x1-x0),etc.

40
 Calculus of One Variable

Definition: (Definite Integral) Let a, b ∈ ℜ with b > a, and let f ( x ) be a function

defined on closed interval [a, b] . We say that f ( x) is Riemann integrable or simply
integrable on [a, b] if the limit of the Riemann sums exists. The value of this limit is
called definite integral of f ( x) over [a, b], denoted as
b n

∫ f ( x) dx = lim ∑ f (ti )( xi − xi −1 ), where ti ∈ [ xi −1 , xi ] .

P →0
a n →∞ i =1

Remarks
1. We stress that the definite integral of f ( x) over [a, b] is a number; it is not a
function of x. It depends on the numbers a and b and the particular function
f ( x).
2. The definite integral does not depend on the variable x, which is a dummy
variable, thus we have
b b

∫ f ( x) dx = ∫ f (t ) dt.
a a

The real numbers a and b are called the limits of integration; a is the lower
limit and b is the upper limits.

4.2 Basic Properties of The Definite Integral

In this section, we list some of the most important properties of the definite integral.

Theorem . Let a,b be real numbers with b > a. and f ( x ) a function defined on the
closed interval [a , b]. If f ( x) is continuous on [ a, b ] , then f ( x) is integrable on
[ a, b ] .

Theorem: Let a, b be real numbers with b > a. Let f ( x ) and g(x) be continuous
functions defined on the closed interval [a, b] and α , β be any real constants. Then
the following properties hold true.
a
(i) ∫ a
f ( x) dx = 0.
b b b
(ii) ∫ a
α f ( x) + β g ( x) dx = α ∫ f ( x) dx + β ∫ g ( x) dx.
a a

(iii) f ( x ) is integrable on each subinterval [c, d ] of [a, b]. Moreover

b c b
∫ a
f ( x) dx = ∫ f ( x) dx + ∫ f ( x) dx
a c
for all c ∈ ( a, b).

a b
(iv) ∫ b
f ( x) dx = − ∫ f ( x) dx.
a

If f ( x) ≤ g ( x) for all x ∈ [ a, b ] , then

b b
(v) ∫ a
f ( x) dx ≤ ∫ a
g ( x) dx.
b b
(vi) ∫ a
f ( x) dx ≤ ∫
a
f ( x) dx.

41
 Calculus of One Variable

(vii) The integral of an odd function over an interval symmetric about zero is
a
zero; i.e., if f ( − x) = − f ( x) for all x ∈ [ −a, a ], then ∫ −a
f ( x) dx = 0.
(viii) The integral of an even function over an interval symmetric about zero is
twice the integral over the positive half of the interval; i.e., if f (− x) = f ( x)
a a
for all x ∈ [ −a, a ], then ∫ −a
f ( x) dx = 2 ∫ f ( x) dx.
0

4.3 Areas of Plane Regions

In this section we the use of definite integrals to represent plane areas. We recall that
b
if f ( x) ≥ 0, the definite ∫ a
f ( x) dx measures the area between the graph of f ( x) and
the x-axis from x = a to x = b with b > a. However,if f ( x) < 0 for all x ∈ [ a, b],
b
then the definite integral ∫ a
f ( x) dx is negative. Thus, in order to express the total
area bound by the curve y = f ( x), y = 0, x = a and x = b , counting all the area
b
positively, we should integrate the absolute value of f ( x); i.e., ∫ a
f ( x) dx.

If A and B are the bounded areas illustrated in the diagram above, then
b
∫ a
f ( x) dx = A − B,

and the area bound by the curve y = f ( x), y = 0, x = a and x = b is

b
∫ a
f ( x) dx = A + B.

Example: Consider the area bounded by y = sin x, y = 0, x = 0 and x = 3π 2. Since

sin x > 0 for all x ∈ [0, π ], and sin x < 0 for all x ∈ [π ,3π 2], it follows that
 sin x 0 ≤ x ≤π,
sin x = 
 − sin x π < x ≤ 3π 2.
Then the area bounded by y = sin x, y = 0, x = 0 and x = 3π 2 is
3π 3π
π
∫ sin x dx = ∫ sin x dx + ∫ 2 (− sin x) dx.
2

0 0 π

42
 Calculus of One Variable

Suppose that a plane region R is bounded by two graphs of continuous functions,

y = f ( x ) and y = g ( x), and the vertical straight lines x = a and x = b with b > a. If
f ( x ) ≥ g ( x ) for all x ∈ [ a, b], then the area A of R is the bounded area above x -
axis shown in f the following figure.

Then the area A is

b b b
∫ a
f ( x) − g ( x) dx = ∫ f ( x) dx − ∫ g ( x) dx.
a a

More generally, if the restriction f ( x) ≥ g ( x) is removed, then the total area lying
between y = f ( x ) and y = g ( x), and the vertical straight lines x = a and x = b with
b > a, is given by
b
A=∫ f ( x ) − g ( x) dx.
a

In view of figure above, we see that f ( x) ≥ g ( x) for all x ∈ [ a, c] U [d , b], and

g ( x) ≥ f ( x) for all x ∈ [c, d ]. Then the total bounded area lying between y = f ( x )
and y = g ( x), and the vertical straight lines x = a and x = b with b > a, is given by
b
A = ∫ f ( x) − g ( x) dx
a
c d b
= ∫ f ( x) − g ( x)dx + ∫ −( f ( x) − g ( x))dx + ∫ f ( x) − g ( x)dx.
a c d

4.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Theorem: (The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)

Let f ( x) be a continuous on [a , b], then the function g : [a, b] → ℜ defined by

43
 Calculus of One Variable

x
g ( x) = ∫ f (t ) dt
a

is continuous on [a , b], and differentiable on (a, b), and

g '( x) =
d
dx (∫ x

a )
f (t ) dt = f ( x) for all x ∈ [ a, b].

Example: Find
d
dx 1 ∫
x
(
sin t dt . )
Solution: Since f ( x) = sin x is continuous throughout ℜ , hence
d
dx 1(
∫
x
)
sin t dt = sin x for all x ∈ ℜ .

d x
Class exercise: ∫ cos 7 tdt = ?
dx 2
--------- cos7x

d x
∫ sin t cos 5tdt = ?
dx 1
--------- sin x cos5x

Definition: A function F ( x) is called an antiderivative of a given function f ( x) on

an interval I if F ( x) is differentiable on I and
d
F ( x) = f ( x) for all x ∈ I .
dx

Example: f ( x) = x 2 , then it is not difficult to discover an antiderivative of f ( x). Let

F ( x) = 13 x3 , then F '( x) = f ( x). So F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x).
So is each H ( x) = 13 x 3 + c with c is any real number.

More examples:

f ( x) Antiderivative of f ( x)
f ( x) = sin x F ( x) = − cos x + C
f ( x) = e x F ( x) = e x + C
f ( x) = 1 x F ( x) = ln x + C
f ( x) = sinh x F ( x) = cosh x + C

Theorem: (The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus):

Let f ( x) is a continuous on [a,b] and F ( x) is an antiderivative of f ( x) on
[ a, b]. Then
b
∫
b
f ( x) dx = F ( x) a
= F (b) − F ( a),
a

44
 Calculus of One Variable

5
∫ 8 x dx .
3
Example: Evaluate
−2

d
Solution: Let F(x)=2x4 , then F ( x ) = 8 x 3 , hence
dx
5 5
∫−28x dx =F(x) − 2 =F(5) - F(-2)=2(625 -16)= 1018
3

4.5 Indefinite Integrals

Definition: Let f ( x) be a continuous function, and let F ( x) be an antiderivative

function of f ( x). The most general anti-derivative form for a function f ( x ) is
denoted by
∫ f ( x) dx ,
and is called an indefinite integral of f ( x), and we have

∫ f ( x) dx = F ( x ) + C,
where C is an arbitrary constant.

Polynomial Functions
(i). ∫ a dx = ax + C , where a ∈ ℜ .
x n +1
(ii). ∫ x n dx = + C , where n ∈ Z \ {−1} .
n +1
x2 x n+1
(iii). ∫ ( a0 + a1 x + L + an x n ) dx = a0 x + a1 + L + an + C,
2 n +1
where n is a positive integer and a 0 , a1 ,..., a n ∈ ℜ .
(iv). For each r ≠ −1 ,
x r +1
∫ = + C.
r
x dx
r +1

Trigonometric Functions
(i). ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + C.
(ii). ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C.
(iii). ∫ tan x dx = ln sec x + C.
(iv). ∫ cot x dx = ln sin x + C.
(v). ∫ sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + C.
(vi). ∫ csc x dx = ln csc x − cot x + C.
∫ sec x dx = tan x + C.
2
(vii).

45
 Calculus of One Variable

(viii). ∫ csc 2 x dx = − cot x + C.

(ix). ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C.
(x). ∫ csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C.
Exponential Functions
(i). ∫ e x dx = e x + C.
ax
(ii). ∫ a x dx =
ln a
+ C , where a > 1.

Hyperbolic Functions
(i). ∫ sinh x dx = cosh x + C.
(ii). ∫ cosh x dx = sinh x + C.
(iii). ∫ tanh x dx = ln ( cosh x ) + C.
(iv). ∫ coth x dx = ln sinh x + C.
∫ sec h x dx = tanh x + C.
2
(v).

∫ csc h x dx = − coth x + C.
2
(vi).

Algebraic Functions
1
(i). ∫ dx = ln x + C , x ∈ ℜ \ {0} .
x
1
(ii). ∫ dx = tan −1 x + C.
1 + x2
1 x +1
(iii). ∫ dx = 12 ln + C , x ∈ ℜ \ {1, − 1}
1− x 2
x −1
1 x −1
(iv). ∫ 2 dx = 12 ln + C , x ∈ ℜ \ {1, − 1}
x −1 x +1
1
(v). ∫ dx = sinh −1 x + C.
1+ x 2

1
(vi). ∫ dx = sin −1 x + C , −1 < x < 1. .
1− x 2

3
∫x − 6 x dx, and evaluate ∫ x3 − 6 x dx.
3
Example: Find
0

Solution First we see that

∫x − 6 x dx = ∫ x 3 dx − ∫ 6 x dx = 14 x 4 − 3 x 2 .
3

By the Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we have

3 x =3 81 27
∫ 0
x3 − 6 x dx = 14 x 4 − 3 x 2
x =0
=
4
− 27 = − .
4

46
 Calculus of One Variable

4.6 Techniques of Integration

Integration by Parts
Theorem: Let f ( x) and g ( x) be differentiable functions. Let G ( x) be an
antiderivative of g ( x) ( that is, G ' ( x) = g ( x) ). Then f ( x) g ( x) is integrable, and

∫ f ( x) g ( x) dx = f ( x)G ( x) − ∫ G ( x) f '( x) dx.

Furthermore, if we let u = f ( x) and dv = g ( x )dx , then

∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du.
We note that the integration by parts formula can be applied to definite integrals
as well as to indefinite integrals. The corresponding formulation is
b x =b b
∫ a
f ( x) g ( x) dx = f ( x)G ( x ) x=a
− ∫ G ( x ) f '( x) dx,
a

and
b x =b b
∫ a
u dv = uv x=a
− ∫ v du ,
a

Example: Find ∫ ln x dx.

1
Solution Let u = ln(x) , dv = dx . So du = dx , v = x and therefore
x

∫ ln x dx = (ln x) x −∫ x (1 x ) dx = x ln x − ∫ 1 dx = x ln x − x + C ,
where C is an arbitrary constant.

Example: Find ∫ x ln x dx.

Solution: Let u=ln x , dv = xdx.
1 1
Then du = dx , v = x 2 .
x 2
1 2 1 1 1 1
Hence ∫ x ln xdx = x ln x − ∫ ( x 2 ) dx = x 2 ln x − x 2 + C #
2 2 x 2 4

∫x e
2 3x
Example: Find dx.
1 3x
Solution: let u = x 2 , dv = e 3 x dx . Then du = 2 xdx , v = e .
3

∫x e
2 3x
dx = x 2 ( 13 e3 x ) − ∫ 13 e3 x ( 2 x ) dx = 13 x 2 e3 x − 23 ∫ xe3 x dx.

1 3x
Now, consider ∫ xe 3 x dx . Let u=x , dv = e 3 x dx. So du=dx , v = e .
3

47
 Calculus of One Variable

Then ∫ xe
3x
dx = x ( 13 e3 x ) − ∫ 13 e3 x (1) dx = 13 xe3 x − 13 ∫ e3 x dx = 13 xe3 x − 91 e3 x + B, where B

is an arbitrary constant.
Thus, we have

∫x e
2 3x
dx = 13 x 2 e3 x − 32 ( 13 xe3 x − 91 e3 x + B ) = 13 x 2 e3 x − 92 xe3 x + 2
27 e3 x + C ,

where C = − 23 B. #
π
Example: Evaluate ∫ 0
e3 x cos x dx.

Solution: u = e 3 x , dv = cos x dx . du = 3e 3 x dx , v = sin x . So,

∫e cos x dx =e3 x (sin x) − ∫ sin x(3e3 x ) dx = e3 x sin x − 3∫ e3 x sin x dx.

3x

Next, consider ∫ e 3 x sin x dx .

Let u = e 3 x , dv = sin x dx .So, v= - cos x , du = 3e 3 x dx . So,
∫e sin x dx = e3 x ( − cos x) − ∫ (− cos x)(3e3 x ) dx = −e3 x cos x + 3∫ e3 x cos x dx. .
3x

So,
∫e
3x
(
cos x dx = e3 x sin x − 3 −e3 x cos x + 3∫ e3 x cos x dx )
= e sin x + 3e cos x − 9 ∫ e cos x dx.
3x 3x 3x

Therefore,
10 ∫ e3 x cos x dx = e3 x sin x + 3e3 x cos x,
so,
∫e cos x dx = 101 e3 x sin x + 103 e3 x cos x. +C.
3x

Hence
x =π −3e3π
( e3 x sin x + 103 e3 x cos x ) − = − ( e3π − 1) . #
π 3 3
∫ 0
e3 x cos x dx = 1
10
x =0
=
10 10 10

Integration by Substitution
x2
Example: Consider the indefinite integral ∫ xe dx .
If we let u = x 2 , then du
dx = 2 x,
and hence du = 2 xdx. Therefore, we can simplify the
indefinite integral into a simple form

∫ xe dx = ∫ 2 xe dx = ∫ e 2 x dx = ∫ e du.
2 2 2
x 1 x 1 x 1 u
2 2 2

Since ∫ eu du = 12 eu + C , where C is an arbitrary constant, it follows that

∫ xe dx = 12 e + C. #
2 2
x x

Theorem: Let f ( x) be a continuous function and let u = g (x) be a differentiable

function. If F ( x) is an antiderivative of f ( x) (that. is, F ' ( x) = f ( x) ),
.then
∫ f ( g( x )) g' ( x )dx = F ( g( x )) +C.
48
 Calculus of One Variable

4x + 1
Example: Evaluate ∫ 2x
2
+x
dx.

Solution: Let. u = 2 x 2 + x then du = ( 4 x + 1 )dx and hence,

4x + 1 1
∫ 2 x 2 + x dx = ∫ u du = ln u + C = ln 2 x + x + C
2

where C is an arbitrary constant.

1
Example: Find ∫ a − x2
dx, if a > 0.

Solution: Let x = a sin u. Then dudx

= a cos u , and hence dx = a cos u du. Thus,
1 a cos u du  x 
∫a − x2
dx = ∫
a cos u
= ∫ 1 du = u + C = sin −1 
 a
 + C,
where C is an arbitrary constant.

1
Example: Find ∫x 2
+ a2
dx if a > 0.

Solution: Let x = a tan u , then dx = a sec 2 udu . Therefore,

1 a sec 2 u 1 1 1 −1 x
∫ x2 + a2 dx = ∫ a 2 sec 2 u du = a ∫ 1du = a u + C = a tan a +C
where C is an arbitrary constant.

Integrating Rational Functions-Partial Fractions

In this section we are concerned with indefinite integrals of the form
P ( x)
∫ Q( x) dx,
where P ( x) and Q ( x) are polynomials. The main technique for solving this type of
problems is using the partial fraction decomposition (see Section 1.0.5) with the help
of the formula
f '( x)
∫ f ( x)
dx = ln f ( x) + C ,

where f ( x) is a differentiable function and C is an arbitrary constant.

x3 + 3x 2
Example: Find ∫ x2 + 1
dx.

x3 + 3x 2 x+3
Solution By long devision, we see that = x +3− 2 . Hence
x +1
2
x +1

49
 Calculus of One Variable

x3 + 3x 2 x+3
∫ x +1
2
dx = ∫ x + 3 − 2
x +1
dx

x 3
= ∫ x + 3 dx − ∫ 2 dx − ∫ 2 dx
x +1 x +1
1 2x 1
= ∫ x + 3 dx − ∫ 2 dx − 3∫ 2 dx
2 x +1 x +1
x2 1
= + 3 x − ln( x 2 + 1) − 3 tan −1 x + C ,
2 2
where C is an arbitrary constant.

An Application: Work Done by Variable Force

When a force is applied to an object and it causes a displacement to the object , then
we say that some work has been done by the force.If the force F is constant and the
object moves in a straigh line in the direction of F with displacement d, then we
define the work done to be W = Fd. If F is measured in Newton and the displacement
is in meter, then the work done is Fd J, where J represents Joule, that is
1 J = 1 Newton.Meter.
If the force is a variable force and it causes an object to move in a straight line in the
direction of F with displacement d, what would be the work done?
Suppose that the force F is a continuous force acting along the x-axis and its
magnitude is F(x) at x, where F(x) is a continuous function,and it causes an object to
make a displacement from x=a to x=b, we will define the work done by the force.
We first partition the interval [a,b] into n subintervals by the points
x0 = a,.x1 ,..., x n −1, x n = b

We then choose an arbitary point t i ∈ [ xi −1 , xi ] .Then the force at t i is F (t i ) .If n is

large and ∆ xi = xi − xi −1 , then the work done by the force in moving the object

from xi −1 to xi is approximately

Wi = F (t i ) ∆ x i .

Hence the total weork done is approximately

n n
W = ∑ Wi = ∑ F (t i ) ∆ x i .
i =1 i =1

Now let n → ∞ and ∆ xi = xi − xi −1 → 0 , as n → ∞ for all i, then we define the work

done by the force in moving the object from x=a to x=b to be

50
 Calculus of One Variable

 n  b
W = lim  ∑ F (t i )∆xi  = ∫ a F ( x)dx
n → ∞  i −1 

The integral exists, since F (x) is continous on [a,b].

Example 4.7.5. A force of 55 N is required to hold a spring that has been stretched
from its natural length of 10 cm to a lengh of 20 cm. How much work work is done in
stretching the spring 16 cm from its natural length to 22 cm?

Solution: According to Hooke’s law, the force required to hold the spring stretched x
meter beyong its natural lengh is
F(x)=kx,
where k is the spring constant. (here F is measured in Newton).
When the spring is stretched 10 cm from its natural lenght to 20 cm, the amount
stretched is 10 cm = 0.1 m. Thus,

F (0.1) = 55
and so 55 = 0.1 k ,
So,
k = 550 .
Hence,
F ( x) = 550 x
Therefore, the work done is

0.22 550 2 0.22

W =∫ 550 xdx = x = 6.27 J.
0.16 2 0.16

51