Biol 328 Fall 2018 Lab Manual Part 2 (Labs 10-14)

Lab 10.
Celom and digestive system
LABORATORY 10
CELOM AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
During embryonic development a space, the celom, develops within the embryonic mesoderm. This space
eventually becomes the anterior body cavity. The celom becomes subdivided into thoracic and
abdominopelvic parts by the growth of a large transversely oriented muscle, the diaphragm. Most of the soft
organs eventually become closely associated with this cavity. This cavity provides a working space, an
optimum working environment and a suspensory system for the organs. The celom is distinctive in that its
surfaces are completely lined by an epithelial membrane, the serosa. As the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities become distinct, the terminology used to address the resulting cavities and serosa changes. The
abdominal region becomes known as the peritoneal cavity and its serosa becomes known as the peritoneum.
In the thorax, four subcavities develop: Right and left pleural cavities, pericardial cavity, and the mediastinum.
The digestive system develops from a hollow tube derived from the embryonic endoderm. Mesodermal
components become associated with this tube as it develops. This results in an elongate hollow tube normally
consisting of a central lumen, surrounded by four distinct tunics: Tunica mucosa, tunica submucosa, tunica,
muscularis, and tunica serosa. Most of the digestive tube eventually resides within the celomic cavity, and is
suspended by double walled serosal membranes called mesenteries. Since the digestive tube develops to a
length of about 30 feet, and the celom in only about two feet long, the digestive tube undergoes a
characteristic, and orderly system of coiling within the abdominal cavity. Parts of the digestive tube develop
specialized functions, and their morphology reflects these specializations. For example, even though they
develop from a similar plan, the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine appear as distinctively different
organs. During embryonic development, buds of tissue along the walls of the developing digestive tube
proliferate and grow away from the tube of their origin. These develop into accessory glands of digestion
(e.g., salivary glands, liver, and pancreas), and remain connected to their point of origin along the alimentary
canal by their ducts. The liver and pancreas take on additional functions that will eventually give them an
enormous importance in the functioning of the body. The structural basis that supports these functions
should, therefore, be studied. In this laboratory, you will study the structure and form of the celomic cavities,
by dissecting the cat and cadaver. The alimentary canal, and the component organs, will then be studied using
the cat, cadaver, specimens, models, and illustrations.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Point out the various regions , and structures of the GI tract, mouth to anus.
❑ How is the tube within a tube body plan demonstrated by the GI tract?
❑ Explain how internal organs are arranged and supported within the body cavities.
❑ Recognize the organs of the digestive system, their anatomical relationships and functions.
❑ Indicate how the anatomical structure of the digestive system supports its unique functions.
❑ Identify the peritoneal folds and how these define the celomic cavity.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this laboratory you will study an embalmed cat, a human cadaver, models of the digestive system, prepared
microscope slides of esophagus and duodenum, preserved specimens, illustrations and micrographs. Students
need to bring examination gloves, scalpel, sharp blade, and forceps.
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Lab 10. Celom and digestive system
Methods: Using the embalmed cat, locate the thoracic and abdominal cavities after pro-section. Locate the
structures indicated below. Next locate the homologous structures on the cadaver and compare the difference
in structure and in anatomical relationships that exist between the cat and the human. The cadaver may show
unpredictable structural differences related to aging, prior medical care, and possibly post mortem changes.
After the body cavities and viscera are studied, the digestive system will be dissected and studied.
Dissection of the Cadaver. The abdomen should be opened for study as described above for the cat. The
thorax, however, due to its more massive bone structure, must be opened using the following procedure: First,
plan your rib incision path along the mid-lateral aspect of both sides of the thorax, along as posterior a plane
as practical. Second, remove as much surface musculature from the path of the planned incision as possible.
Third, using an autopsy saw (or bone cutters) make a shallow incision through the ribs, extending along both
sides from the diaphragm to the clavicle. The clavicle must also be cut. Fourth, using a scalpel, free the
anterior origin of the diaphragm from the rib cage (on the anterior chest plate to be removed). Fifth, gently lift
the chest plate from the underlying tissue beginning at the diaphragm and working superiorly. Use a scalpel to
gently free the chest plate from the underlying tissue and membranes until it can be completely lifted free from
the cadaver.
Greek and Latin Origin of Words
Word Definition Example

ampulla L. a flask ampulla
anus L. a ring anus
appendix L. something that hangs vermiform appendix
caecum L. blind gut cecum of large intestine
colon G. the bowel sigmoid colon
cystis G. a bladder, pouch cystic duct
duodenum L. twelve fingers breadth duodenum
falci L. a sickle falciform ligament
folia L. a leaf cerebellar folia
fundus L. bottom, foundation fundus of stomach
haustrum L. draining up water haustra of colon
hemorrhoid G. a flow of blood hemorrhoidal vein
hepato G. the liver hepatic artery
jejunum of small
jejunum L. empty intestine
mesenteric G. the middle of the intestine mesenteries
omentum L. fat skin the greater omentum
papilla L. a nipple, pimple papillary layer of dermis
peritoneum G. stretched around parietal peritoneum
plica L. a fold plicae circularis
porta L. a gate, door porta of lung
pylorus G. a gate keeper pyloric sphincter
taenia G. a band, a ribbon taenia coli
vermiform L. Like a worm vermiform appendix
viscera L. entrails viscera
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EXERCISE 1. STRUCTURES OF THE ABDOMINAL WALL

After the skin is removed, and excess fat and fascia are cleared away, examine the abdominal and thoracic
wall. Examine a cat first, then repeat your examination on the cadaver. Locate the following structures:
• Abdominal muscles: External oblique, internal oblique, transverse abdominis, and rectus abdominis
• Aponeurosis of external oblique muscle
• Linea alba
• Inguinal ligament
• Inguinal ring and canal
• Spermatic cord (in males)
• Umbilicus
• Location of ilium, pubis, ribs, sternum, costal cartilages, and clavicle -- these internal landmarks can
be locate by palpation.
EXERCISE 2. CELOMIC CAVITIES AND VISCERA

Begin your study of the body cavities by seeing them on the cat. When all structures are located, repeat your
study using the human cadaver. The following structures should be located and learned on both cat and
cadaver, except it is recommended that the cadaver's thorax not be opened until the circulatory system
laboratory exercise. The thoracic anatomy and cavities of the cat are very similar to those of humans; thus it is
not necessary to examine both species at this time.
A. Peritoneal cavity.
• Greater and lesser omentum and omental fat deposits.
• Peritoneum: Parietal and visceral layers, peritoneal cavity.
• Mesenteries (note their location and relationship with the digestive tube).
• Ligaments: Falciform, coronary, broad (female), and ovarian (female).
• Retroperitoneal organs -- e.g., kidneys, abdominal aorta, pancreas.
• Diaphragm, central tendon, and hiatus of diaphragm.
B. Thoracic cavities.
• Pleura: Parietal and visceral layers.
• Pleural cavities: Left and right.
• Mediastinal septum.
• Mediastinum (mediastinal space).
• Pericardial sac (parietal pericardium).
• Diaphragm (superior surface).
• Internal and external intercostal muscles.
• Thoracic aorta.
• Major organs contained: Lungs, heart, thymus, and thoracic aorta.
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C. Associated structures.
• Common carotid arteries, and jugular veins -- lateral to trachea.
• Vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) -- runs along with carotid and jugular vessels.
• Thyroid glands -- along lateral side of larynx.
• Thymus gland -- in mediastinal space superior to heart.
1. coronary ligament of liver

2. diaphragm
3. duodenum
4. epiploic foramen
5. greater omentum
6. lesser omentum
7. mesenteries
8. omental bursa (lesser peritoneal
cavity)
9. pancreas
10. parietal peritoneum
11. peritoneal cavity (celom)
12. recto uterine pouch
13. stomach
14. transverse colon
15. transverse mesocolon
16. urinary bladder uterus
17. visceral peritoneum
Figure 10.1. Body cavity, midsagittal view showing arrangement of viscera.

Label the indicated structures.
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1. abdominal aorta
2. aponeurosis of M. ext.
oblique
3. colon – hepatic flexure
4. colon - splenic flexure
5. inferior vena cava
6. linea alba
7. mesentery
8. muscle. erector spinae
9. muscle ext. oblique
10. muscle internal oblique
11. muscle rectus abdominis
12. muscle transverse abdominis
13. parietal peritoneum
14. peritoneal (celomic) cavity
15. small intestine ( x-sect)
16. vertebra (lumbar)
17. visceral peritoneum
Figure 10.2. Abdominal cavity diagram, transverse view. Label the indicated structures.
1. aortic arch
2. clavicle
3. descending colon
4. greater omentum
5. heart
6. jugular veins
7. larynx
8. liver & falciform
ligament
9. lungs
10. lymph node plexus
11.rectum
12. ribs
13. small intestine
14. stomach
15. superior vena cava
16. thyroid gland
18. urinary bladder
Figure 10.3. Adult body cavity with viscera contained. Identify the indicated parts.
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EXERCISE 3. ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Locate the various digestive organs and associated structures indicated on the cat, then repeat your
observations on the human cadaver. Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between the cat
and human digestive systems.
A. Structures of the mouth. Cut the angle of the jaw of the cat and open the mouth for examination.
Locate the following structures:
Oral cavity
• Vestibule
• Lips
• Labial frenulum
• Palate: Hard, soft, uvula (on human only)
• Oral rugae
• Salivary Glands
o Parotid glands and Stensen's duct
o Submandibular glands and submandibular (Wharton's) duct
o Sublingual glands and sublingual ducts
• Tongue, lingual frenulum, and opening of Wharton's duct from the submandibular gland
• Tonsils: Lingual and palatine
• Pharynx: Oral and laryngeal regions
Using a mirror and flashlight, find as many of the above oral structures as you can inside
of your own mouth.
B. Esophagus. Gently expose the esophagus from the laryngeal pharynx to the stomach. Note how it is
retroperitoneal and supported by an adventitia of areolar connective tissue. Note the location of the
esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm, and the proximity to the heart. Make a cross section of the esophagus
and observe the collapsed lumen, and the thin concentric tunics of soft tissue making up its walls.
C. Stomach. Expose the stomach for examination. Locate the following structures:
• Regions: Cardia, fundus, body and pylorus
• Greater and lesser curvatures
• Origin of the greater omentum
• Sphincters: Gastroesophageal (of esophagus) and pyloric
Dissect the stomach open and locate the gastric rugae.
What is the function of the gastric rugae?
Why does the stomach have so many mucous secreting cells?
What functions does the stomach have?
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1. body of stomach
2. cardia
3. duodenal papilla
4. duodenum
5. fundus of stomach
6. gastric rugae of stomach
7. greater curvature of stomach
8. hepatopancreatic duct
9. lesser curvature of stomach
10. lower esophageal (cardiac)
sphincter
11. pylorus of stomach
12. pyloric sphincter
Figure 10.4. Stomach, coronal section showing internal view. Label the indicated
structures.
D. Small intestine. Locate the origin of the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter and its termination at
the cecum of the large intestine. Find each of the following:
• Regions: Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum (characterized histologically)
• Plicae circularis -- annular folds of mucosa
• Intestinal mesenteries
• Superior mesenteric arteries and veins in mesenteries
• Hepatic portal vein running through mesenteries to liver
• Pancreas and liver association, duodenal papilla of duodenum
• Ileocecal valve (at distal end of ileum)
Examine a microscope slide showing the cross section of a portion of the small intestine. Locate
the lumen, four tunics, and a villus. Make a sketch that explains the cross sectional structure of the small
intestine, and label the parts for your laboratory report.
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E. Large intestine. Locate the large intestine starting with the cecum and running to the rectum. Note its
greatly dilated nature, relatively thin walls, and short length. In the cadaver, observe that the ascending
and descending colon are bound to the posterior body wall. The large intestine largely functions in
reabsorbing water, bacterial fermentation and forming and storing fecal masses.
Locate the following:

• Cecum.
• Vermiform appendix.
• Colon: Ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid.
• Hepatic (= right colic) flexure, splenic (= left colic) flexure.
• Mesocolon (suspends transverse colon).
• Taenia coli -- bands of longitudinal muscle.
• Haustra (= sacculations).
• Epiploic appendages -- tags of fat on large intestine surface.
• Rectum -- passes through true pelvic cavity.
1. ascending colon
2. cecum of colon
3. haustra
4. ileocecal valve
5. ileum
6. taenia coli
7. vermiform appendix
Figure 10.5. Ascending colon and ileum, anterior view. Note that the cecum is shown dissected open to
show the location of the ileocecal valve. Label the indicated structures.
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1. accessory pancreatic duct

(of Santorini)
2. ascending colon
3. common bile duct
4. common hepatic duct
5. cystic duct
6. duodenal papilla
7. duodenum
8. gall bladder
9. hepatopancreatic duct
10. left hepatic duct
11. pancreatic duct
12. pancreas – body
13. pancreas – tail
14. pancreas - head
15. right hepatic duct
16. right lobe of liver
Figure 10.6. Pancreas, liver, gall bladder, small and large intestines.
Note that duodenum is dissected open revealing the duodenal papilla.
Label indicated structures.
F. LIVER. Observe the large size, location below the diaphragm, and lobed nature of the liver. Expose
the vessels located in the porta by dissection, and identify the hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery and bile
duct. Excise a piece of a liver lobe and inspect it for texture and signs of cirrhosis. The gall bladder
should be inspected for stones.
Locate the following.

• Lobes: Right, left, caudate, quadrate (caudate and quadrate are visible only on posterior side)
• Ligaments: Falciform, ligamentum teres, coronary
• Porta of liver (entry point for hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, and bile ducts
• Gall bladder and cystic duct.
If a liver were to become diseased or damaged, what symptoms might you expect to occur? Explain.
G. Pancreas. Locate the pancreas lying adjacent to the duodenum. Note the large fleshy body, the tail
which extends across the abdomen to the spleen and the head located in the mesentery of the duodenum.
Observe its retroperitoneal position and its soft fleshy texture. The ducts may be difficult to resolve.
Locate the following:

• Regions: Head, body and tail.
• Pancreatic duct and union with common bile duct.
• Duodenal papilla -- visible from within duodenum, about 4 inches below pyloric sphincter.
The pancreas is considered to be both an endocrine and an exocrine gland -- Explain.
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1 ascending colon
2. cecum of colon
3. descending colon
4. diaphragm
5. duodenum
6. esophageal hiatus
7. esophagus
8. falciform ligament
9. gall bladder
10. haustra
11. ileocecal valve
12. ileum
13. hepatic flexure of
colon
14. liver –left lobe
15. liver – right lobe
16. rectum
17. sigmoid colon
18. splenic flexure of
colon
19. stomach
20. taenia coli
22. vermiform appendix
Figure 10.7. General arrangement of organs of the

digestive system. Label indicated structures.
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SELF TEST -- CELOM AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Modified True False. Indicate if each of the following statements is true. Make each incorrect statement
correct by replacing the underlined words with the correct word or phrase.
1. The posterior body cavities develop from the embryonic celom.

2. The posterior body cavities lie within the vertebral column and thorax.
3. The viscera are the organs of the anterior body cavity.
4. A distinct separation between the abdominal and pelvic cavities is apparent.
5. The mediastinal septum is a single membrane.
6. The heart and pericardium lies within the mediastinal septum.
7. A serosa is characterized by the presence of an epithelial membrane consisting of simple columnar epithelium.
8. The parietal pleura is a serosa that lines the inner walls of the thorax.
9. The visceral pleura lies on the exterior surface of the lungs.
10. The pulmonary ligament suspends the lungs from the ventral thoracic wall.
11. Serosal membranes called mesenteries suspend organs of the digestive system from the posterior body wall.
12. The common bile duct, hepatic arteries, and hepatic portal vein travel in the greater omentum to the liver.
13. The coronary ligament attaches the heart to the diaphragm.
14. The kidney and ureter are retroperitoneal in location.
15. The thymus gland lies in the mediastinum superior to the heart.
16. The extensive, double sheet of serosa that covers the viscera anteriorly is called the greater omentum.
17. The thorax is separated from the abdominal cavity by the mediastinum.
18. Most of the glands of the digestive system are classified as exocrine.
19. The salivary glands have ducts that empty directly into the pharynx.
20. The sublingual gland is the largest salivary gland in humans.
21. The palate forms the roof of the mouth and separates the respiratory from digestive passageways.
22. The soft palate of the cat has a uvula extending from its free border.
23. The pharyngeal tonsils lie in the tonsilar fossae between the glossopalatine and pharyngopalatine arches.
24. The labial frenulum extends from the ventral midline of the tongue to the floor of the mouth.
25. Lingual tonsils are found on the anterior, superior side of the tongue.
26. The outer hard material making up a tooth is called cementum.
27. The temporalis and masseter muscles elevate the mandible at the temporomandibular joint, and function in chewing.
28. The epithelium lining the esophagus is classified as transitional.
29. The esophagus normally has a collapsed lumen when food is not passing through it.
30. The inferior valve of the esophagus is the pyloric valve.
31. The epithelium lining the small intestine is classified as stratified squamous.
32. A third, oblique layer, of involuntary muscle is found in the wall of the colon.
33. The most superior part of the stomach is the fundus.
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34. The part of the esophagus found in the neck and thorax lacks a tunica serosa.
35. The jejunum receives ducts from the liver and pancreas.
36. Villi are anatomical structures that facilitate nutrient absorption and increase the surface area of the small intestine.
37. The duodenum is distinguished from the other regions of the small intestine by the presence of Peyer’s patches.
38. The pyloric sphincter is found between the ileum and ascending colon.
39. Rugae are folds of tissue seen along the inner walls of the small intestine.
40. The greater omentum originates, or attaches, from the fundus of the stomach
41. The cecum is a conspicuous, sack-like, part of the small intestine in humans.
42. The mesocolon is the mesentery that supports the ascending colon.
43. Taenia coli are conspicuous bands of longitudinal, smooth muscle in the wall of the colon.
44. Small tags of fat often seen attached to the external surface of the colon are called haustra.
45. The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal.
46. The vermiform appendix opens directly into the sigmoid colon.
47. The left colic flexure lies directly below the liver.
48. The descending colon is located in a retroperitoneal position.
49. The cat has a conspicuous vermiform appendix.
50. The external anal sphincter is under involuntary control.
51. The union of the cystic and common hepatic ducts forms Stensen’s duct.
52. The common bile duct passes through the lesser omentum to reach the duodenum.
53. The liver receives blood from the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein.
54. The anatomical unit of liver function is called the lobule.
55. Liver bile is mainly stored in the hepatopancreatic ampulla.
56. Sinusoids of the liver lobules are similar to capillaries in that they are lined with endothelial cells.
57. Kupffer’s cells are phagocytic cells characteristically found it the pancreas.
58. The pancreas is found in a retroperitoneal position in human abdominal cavity.
59. The part of the pancreas pointing toward the spleen is called the head.
60. The smooth external covering over the small intestine is the visceral pleura.
61. The hepatopancreatic duct empties into the jejunum at the duodenal papilla.
62. The liver is suspended from the anterior body wall by the falciform ligament.
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Name: Lab section:
LABORATORY 10 REPORT
CELOM AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Format: Group report (2-4 students per group), written, due next lab.
1. Examine a microscope slide of the cross sectional structure of the small intestine. Make a
drawing showing their cross sectionals structures and label the lumen and tunics. What is the
function of each tunic?
2. Describe the route of travel of a ham sandwich as it passes through, and is processed by, your
digestive system from mouth to anus. Identify the digestive organs and structures passed, and
explain the functional significance of each structure. Explain what happens to the sandwich in
each part of the system.
3. What is the Hepatic Portal System? Explain its importance, functions, and anatomical design.
4. Why is an extensive surface area important in the design of the digestive system? Explain the
ways in which the digestive surface area is increased in humans.
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Lab 11. Cardiovascular system
LABORATORY 11
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The cells and tissues of the body function in a fluid environment, and are cut off from the resources they
require by the very structure of the body in which they reside. Their needs are provided for by a highly
engineered system called the cardiovascular (= circulatory system). This system consists of a fluid tissue,
called blood, a closed system of vessels, and a double pump, the heart. The blood transports resources to
the various target tissues and removes wastes. Blood is a complex substance consisting of cellular
components (e.g., hemocytes), and a non-cellular component, the plasma. The heart is a thick muscular
pump that delivers blood to two main circuits: Pulmonary to the lungs, and the systemic to the remainder
of body tissues. The main exchange of substances between the blood and tissues occurs in minute, thin
walled vessels called capillaries. Arteries and arterioles carry blood to the capillaries while veins and
venules carry blood away from the capillaries. The structure of arteries and veins is similar in that they
consist of a central lumen surrounded by three tunics: Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia.
They differ mainly in that arteries tend to have smaller lumina, thicker walls, higher pressure, and overall
smaller diameters. Veins are distinctive in that they originate as capillaries, have wider lumina, thin walls,
low pressure, and are equipped with back flow valves. The understanding and proper management of the
cardiovascular system is of enormous importance for the following reasons: It is the key to physical and
mental performance, it may age prematurely, it is a source of major health problems and disabilities, and it
is a major focus of contemporary research. In this laboratory we will study the structure and mode of
operation of the heart, learn the major circulatory pathways, and learn the major arteries and veins.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Identify the organs of the cardiovascular system.

❑ Indicate all the structures of the heart, including all chambers, valves, and associated components.
❑ Learn the major circulatory paths and identify the major veins and arteries of the body and the
heart itself.
❑ Describe the unique structure and function of the hepatic portal vein.
❑ Understand the nature of a heart attack verses cardiac arrest.
METHODS
The structure and anatomical relationships of the heart will be learned by dissection of the sheep heart.
These structures should then be compared and contrasted with the human heart using excised hearts and
the cadaver. The major circulatory pathways and vessels should be learned using the latex injected cat and
the cadaver. The cat is specially prepared so those vessels containing oxygenated blood are injected with
red latex while vessels containing deoxygenated blood are injected with blue latex. The hepatic portal
system may be injected with yellow latex.
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GREEK AND LATIN ORIGIN OF WORDS

adventitia L. coming from abroad tunica adventitia
arteria G. a wind pipe an artery
atrium L. a corridor left atrium
auricula L. the ear auricle
capilla L. a hair a capillary
cardea G. the heart cardiac
cavea L. a cave, hollowed out vena cava
jugulum L. the throat jugular vein
mediastinum L. in the middle mediastinum
vena L. a vein vena cava
EXERCISE 1. LOCATION AND ORIENTATION OF THE HEART
Begin by examination of the cat, and locate each the following structures. Then examine the cadaver and
find the same structures. The anatomy will be very similar, but the cat will be easier to study. Locate the
heart on the superior surface of the diaphragm. Notice how it is enclosed in a tough serosal sac, the
pericardium. The pericardium is attached to the diaphragm inferiorly. The mediastinum runs superiorly
from the pericardium. Notice the close association of the heart to the lungs, diaphragm, esophagus and
stomach. With dissecting scissors open the pericardial sac and notice the pericardial cavity inside, and the
heart, covered by its visceral layer of pericardium, the epicardium. Note the location and amounts of fat
deposits associated with the heart. Examine the apex of the heart, and notice its somewhat oblique
orientation toward the left, and that the apex is free from attachment. Locate the veins and arteries
associated with the heart and note their superior orientation.
Locate the following structures:

• Apex
• Right ventricle
• Right atrium and associated auricle
• Interventricular sulcus with associated coronary vessels
• Fat deposits
• Pulmonary trunk
• Aorta: Ascending, aortic arch, descending
• Vena cava: Superior and inferior
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EXERCISE 2. HEART STRUCTURE
Place a sheep and a human heart on a dissecting tray for study. The sheep heart may be dissected any way
you think best, but the human hearts should not be dissected, but only examined. Most have already been
dissected. Every human heart will be different so examine several, noting individual adaptation and signs
of pathology.
A. External perspective.
• Pericardial sac (parietal pericardium) and pericardial space
• Epicardium (visceral pericardium)
• Chambers: Atria: left and right; ventricles: left and right
• Auricles: Left and right
• Apex
• Inferior and superior vena cava
• Pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arteries
• Pulmonary veins
• Aorta: Ascending, descending and arch
• Branches from aortic arch:
• Brachiocephalic artery,
• left common carotid artery
▪ left subclavian artery
(notice cat only has two arteries originating from the aortic arch)
B. Internal perspective.
• Three layers of heart wall: Endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium.
• Interventricular and interatrial septa.
• Internal structures of right atrium: Fossa ovalis, entry of vena cava, coronary sinus,
musculi pectinati, tricuspid valve.
• Internal structures of right ventricle: Chordae tendineae, papillary muscles, trabeculae carneae,
exit of pulmonary trunk, pulmonary semi lunar valves.
• Internal structures of left atrium: Entry of pulmonary veins, mitral (= bicuspid) valve.
• Internal structures of left ventricle: Conus arteriosus, aortic semi lunar valves, and origin of
right and left coronary artery, aortic sinus.
Describe the kinds of pathology evident in the human hearts available for study.
Explain how abnormal structures affect heart performance, and the anatomical basis of each.
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1. apex
2. ascending aorta
3. brachiocephalic artery
4. great cardiac vein
6. left common carotid artery
7. left ventricle
8. pulmonary trunk
9. pulmonary arteries, right and left
10. right auricle
11. right coronary artery
12. right subclavian artery
13. right ventricle
Figure 11.1. Human heart, anterior view. Label all indicated structures
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1 aortic arch
2. apex
3. brachiocephalic a.
4. coronary sinus
5. fat deposit
7. left atrium
8. left common carotid a.
9. left pulmonary a.
10. left pulmonary v.
11. left subclavian a.
12. left ventricle
13. post. interventricular a.
14. right atrium
15. right pulmonary artery
16. right pulmonary vein
17. right ventricle
great cardiac vein
right coronary art.

left post.
ventricular vein
posterior interventricular art.
middle cardiac vein
Figure 11.2. Human heart, posterior view. Label all indicated structures.
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1. aorta (ascending)
2. aorta (descending)
3. aortic arch
4. aortic semilunar valve
6. chordae tendineae
7. coronary sinus (opening)
8. epicardium (visceral pericardium
9. fossa ovalis
11. interventricular septum
12. left atrioventricular valve (bicuspid)
13. left atrium
14. left auricle
17. left pulmonary v.
19. left ventricle
20. ligamentum arteriosum
21. myocardium
22. papillary muscle
23. pulmonary semilunar valves
24. pulmonary trunk
25. right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid)
26. right atrium
27. right auricle
28. right pulmonary a.
29. right pulmonary v.
30. right subclavian a.
31. right ventricle
33. trabeculae carneae
Figure 11.3. Human heart, internal view. Label all indicated structures.
EXERCISE 3. MAJOR CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS TO LEARN
Examine a cat with the latex injected circulatory system. Major vessels that contain oxygenated blood are
injected with red latex. Vessels containing deoxygenated blood are injected with blue latex. Locate each
of the general circulatory circuits indicated below. Learn the function and importance of each.
• Pulmonary circuit
• Systemic circuit -- in general
o Coronary circuit -- servicing heart
o Renal circuit -- servicing the kidneys
o Carotid - jugular circuit -- servicing the head and brain
o Hepatic portal system -- directing blood from the digestive tract, pancreas and spleen
directly to liver.
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EXERCISE 4. MAJOR ARTERIES AND VEINS TO LEARN

Examine the cat with the latex injected circulatory system and locate each of the major arteries and veins
indicated below. Then locate these vessels on the cadaver. Note that arteries and veins often run together,
and are normally bound together by connective tissue. To visualize this anatomical association, make a
cross section through the common carotid and jugular vessels in the neck. Locate the thick walled aorta
and the thin walled jugular and note their close anatomical association.
Table 11.1. Major arteries and veins to learn on the cat and cadaver.
____________________________________________________________
Arteries Veins
____________________________________________________________
Aorta: Arch, thoracic, abdominal Vena cava: Superior and inferior
Carotid: Internal, external & common Jugular: Internal and external
Right Brachiocephalic
Subclavian: left and right Subclavian
Superior mesenteric Hepatic portal
Hepatic and splenic
Renal Renal
Genital: Spermatic or ovarian Genital: Spermatic or ovarian
Iliac: Common, internal, external Iliac: Common, external and internal
Femoral Femoral
_______________________________________________________________
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1. anterior tibial
2. aortic arch
3. ascending aorta
4. axillary a.
5. brachial a.
7. basilar a.
8. carotid body
9. celiac a.
10. circle of Willis
11. deep palmer
12. external iliac a.
13. external carotid
14. femoral a.
15. genital a.
16. hepatic a.
17. inferior mesenteric
18. inferior phrenic
19. internal iliac a.
21. left gastric a.
22. left internal carotid a
25. left ventricle of heart
26. middle sacral
27. posterior tibial
28. pulminay trunk
29. radial a.
30. renal a.
31. right common carotid
32. right common iliac a.
33. right internal carotid.
34. right pulmonary a.
35. right subclavian a.
36. splenic a.
37. superficial palmar
38. superior mesenteric a.
39. ulnar a.
40. vertebral a.
Figure 11.4. Arterial system. Label the indicated arteries.
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1. axillary v.
2. brachial v.
3. basilic v.
4. cephalic v.
5. common iliac v.
6. external iliac v.
7. external jugular v.
8. femoral v.
9. great saphenous v.
10. hepatic v.
12. internal iliac v.
13. internal jugular v.
14. left genital v.
15. left pulmonary vein
16. left renal vein
17. left subclavian v.
18. middle sacral v.
19. radial v.
20. right axillary
21. right brachiocephalic
22. left genital v. (spermatic/ovarian)
23. right pulmonary v.
24. right renal v.
25. right subclavian v.
27. ulnar v.
Figure 11.5. Venous system. Label indicated veins.
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1. hepatic portal v.
2. inferior mesenteric v.
3. left gastric
4. right colic v.
5. right gastric
6. splenic v.
7. sup. left colic v.
8. sup. mesenteric v.
9. superior rectal v.
Figure 11.6. Hepatic portal system. Label all indicated parts.
EXERCISE 5. STRUCTURE OF VEINS AND ARTERIES

Examine a microscope slide with a cross section of an artery and vein. Locate the lumen, tunica intima,
tunica media and tunica adventitia on both vessels. Make a drawing showing their relative structure and
label the parts. Make a summary of the major similarities and differences between artery and vein
structure.
Describe the lining of a major artery such as the aorta or pulmonary trunk. How is this adaptive?
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SELF TEST -- CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
A. Modified True False. Indicate if each statement is true, or correct the statement by replacing the
underlined word with one that will make the statement correct,
1. Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood.

2. Capillaries are the smallest of blood vessels and have inside walls composed mainly of endothelial cells.
3. Another name for epicardium is parietal pericardium.
4. The pericardial cavity is a potential space between the visceral and parietal layers of pericardia.
5. All of the blood in the chambers of the right side of the heart is oxygenated.
6. The arteries of the coronary circuit originate from the base of the ascending aorta.
7. The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart and is composed of smooth muscle tissue.
8. The three main vessels entering the right atrium of the heart are the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and
the coronary artery.
9. Pulmonary veins enter the right ventricle on the posterior side of the heart.
10. The bicuspid (mitral valve) closes the passageway between the left atrium and left ventricle.
11. During systole, the cuspid valves do not evert into the atria because of the action of the trabeculae carnae.
12. The atrioventricular valves are examples of semilunar valves.
13. In humans, the coronary arteries originate from the base of the ascending aorta just superior to the mitral valves.
14. The fossa ovalis, in adults, is a thin place in the interatrial wall that is the remnant of an interatrial blood
passageway before birth.
15. In arteries, the tunica externa is composed primarily of elastic connective tissue fibers and smooth muscle.
16. The great arteries that originate directly from the aortic arch (in humans) are the brachiocephalic, right common
carotid, and left subclavian.
17. The great arteries that originate directly from the aortic arch in cats are the brachiocephalic, left common
carotid and left subclavian
18. The two large arteries that supply the brain with fresh blood are the internal carotid and jugular.
19. The axillary artery is a continuation of the subclavian artery outside of the thoracic cavity.
20. The carotid body, has sensory receptors that detect changes in carbon dioxide levels within the blood, and is
located at the junctions of the external and internal jugular veins.
21. The muscles of the face are serviced by the internal carotid artery.
22. The descending aorta consists of thoracic and abdominal parts.
23. Three large, single, median, visceral arteries originating from the abdominal aorta are the celiac, superior, and
inferior mesenteric.
24. The ligamentum arteriosum, in adults, connects (binds) the pulmonary artery to the aortic arch.
25. The renal, adrenolumbar, and genital arteries are all paired.
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26. The external iliac arteries continue through the inguinal ligament, into the thigh, where they become called the
brachial arteries.
27. Veins generally have thinner walls, and smaller diameters, compared to their adjacent arteries.
28. The large vessel receiving blood from the small intestine, large intestine, spleen and stomach is called the
superior mesenteric vein.
29. A blood vessel that begins as capillaries and ends as capillaries is called an artery.
30. The external jugular vein of humans receives blood directly from the brain.
31. The cisterna chyli is a conspicuous lymphatic vessel seen in the thoracic cavity.
32. The liver removes worn out red blood corpuscles, stores blood, has lymphoid functions, and empties into the
hepatic portal system.
33. The descending aorta passes through the anterior region of the diaphragm.
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Name: Lab section:
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Format: Group report (2-4 students per group); written; due next lab.
1. Trace the pathway of the flow of blood starting in the inferior vena cava going to the rectus femoris
muscle and returning to the heart. Identify all the anatomical structures passed through.
2. Explain the structure, location and specific function of each heart valve. Explain how they work.
3. Explain how the heart pumps blood in an efficient and orderly fashion (not the pathway, but how).
What is systole and diastole? How is arterial blood pressure maintained while the heart is relaxed?
4. Examine a microscope slide with a cross section of an artery and vein. Make a drawing of both
an artery and a vein and label the parts as seen in cross section. Explain how arteries and veins are
alike, and how they differ.
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Lab 12. Respiratory system
LABORATORY 12
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The human body is dependent on energy to fuel its many physiological functions. We are capable of a high
degree of performance because of our remarkable energy supply mechanisms that require oxygen as a final
electron acceptor in the physiological processes that supply our energy needs. In our body, oxygen is,
therefore, required continuously and in large amounts at all times. A few minutes of oxygen deprivation can
result in unconsciousness, tissue damage, or even death. The respiratory system is designed to provide,
continually, and automatically, a continuous supply or oxygen for uptake by the hemoglobin of our red blood
corpuscles. The respiratory system can be classified into a conductive subsystem that transports free air into
and through the system, and the absorptive subdivision that is responsible for the final exchange and uptake of
respiratory gases. The absorptive surfaces are vast and packaged into thin walled sacs called alveoli. From the
alveoli, respiratory gases are transported across the alveolar capillary membranes dissolved in water. Once
they cross these membranes the blood transports them to the target tissues where they are needed. Athletes
have long known that a key to their success in competition depends on how well they are able to manage the
functioning of their respiratory system, and, therefore, they make a lot of effort to condition this system. On
the other hand, we now realize that unfortunate changes in the anatomy of this system can accelerate the aging
process, and effect our ability to carry out even the simplest of physical and mental tasks. In this laboratory
you will study the location, orientation, and organs of the respiratory system by dissecting cats and human
cadavers. The structure of the respiratory organs will be studied by dissection and by examination of models
and micrographs.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Describe the structure, functions, and anatomical design of the two zones of the respiratory system=
conducting and respiratory.
❑ Distinguish the differences of he pulmonary and bronchial circulation and how these are related to the
body in general and the lungs specifically.
❑ Identify the organs that make up the respiratory system and their specialized structures.
❑ Describe how the respiratory system relates anatomically and functionally to other systems.
❑ Point out the structure, importance, and function of the alveolar-capillary membrane.
❑ Review the mechanisms of and muscles that facilitate the breathing process.
❑ Illustrate how sound is made with the vocal cords. Point out how the cartilages anchor the vocal
muscles.
METHODS
Begin by looking at the embalmed cat. The cat's jaw should be opened by means of bone cutters to expose
the palate, and nasopharynx. Locate the structures indicated below on the cat and locate the homologous
structures on the cadaver. Study the models of the larynx and other respiratory organs available.
Use a morrow to see your own palate and nasopharynx. Use the stethoscope to listen to your lab partners
lungs.
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GREEK AND LATIN ORIGIN OF WORDS

alveolus L. a small hollow alveolus of lung
bronchus G. wind pipe primary bronchus
hilum L. trifle, a little thing hilus
hyoid G. shaped like the letter upsilon, Y hyoid bone
pneuma G. wind, air pneumothorax
pulmo L. a lung pulmonary artery
thyreos G. a sheild thyroid gland
trachea G. rough trachea
respir L. to breath respiration
EXERCISE 1. GENERAL ORIENTATION OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
Remove the anterior region of the rib cage and inspect the thoracic cavity, locating the
following:
• Thoracic cavities: Pleural, pericardial, and mediastinal
• Diaphragm
• Pleura: Visceral and parietal layers
• Heart -- note encroachment on the left side of the thorax
• Thymus gland -- in mediastinum, superior to heart
• Arteries: Pulmonary trunk, pulmonary artery, aorta, and common carotid
• Veins: Vena cava, pulmonary, jugular
• Position of right and left lungs
• Trachea
• Primary bronchi and lungs
• Larynx
• Thyroid and parathyroid glands
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1. epicardium
2. lung space
3. passageway for
bronchi
4. pericardium, parietal
5. parietal pleura
6. pleural cavity
7. ribs
8. sternum
9. visceral pleura
Figure 12.1. Thorax cross section showing spaces and cavities. Label indicated
structures.
EXERCISE 2. ORGANS AND STRUCTURES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
Locate the indicated structures on the cat, then find them on the human cadaver.
A. Nose, nasal cavity and pharynx. The following structures will be easiest to locate on the
cat. Cadavers may also be used if time permits.
• External nares and vestibule
• Nasal septum
• Anterior nasal aperture of skull
• Choanae (= internal nares)
• Palate: hard, soft, and uvula
• Pharyngeal tonsil (= adenoids)
• Nasopharynx
• Opening of the Eustachian (= auditory) tubes
• Laryngeal pharynx
B. Larynx. (Note association with tongue and hyoid bone). Using forceps and probes expose the
larynx of the cadaver. Locate the hyoid bone, thyrohyoid membrane, thyroid gland, interface with the
trachea and thyroid prominence. Locate the association of the larynx with the origin of the esophagus.
Using a scalpel remove the larynx by cutting it free of the tongue and oral pharynx.
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Try to retain the following structures with the larynx:

• Laryngeal pharynx
• Superior origin of the esophagus
• Hyoid bone,
• Base of tongue with lingual tonsils
• Thyroid gland.
Remove the larynx and locate the following structures externally where possible, then make
a mid-sagittal section through the posterior wall to expose the internal structures. Locate the
following:
• Glottis (passageway through larynx)
• Rima glottidis (passageway between true vocal folds)
• Epiglottis
• Thyroid cartilage
• Cricoid cartilage
• Cricothyroid ligament (attaches cricoid to thyroid cartilages)
• Cricotracheal ligament (attaches first tracheal ring to cricoid cartilage)
• Laryngeal prominence
• Thyrohyoid membrane
• Ventricular folds (= false vocal cords)
• Vocal folds (= true vocal cords)
• Associated endocrine glands: Thyroid and parathyroid (parathyroid is usually not
visible because of overgrowth by the larger thyroid)
1. cricoid cartilage
2. cricothyroid ligament
3. cricotracheal ligament
4. epiglottis
5. hyoid bone
6. laryngeal prominence
7. thyrohyoid membrane
8. thyroid cartilage
9. thyroid and parathyroid
glands
10. thyroid notch
11. tracheal cartilage
Figure 12.2. Larynx, anterior and lateral views. Locate the indicated structures.
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1. arytenoid cartilage
2. corniculate cartilage
4. epiglottis
5. fibromuscular
membrane
of trachea
6. glottis & rima
glottidis
7. hyoid bone
8. thyroid gland
9. true vocal cord
10. false vocal folds
11. ventricle
12. vestibule
Figure 12.3. Human larynx, posterior and coronal views.
C. Trachea. Examine the trachea noting its location, and its anterior relationship with the esophagus.
Locate the tracheal rings, and the carina, which gives rise to the right and left primary bronchi. Make a cross
section through the trachea and study its cross sectional structure. Try to collapse the trachea with your
fingers, and notice how the tracheal cartilage functions in keeping the lumen in an open position.
Study a microscope slide with a cross section of the trachea, and locate each of the
following parts. Make a drawing of the cross sectional structure and label the parts.
• Lumen
• Mucosa -- of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium + lamina propria
• Submucosa
• C-shaped rings -- of hyaline cartilage
• Adventitia -- areolar connective tissue sheath
D. Bronchi, and bronchial tree. On the cadaver locate the primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi
(right and left). Then using the models and micrographs, locate each of the following structures:
• Bronchioles: Terminal and respiratory
• Alveoli -- and alveolar sacs (microscopic)
• Alveolar-capillary membrane (microscopic)
What is surfactant? Where does it come from? How is it adaptive?
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2. carina
3. hyoid bone
4. left primary bronchus
5. right primary bronchus
6. right secondary bronchus
7. right tertiary bronchus
8. thyroid cartilage
9. thyrohyoid membrane
10. tracheal cartilage
Figure 12.4. Bronchial tree. Label indicated structures.
1. alveoli
2. alveolar duct
3. alveolar sac
4. respiratory bronchiole
5. terminal bronchiole
Figure 12.5. Alveolar sacs. Label indicated structures.
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E. Gross structure of lungs. Examine the gross morphology of the lungs of the cadaver. Locate the
following structures.
Lungs in general:
• Apex
• Surfaces: Costal, mediastinal, anterior, and posterior
• Base of lung (= diaphragmatic surface)
• Hilus
• Pulmonary ligament
• Pulmonary arteries and veins
• Visceral pleura
Lungs: Left Right

Oblique fissure Oblique and horizontal fissures
Superior and inferior lobes Superior, middle and inferior lobes
Cardiac notch
What are five important ways the respiratory system may fail a person? Explain.
Why is lung cancer considered serious?
What is emphysema? How does it impair breathing?
What are lung adhesions? Why are they of concern?
What are the structural differences between the larynx, trachea, primary bronchi and bronchioles?
Explain the importance of each of the following to the functioning of the respiratory system?
a. hemoglobin
b. macrophages
c. pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
d. surfactant
e. squamous epithelium
f. alveolar-capillary membrane
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1. apex of lung
2. base of lung
3. cardiac notch
4. central tendon of
diaphragm
5. costal surface of lung
6. diaphragm
7. hilus or porta of lung
8. horizontal fissure
9. left superior lobe
10. left inferior lobe
11. mediastinal surface
12. oblique fissures
13. right superior lobe
14. right middle lobe
15. right inferior lobe
Figure 12.6. Lung structure and orientation
SELF-TEST -- RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Modified True False. Indicate if each statement is true, or correct the statement by replacing the underlined
word with one that will make the statement correct.
1. The palatine and maxilla bones support the floor of the nasal aperture.
2. The palate divides the nasal aperture into right and left nasal passageways.
3. The Eustachian tubes open into the laryngeal pharynx.
4. The adenoids are lymphoid masses located in the laryngeal pharynx.
5. The open passageway that air travels through, moving from the laryngeal pharynx into the larynx,
is the esophagus.
6. The superior end of the laryngeal pharynx connects with the esophagus.
7. The larynx is primarily supported by and composed of bone tissue.
8. The ventricular folds lie directly inferior to the true vocal folds.
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9. The trachea attaches superiorly to the thyroid cartilage.
10. The trachea is held in place in the thorax by cartilage tissue.
11. The esophagus is found immediately anterior to the trachea.
12. The epiglottis is a laryngeal cartilage that helps keep food and drink out of the larynx and trachea.
13. The thyroid prominence is found on the epiglottis cartilage.
14. The surface of the lung that presses against the ribs is called the mediastinal surface.
15. The large fleshy glandular masses on both sides of the larynx are salivary glands.
16. The human tracheal cartilages are formed from open, “C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage.
17. The trachea branches directly into the right and left bronchioles.
18. The pulmonary ligament in humans anchors the lungs laterally.
19. A large glandular mass, called the parathyroid gland, occurs in the mediastinum superior to the heart.
20. The hyoid bone is part of the larynx.
21. The main absorptive structures of the respiratory system are called bronchioles.
22. The thoracic cavity is divided into right and left halves by the mediastinum.
23. The apex of the lung lies directly upon the superior side of the diaphragm.
24. The pulmonary artery and veins and the primary bronchi enter each lung at it’s apex.
25. The left lung has a horizontal fissure and middle lobe.
26. The cardiac notch occurs in the trachea.
27. The alveolus is lined internally with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
28. The lungs are suspended from the thoracic wall by mesenteries.
29. The peritoneum lines the thoracic cavity.
30. The tendon of the diaphragm is located centrally.
31. Generally most of the air inspired into the lungs is the result of the action of the intercostal muscles.
32. The trachea is lined internally by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
33. The tertiary bronchi are also called segmental bronchi
34. The nasolacrimal duct empties into the nasal cavity.
35. The laryngeal prominence is a more or less conspicuous landmark of the thyroid cartilage.
36. The larynx is suspended from the hyoid bone by the thyrohyoid membrane.
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Name: Lab section:
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Format: Group report (2-4 students per group); written; due next laboratory.
1. Explain the path of air flow (oxygen) during a normal respiratory cycle, from outside the body, to
the lung alveoli. Explain respiratory structures encountered along the way, the functions of
these structures and changes that occur in the air as it travels through this system.
2. Examine the cross sectional structure of the trachea by use of a microscope and a prepared slide.
Make a drawing that illustrates this tracheal structure, and label the component structures.
3. Explain how the epithelium lining the respiratory system is distinctive and adaptive. How do
abundant goblet cells and ciliated epithelium serve the breathing process? Describe changes in
the epithelial lining of the respiratory system that takes place from the trachea to the alveoli.
4. What is significant about the function of cartilage in the respiratory system? Describe changes
that take place in the cartilage as one moves from the trachea to the alveoli. What kind of
cartilage is associated with the respiratory system?
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Lab 13. Nervous system: Brain, spinal cord and nerves
LABORATORY 13
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is important because of the many controls it exerts over the other systems. Components
of the nervous system transmit nerve impulses called action potentials. They interpret nerve impulses, initiate
motor responses, store information, facilitate abstract thought processes, and support many other functions.
The nervous system is composed of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central
nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord while the peripheral nervous system is composed of
the cranial and spinal nerves. The study of neurology is more abstract than is that of most other organ systems
in that specific functions are often not clearly apparent. The nervous system is of special importance because
of current research, and the need to find ways to deal with neurological malfunctioning. In this laboratory we
will study the structure and composition of the brain and spinal cord, through the dissection sheep and human
organs, and by the study of available models and specimens.
Bony landmarks to show:

Intervertebral foramen and cranial formina especially those associated with Trigeminal ( superior and inferior orbital
fissures, rotumdum, ovale, and Vagus nerve passage - jugular foramen and lastly the carotid canal and formen
lacerum…
OBJECTIVES
Brain:
1. Identify the major parts of the brain. Describe the gross anatomy of the brain and spinal cord
including the meninges.
2. Identify and understand anatomy of the formation and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Chorid plexus
3. Outline and show the blood supply to the brain and the importance of the blood-brain barrier (BBB).
4. Identify the medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, and reticular formation.
5. Describe and identify the structure of the cerebellum.
6. Identify the components of the thalamus and hypothalamus.
7. Identify the cortex, convolutions, fissures, and sulci of the cerebrum.
8. Identify the lobes of the cerebrum and indicate their locations.
9. Identify the CN I, CN2. CN V,1,2,3 AND CN X pairs of cranial nerves by name and number. Be
able to trace from brain through skull and describe to skin
10. Distinguish between gray matter and white matter
Spinal cord:
1. Describe the flow of nervous signals that comprise the sensory and motor function of the PNS.
2. Illustrate the anatomy of the somatic reflex arc.
3. Distinguish how the central nervous system (CNS) is oriented and protected, compare with the
periphial nervous system (PNS).
4. Describe and find the location of the sympathetic ganglia along the thoraco/lumbar region.
5. Describe on the spinal cord, the cauda equina, filum terminale, conus medularis
6. identify the external anatomy and internal anatomy of the spinal cord.
7. Explain the basic structure of a nerve and how this becomes the grey and white matter.
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8. Locate the Cervical and Brachial plexus on the cadaver and the Sacral and Lumbar plexus on the
models. How do these relate to the spinal cord enlargements?
9. Compare the clinical significance of dermatomes and cutaneous fields.
10. Explain the functional components of a reflex arc.
MATERIALS
In this laboratory the following materials will be available for study: Human and sheep brains (embalmed),
human brain models, thin human brain sections (coronal, mounted in plastic), demonstration of different types
of vertebrate brains (plastic mount), microscope slides of spinal cord structure (cross section), model of
structure of spinal cord showing reflex arc, model of spinal cord inside vertebral arch, model of face showing
distribution cranial nerve V, human skull and miscellaneous nervous system specimens, cadaver and cat for
dissection.
GREEK & LATIN ORIGIN OF WORDS

arachnoid G. like a spider web arachnoid mater
arbor vitae L. the tree of life arbor vita
axon G. an axle, axis axon
cauda equina L. horse's tail cauda equina
cerebellum L. a small brain cerebellar hemispheres
cerebrum L. the brain cerebral hemispheres
chiasma G. a crossing optic chiasma
choroid G. like a membrane choroid plexus
colliculus L. a little hill superior colliculus
dendros G. a tree dendrite
dura mater L. hard mother dura mater
falx L. a sickle falx cerebri
fornix L. an arch fornix of vagina
ganglion G. a knot on a string sensory ganglion
hippocampus G. sea horse, sea monster Hippocampus
hypophysis G. an undergrowth pituitary hypophysis
infundibulum L. a funnel infundibulum of fallopian tube
meningo G. a membrane meninges
olfact L. smell olfactory nerve
pia mater L. tender, delicate mother pia mater of brain
pineal G. shaped like a pine cone pineal gland
quadrigemina L. four twins corpora quadrigemina
soma G. a body somatic
sympathetic G. with suffering sympathetic ganglion
synapsis G. a binding togther synapse of neurons
thalamus G. a chamber, an inner room thalamus of brain
vagus L. wandering vagus nerve X
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EXERCISE 1. BRAIN STRUCTURES

Working in groups of three or four, obtain one sheep brain, one whole human brain, and one sectioned human
brain. Place all three brains on a dissecting tray for examination. Examine the sheep brain, locating all the
indicated structures then locate each structure on the human brain. It will be easiest to begin your study of the
brain by looking for superficial structures, followed by a study of the internal structures. Dissect the sheep
brain however you feel most instructive, but use the human brains only for observation. You may want to
exchange your specimens for others that may better show the structures you need to see. Every dissected brain
will be different in what it demonstrates best. Finally compare the structures you find with those on the brain
model.
A. Meninges. Locate each of the three coverings of the brain, called meninges, and associated
structures indicated.
1. Dura mater
• Periosteal and meningeal layers
• Falx cerebri -- projects deep into longitudinal fissure, along midsagittal plane.
• Tentorium cerebelli -- projects transversely between cerebral and cerebellar hemispheres.
• Superior sagittal sinus -- a venous sinus that returns cerebrospinal fluid to the venous system,
runs through dura mater, along superior midsagittal plane.
2. Arachnoid mater -- note its texture and how it crosses over the sulci.
Subarachnoid space (will be collapsed in the absence of cerebrospinal fluid).
Arachnoid granulations (= arachnoid villi) -- associated with superior sagittal sinus.
3. Pia mater -- notice it’s thin delicate texture and how closely it covers the brain surface.
1. arachnoid granulation
2. arachnoid mater
3. cerebral artery
4. cerebral vein
5. dermis
6. dura mater
7. dura mater-meningeal layer
8. dura mater -periosteal layer
10. epidermis
11. falx cerebri
12. galea aponurotica
13. gray mater
14. gyrus
15. parietal bone
16. pia mater
17. longitudinal fissure
18. subarachnoid space
19. sulcus
20. superior sagittal sinus
21. white mater
Figure 13.1. Brain, dorsal coronal section showing meninges. Label indicated
structures.
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B. Brain surface structure in superior and lateral perspectives. Examine the superior surface
of the sheep and human brains, and locate the following surface structures.
• Fissures: Longitudinal, transverse, and lateral (= lateral sulcus)
• Hemispheres: Cerebral and cerebellar (right and left)
• Convolutions of hemispheres: Cerebral gyri and sulci; cerebellar folia and sulci
• Cerebral arteries and veins
• Central sulcus of cerebral hemispheres
• Precentral and postcentral gyri
• Cerebellar vermis
• Lobes of cerebral hemispheres: Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
• Pineal body (= pineal gland)
• Corpora quadrigemina: Superior (2) and inferior colliculi (2)
• Corpus callosum -- commissural fiber tracts that can be seen in the bottom of the
1. central sulcus
2. frontal lobe
3. occipital lobe
4. parietal lobe
5. postcentral gyrus
6. precentral gyrus
7. longitudinal
fissure
Figure 13.2. Human brain, dorsal surface. Label indicated structures.
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1. central sulcus (fissure of

Rolando)
2. cerebellar hemisphere
3. cerebellum
4. frontal lobe
5. lateral fissure (of Sylvius)
6. medulla oblongata
7. occipital lobe
8. parietal lobe
9. pons
10. postcentral gyrus
11. precentral gyrus
12. superior temporal gyrus
13. temporal lobe
Figure 13.3. Human brain, lateral view. Label indicated structures.
C. Brain surface structure from inferior perspective. Examine the inferior surface of the brain
and locate the following structures. Trace the bold CN nerves from brain to skin.
• Olfactory bulb and tract
• Optic nerves (II), optic chiasma, and optic tract
• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary hypophysis and infundibulum (may have been removed)
• Mammillary bodies (1 in sheep, 2 in human)
• Cerebral peduncles
• Pons
• Oculomotor nerve (III)
• Trochlear nerve (IV)
• Trigeminal nerve (V) –( 3 branches, ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular)
• Medulla oblongata
• Pyramids of the medulla and decussation of pyramids
• Abducens nerve (VI)
• Facial nerve (VII)
• Vestibulocochlear (= acoustic) nerve (VIII)
• Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
• Vagus nerve (X)
• Accessory nerve (XI)
• Hypoglossal nerve (XII)
• Vertebral, basilar and carotid arteries, and circle of Willis (may be detached)
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1. anterior median sulcus

3. cervical nerve 1
4. cervical nerve 2
5. cranial nerve I (olfactory)
6. cranial nerve II (optic)
7. cranial nerve III (oculomotor)
8. cranial nerve IV (trochlear)
9. cranial nerve V (trigeminal)
10. cranial nerve VI (abducens)
11. cranial nerve VII (facial)
12. cranial nerve VIII (vestibulocochlear)
13. cranial nerve IX (glossopharyngeal)
14. cranial nerve X (vagus)
15. cranial nerve XI (accessory)
16. cranial nerve XII (hypoglossal)
17. frontal lobe
19. mammillary body
21. olfactory bulb
22. olfactory tract
23. optic chiasma
24. optic tract
25. pituitary
26. pons
27. spinal cord
28. temporal lobe
Figure 13. 4. Human brain, inferior perspective. Label indicated structures.
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D. Brain structures from midsagittal perspective. Lay the sheep brain, superior side up, on a
dissecting tray. Using a knife, make a smooth midsagittal cut separating the brain into two equal halves.
Inspect the cut surfaces and find the structures indicated. Then locate the homologous structures on human
brain specimens, and models.
• Cerebral hemisphere: Frontal, parietal and • Corpora quadrigemina: Superior colliculi
occipital lobes (2) and inferior colliculi (2)
• Corpus callosum • Hypothalamus
• Fornix • Cerebellar vermis and arbor vita
• Anterior commissure • Cerebral aqueduct
• Lateral ventricles • Fourth ventricle
• Septum pellucidum • Foramen of Luschka (2), and foramen of
• Choroid plexus (found in all ventricles) Magendie (1) (these will be difficult to see,
• Thalamus but their location and function should be
learned)
• Intermediate mass of third ventricle
• Pons
• Interventricular foramen (= foramen of
• Medulla oblongata
Monroe)
• Third ventricle
• Pineal body (= pineal gland)
1. anterior commissure
3. cerebral aqueduct
4. choroid plexus
5. corpus callosum
6. foramen of Magendie
7. fornix
8. fourth ventricle
9. genu
10. hypothalamus
11. inferior colliculus
12. infundibulum
13. intermediate mass
14. interventricular foramen
15. mammillary body
17. optic chiasma
18. pineal body
19. pituitary hypophysis
20. pons
21. septum pellucidum
22. superior colliculus
23. third ventricle
24. transverse fissure
25. vermis - arbor vitae
Figure 13.5. Human brain, midsagittal section. Label indicated structures
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E. Internal brain structure as seen in coronal section. Make a coronal section through the sheep
brain extending from the area of the central sulcus of the cerebral cortex to the hypothalamus. It is instructive
to make several paracoronal sections for comparison. Several coronal sections of human brains are embedded
in plastic for your study as well. Locate the following structures on the sheep and human brains.
• Lateral ventricles • Basal ganglion

• Third ventricle • Insula
• Thalamus • Location and distribution of gray and
• Hypothalamus white matter of cerebral cortex
• Internal capsule
1. caudate nucleus
2. corpus callosum
3. gray matter of cortex
4. hypothalamus
5. insula
6. internal capsule
7. lateral ventricle
8. lenticular nucleus
10. optic tract
11. septum pellucidum
12. thalamus
13. third ventricle
14. white matter
Figure 13.6. Human Brain, coronal section. Label indicated structures.
EXERCISE 2. BRAIN CIRCULATION

Locate a human brain or a brain model that has the arterial system that supplies the base of the brain intact. Locate
each of the following vessels:
• Vertebral arteries
• Basilar artery
• Circle of Willis
• Internal carotid arteries
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EXERCISE 3. COMPARISON OF VERTEBRATE BRAIN STRUCTURES

Examine the different vertebrate brains available, and describe the structural similarities and differences.
In what ways are the brains similar?
In what ways do the brains most conspicuously differ?
EXERCISE 4. REMOVAL OF THE BRAIN FROM THE CRANIUM
Select either a human or cat specimen for brain removal. Prepare the cranium by removal of the scalp and any
significant muscle.
If working on a cat, make an opening in the cranium, with a handsaw, and gradually chip away the cranial
bone using bone cutters. Be careful not to damage the brain. The calvarium must be removed from the
frontal bone, just superior to the eyes, to a point just superior to the foramen magnum. Then remove cranial
bone laterally to the external auditory meatus. You should now be able to gently ease the brain out of the
cranium. With a scalpel sever the cranial nerves, carotid arteries, and tentorium so that the brain is not
damaged and so that the longest possible nerve stubs are retained with the brain.
If working on a human cadaver, use an autopsy saw and score the calvarium from the frontal bone, just above
the eyes, to just above the external acoustic meatus and posterior to the occipital bone, just superior to the
foramen magnum. This cut needs to be a continuous one, ringing the part of the calvarium to be removed. Do
not damage be brain by cutting too deeply. Using a bone chisel, deepen the scoring cut around the calvarium
until it is free. The calvarium may now be freed from the underlying anatomy. The periosteum of the dura
mater will need to be torn loose from the bone or cut with a scalpel, otherwise it will damage the brain during
removal. When the brain is removed, review its surface features, and compare it with others.
Note the following anatomical relationships:

• The tight containment of the brain in the cranial cavity.
• The tight anchoring of the brain by the dura mater, and the orientation of falx and tentorium.
• The cerebellar hemispheres are held tightly into the posterior cranial fossa by the tentorium.
• The tight anchoring of the pituitary in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone by the diaphragma sella.
• The cradling of the temporal lobes by the middle cranial fossae.
• The support of the frontal lobes by the anterior cranial fossa.
• The orientation of the vessels and nerves with the foramina.
• The association of the olfactory lobes with the cribriform plate of the ethmoid.
• The orientation of cranial nerves on the inferior aspect of the brain and their association with foramina.
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EXERCISE 5. SPINAL CORD
Using either an embalmed cat or a human cadaver, expose the spinal cord for study. The procedure to follow
is to remove all muscle tissue from the posterior side of the spinal column. Then, if working with a cat, use
bone cutters to open the vertebral arch in order to examine the cord. Now extend the spinal opening in both
directions until the entire cord and cauda equina are visible. If working on the cadaver, perform the same
preliminary preparation, but use the autopsy saw to cut through the vertebral laminae. Then remove the
laminae to expose the entire length of the cord. The roots of the spinal nerves should be apparent. Spinal
nerves are paired, and are numbered from superior to inferior by spinal region. Locate and examine each of
the following structures.
A. Spinal cord structure in posterior, longitudinal perspective. Identify each of the

following structures on the specimens available.
• Meninges: Dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater

• Enlargements of the spinal cord: Cervical and lumbar enlargements
• Conus medullaris, the non-nervous inferior termination of the cord
• Filum terminale
• Cauda equina
• Posterior and anterior roots of spinal nerves
• Posterior root (sensory) ganglia
• Spinal nerves (leave the spinal cord through the intervertebral foramina.)
B. Cross sectional structure of spinal cord. Examine the cross sectional structure of the spinal
cord using microscope slides and anatomical models. Locate each of the following structures.
• Posterior median sulcus

• Anterior median fissure
• Central canal
• Grey matter
• White matter
• Grey horns: Posterior, lateral, anterior
• White columns (= funiculi): Posterior, lateral, and anterior
• Commissures:
o Anterior and posterior gray commissures
o Anterior and posterior white commissures
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1. anterior nerve root

2. anterior gray commissure
3. anterior gray horn
4. anterior median fissure
5. anterior white column
6. central canal
7. posterior ramus of nerve
8. communicating rami
9. lateral gray horn
10. lateral white column
11. posterior gray commissure
12. posterior gray horn
13. posterior median sulcus
14. posterior nerve root
15. posterior white column
16. sympathetic chain ganglion
17. sympathetic trunk
Figure 13. 7. Spinal cord, x-section. Label indicated structures.
1. arachnoid mater
2. arachnoid trabeculae
3. body of vertebra
4. communicating rami
5. denticulate ligament
6. dorsal ramus
7. dura mater
8. epidural space
9. lamina of vertebra
10. pia mater
11. posterior root
12. posterior root ganglion
13. spinal nerve
14. ventral ramus
15. ventral root
16. subarachnoid space
Figure 13.8. Spinal cord in vertebral canal, x-sect. Label indicated structures.
C. Spinal somatic reflex arc (3 neuronal). Examine a model of the spinal cord showing the reflex
arc and locate the following components:
• Posterior and anterior nerve roots
• Posterior (sensory ganglion)
• Neuronal components: Sensory neuron -> association neuron -> motor neuron
• Important synapse locations between sensory, association and motor neurons
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SELF-TEST -- NERVOUS SYSTEM

word with one that will make the statement correct.
1. Motor neurons are also called afferent neurons.
2. The cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are found in the lateral gray horns of the spinal cord.
3. Nerves are bundles of neuronal processes.
4. Neuroglia transmit information in the form of action potentials, and secrete neurotransmitter substances.
5. The oligodendrocytes form myelin associated with the neurons of the peripheral nervous system.
6. The neurolemma is discontinuous at the nodes of Ranvier.
7. Whole nerves are surrounded and supported by perineurium.
8. In nerves, axons are surrounded and supported by epineurium.
9. An individual neuron may be several feet long.
10. A nerve may contain both mylenated and unmylenated neuronal processes.
11. Ganglia are clusters of neuronal cell bodies outside of the central nervous system..
12. The nervous system may be functionally subdivided into somatic and autonomic systems.
13. The nervous system may be anatomically subdivided into the autonomic and peripheral nervous systems.
14. The brain lies within the cranium and the spinal cord lies within the intervertebral foramen
15. The brain typically doubles in size during the first year following birth.
16. The number of neurons increases gradually, after birth, as we mature.
17. The three main parts of the brain include the cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem.
18. The middle one of the three coverings over the brain and cord is called the pia mater.
19. The distinctive raised regions on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres are called gyri.
20. The lateral sulcus separates the precentral and postcentral gyri from each other.
21. The temporal lobe of the cerebrum is found in the anterior cranial fossa.
22. The two cerebellar hemispheres are separated by the vermis.
23. The region of the brain stem immediately posterior to the optic chiasma is the hypothalamus.
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24. The pineal body is composed of the superior and inferior colliculi.
25. Mammillary bodies may be found on the brain stem posterior to the infundibulum.
26. The arterial system encircling the infundibulum is called the carotid canal.
27. The brain is supplied with fresh blood by four arteries, the right and left internal carotids, and the right and left
internal jugulars.
28. The thalamus forms the floor of the lateral ventricles.
29. Cerebrospinal fluid exits the ventricular system of the brain from the fourth ventricle.
30. The pons is the part of the brain stem that exits the cranium through the foramen magnum.
31. The insula is the only lobe of the cerebrum that cannot readily be seen, from the surface of an intact brain.
32. The gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres is located on the outer surface of the cortex.
33. The cerebellar hemispheres are held tightly in the posterior cranial fossa by the falx cerebri.
34. The temporal lobes of cerebrum lie in the middle cranial fossa.
35. The brain fits loosely within the cranium in adults.
36. The lateral ventricles are separated from each other medially by the septum pellucidum.
37. The pituitary is suspended from the inferior surface of the thalamus.
38. The cerebral hemispheres are divided into right and left halves by the transverse fissure.
39. The strip of white matter that connects the right and left hemispheres of the cerebrum together is the
corpus callosum.
40. The tough fold of dura mater that extends deeply into the longitudinal fissure of the cerebrum is the tentorium.
41. There are 14 pairs of cranial nerves.
42. The cranial nerves attach to the superior surface of the brain.
43. The cranial nerves, except for number VIII, supply or serve only the head and neck regions.
44. The mammillary bodies lie just superior to the corpora quadrigemina, on the roof of the diencephalon.
45. The corpora quadrigemina and pineal body can be most easily viewed on an intact brain by looking into the
transverse fissure.
46. Cranial nerve XII innervates the heart.
47. The hypothalamus forms the inferior, lateral walls of the third ventricle.
48. The lateral ventricles lie between the cerebral aqueduct and the foramen of Monroe.
49. Lymph flows through the ventricles of the brain.
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50. The arbor vitae can be seen in a midsagittal section through the vermis.
51. Cerebrospinal fluid is secreted by the choroid plexus of the lateral, third and fourth ventricles.
52. Cerebrospinal fluid is drained from the subarachnoid space by the arachnoid villi for return to the venous system.
53. The spinal cord is continuous with the brain through the foramen rotundum of the occipital bone.
54. The nervous part of the human spinal cord tapers off and ends at the level of the first sacral vertebra.
55. The filum terminale of the human spinal cord ends at the sacrum.
56. The arachnoid mater is the outermost and toughest of the meninges.
57. Sensory ganglia of spinal nerves are located in the posterior gray horn of the spinal cord.
58. The space between the arachnid mater and pia mater is called the subdural space.
59. The subarachnoid space contains tissue fluid.
60. Inspection of the intact spinal cord shows conspicuous enlarged regions called the cervical and lumbar
enlargements.
61. The cauda equina is composed of cranial nerves running within the spinal canal.
62. The hollow space seen in the center of a cross section of the spinal cord is called the ventricle.
63. In the spinal cord, the gray matter lies on the outside of the cord.
64. Anatomical areas where neuronal processes cross to the opposite side of the central nervous system are called
commissures.
65. Cell bodies of association neurons are found in the posterior gray horns of the spinal cord.
66. Autonomic motor pathways run through two motor neurons where as somatic motor pathways use only one motor
neuron.
67. The inferior, tapered end, of the spinal cord is called the cauda equina.
68. The gray matter apparent when examining a cross section of the spinal cord is composed of mylenated nerve fibers.
69. Spinal nerves are segmentally arranged and paired, and number 25 pairs.
70. The roots of the spinal nerves pass through the intervertebral foramina of the spinal column.
71. The cell bodies of motor neurons are located in the ganglia associate with the posterior roots of spinal nerves.
72. Motor neurons are bipolar.
73. The anterior and posterior roots converge laterally to form a spinal nerve.
74. Spinal nerves are numbered, by spinal region, consecutively from anterior to posterior.
75. The cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons are found in the anterior gray horns of spinal cord
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76. The cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are found in the anterior gray horns of the spinal cord.
77. Cervical nerves number one exits the spinal canal between the occipital and atlas.
78. Bundles of nerve fibers traveling through the white matter of the spinal cord are called fasciculi.
79. The knee jerk is an example of a three-neuron reflex.
80. Acetylcholine is found in the synaptic vesicles of somatic motor neurons.
81. Sympathetic motor pathways are monosynaptic.
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Self-test. Match each function with the appropriate structure. Responses may be used more than once.
_____ 1. Adapts to changing day length a. arachnoid villi
_____ 2. Anchors cerebellum to cranium b. ascending fiber tract
_____ 3. Anchors cerebrum to cranium c. astrocyte
_____ 4. Anchors pituitary in sella turcica d. cerebellum
_____ 5. Anchors spinal cord inferiorly e. central canal
_____ 6. Center for auditory reflex f. cerebral aqueduct
_____ 7. Center for controlling depth and rate of breathing g. choroid plexus
_____ 8. Center for intelligence and personality h. commissure
_____ 9. Center for controlling hunger & thirst i. corpus callosum
_____10. Center for controlling vasoconstriction j. diaphragma sella
_____11. Center for coordinating body movements k. dura mater
_____12. Center for motor response in cerebrum l. falx cerebri
_____13. Center for visual interpretation m. filum terminale
_____14. Center for visual reflex n. foramen of Monroe
_____15. Cerebrospinal fluid movement o. frontal lobe
_____16. Cerebrospinal fluid production p. hypothalamus
_____17. Connects right and left side of central nervous system q. inferior colliculi
_____18. Crossing of neurons from one nerve to another r. medulla oblongata
_____19. Empties cerebrospinal fluid into venous sinuses s. microglia
_____20. Master endocrine gland t. occipital lobe
_____21. Periosteum of cranial bone u. oligodendrocytes
_____22. Phagocytosis in central nervous system v. optic chiasma
_____23. Relay center in brain for ascending sensory stimuli w. pineal body
_____24. Secretes myelin in central nervous system x. pituitary
_____25. Secretes myelin in peripheral nervous system y. plexus
_____26. Supports neurons and capillaries in CNS z. postcentral gyrus
_____27. Transmits impulses superiorly in CNS aa. precentral gyrus
_____28. Transmission of action potential between nerves bb. Schwann cells
_____29. Visual stimuli cross from right to left side of brain cc. subarachnoid space
dd. superior colliculus
ee. synapse
ff. tentorium cerebelli
gg. thalamus
Self-test. Match the function and cranial exit with the correct cranial nerve.
_____ 1. Alveolar margin of jaws & teeth – innervations a. I olfactory

_____ 2. Balance & equilibrium -- sensory b. II optic
_____ 3. Contraction of pupil - motor c. III oculomotor
_____ 4. External ear -- sensory d. IV trochlear
_____ 5. Eye movement -- motor e. V trigeminal
_____ 6. Hearing -- sensory f. VI abducens
_____ 7. Involuntary muscle control in viscera g. VII facial
_____ 8. Movements of head and shoulder h. VIII vestibular-cochlear
_____ 9. Muscles of facial expression i. IX glossopharyngeal
_____10. Muscles of mastication j. X vagus
_____11. Parasympathetic k. XI accessory
_____12. Passes through cribriform plate l. XII hypoglossal
_____13. Passes through foramen ovale
_____14. Passes through foramen rotundum
_____15. Passes through hypoglossal canal
_____16. Passes through superior orbital fissure
_____17. Passes through internal acoustic meatus
_____18. Passes through jugular foramen
_____19. Passes through optic foramen
_____20. Passes through stylomastoid foramen
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Name: Lab section:
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Format: Group report (2-4 students per group); written; due next laboratory.
1. Describe the flow of cerebrospinal fluid from a point of origin in a lateral ventricle to the point of
reabsorption into the superior sagittal sinus of the dura mater..
2. What is cerebrospinal fluid? Why is it important that it have an unobstructed path of flow?
3. Describe, with the aid of a labeled drawing, the path of an action potential through a three neuronal
reflex arc, beginning with a sensory receptor in the lower leg and ending in the contraction of a
responding skeletal muscle fiber.
4. Examine the cross sectional structure of the spinal cord using a microscope and a prepared slide.
Make a drawing showing the salient anatomical parts and label the parts. Where did the central
canal come from? What is found inside of the central canal? What is significant about the
anterior, lateral and posterior gray horns? Anatomically and functionally what is the spinal cord and
how is it important?
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Lab 14. Urogenital systems
LABORATORY 14
UROGENITAL SYSTEMS
The early urinary and reproductive systems of vertebrate animals were closely related anatomically. The basic
structural pattern was to have urinary products, reproductive products and digestive wastes empty into a single
common chamber, called the cloaca, for discharge from the body. Subsequently the digestive system
separated from the urogenital system, each exiting the body separately. In higher vertebrates the urogenital
systems also have tended to separate anatomically from one another. In humans, the female urinary and
reproductive systems completely separate from each other during fetal development, resulting in anatomically
separate systems at time of birth. In males, however, the urinary and reproductive systems completely
separate except for the urethra which is shared by both systems. This is a striking sexual dimorphism. Except
for the shared urethra, the male and female urinary anatomy is the same. Study of fetal development indicates
definite homologies between the male and female reproductive organs. This suggests that there is not as much
difference between males and females as would seem apparent based on casual inspection of the adult organs.
Both reproductive systems consist of the essential organs, or gonads (e.g., testes and ovaries), and accessory
organs that facilitate the functioning of the reproductive processes. These accessory organs are mainly hollow
tubular organs consisting of a central lumen surrounded by three concentric laminae, and a variety of glands.
Some unique human adaptations include the concealed estrous cycle, that permits normal social functioning
during ovulation, and the central pear shaped uterus in contrast to the extensive horned uterus of mammals
that produce litters of multiple offspring simultaneously. In this laboratory you will learn the structure and
functioning of the urinary and reproductive systems by dissecting, and by study of models, specimens and
microscope slides.
OBJECTIVES
❑ Identify the organs of the urinary and reproductive systems.
❑ Explain the function of the urinary and reproductive organs.
❑ Outline the parts of the nephron and how it functions.
❑ Compare the unique structure and functions of the male and female reproductive systems, and
understand how each uniquely works in facilitating the reproductive processes.
❑ List the male and female reproductive structures and the path of the egg and sperm during
reproduction.
❑ Explain the location of the urinary bladder in the female and the male and contrast these differences.
❑ Learn the structural relationships and orientation of organs associated with the pelvic cavity.
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GREEK & LATIN ORIGIN OF WORDS

albuginea L. white spotted tunica albuginea
calyx G. a cup calyx of kidney
cortex L. bark, cork renal cortex
cremaster G. to hang cremaster muscle
dartos G. with the skin stripped off dartos muscle
deferens L. carrying away vas deferens
ejaculatare L. to throw out ejaculation
endometrium G. inner mother lining of uterus
epididymis G. above the testis epididymis of testis
genitalis L. parts belonging to birth genital organs
glans L. a kernal glans penis
glomerulus L. a little round ball glomerulus of nephron
medulla L. marrow, pith renal medulla
ovarium L. an egg receptacle ovaries
Penis L. a tail, penis penis
prostates G. one who stands before prostate gland
scrotum L. a bag male scrotal sac
semen L. seed semen
smegma G. soap like smegma of penis
uterus L. a bag, the womb uterus
vagina L. a sheath, scabbard vagina
vas L. a vessel vas deferens
EXERCISE 1. URINARY SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Using the cat, locate the right and left kidneys noting their retroperitoneal location, and how they are secured.
Locate the anterior and posterior renal fascia and the perirenal fat. Find the renal vein and artery and the
ureter. Trace the ureter inferiorly to its entry into the urinary bladder. You may need to remove some of the
parietal peritoneum to clearly see the urinary anatomy. Note the conspicuous size and location of the urinary
bladder within the peritoneal cavity. Now examine the cadaver and locate the same structures. Locate the
suprarenal gland (= adrenal) on both cat and cadaver. Compare your observations of urinary anatomy with the
structures as shown on the model.
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EXERCISE 2. ORGANS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

Using the sheep kidneys, cadavers, and models to study the following.
A. Kidney structures. Examine a kidney externally, and note the size, shape and texture. Locate the
following structures.
• Hilus
• Fibrous capsule
• Renal artery and vein
• Ureter
Make a coronal section through the kidney and locate the following. Compare your observations
with the structures on the model.
• Fibrous capsule
• Cortex
• Medulla
• Renal columns
• Renal pyramids
• Renal papillae
• Calyx: major and minor (= primary and secondary)
• Renal pelvis (= pelvis of ureter)
• Renal artery and vein
• Blood vessels of kidney: Interlobar arteries and veins, arcuate arteries and veins, interlobular
arteries and veins
Why do the kidneys need to be so highly vascular?
1. calyx, major (= primary)

2. calyx, minor (= secondary)
3. renal cortex
4. renal medulla
5. renal capsule (= fibrous capsule)
6. renal columns
7. renal papilla
8. renal pelvis (= pelvis of ureter)
9. renal pyramids
10. renal sinus with fat deposits
11. ureter
Figure 14.1. Human kidney, coronal section. Identify and label indicated parts.
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1. anterior renal fascia

2. aorta
3. celom
5. muscle, ext. oblique
6. muscle, int. oblique
7. muscle, transverse
abdominis
8. muscle of back
9. perirenal fat
10. peritoneum
11. posterior renal fascia
12. renal artery
13. renal pelvis
14. renal vein
15. spinal cord
16. vertebral body
Figure 14.2. Human kidney orientation in abdominal cavity. Identify and label indicated parts.
B. Ureters. Trace the ureters from the kidney to the urinary bladder observing the following:
• Retroperitoneal location
• Pelvis of ureter
• Location of entry into urinary bladder
C. Urinary bladder. Locate the position of the urinary bladder. Compare the urinary bladders of the cat
and the human. Make an incision in the superior wall of the urinary bladder and inspect its structure. Study
the nature of the internal and external sphincters of the bladder on available illustrations. The details of
urinary bladder structure can only be seen if the pelvis is opened.
How do the urinary bladders of cats differ from those of humans?
D. Urethra. Inspection of the urethra will require opening the true pelvic cavity. If this is not done, study
excised specimens, models and diagrams to learn the anatomical relationships. Identify each of the structures
listed below:
Female.
• Urogenital diaphragm
• Urethra (about 4 cm long)
• Urethral orifice and relationship with genital vestibule and vagina
Male.
• Examine the excised male urogenital system and locate the following:
• Regions: Prostatic, membranous and spongy urethra
• Urogenital diaphragm
• Urethral orifice
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What are four adaptations of the urinary system that lower the probability of urinary infections?
Explain two important ways the male and female urinary system differs anatomically.
1. abdominal aorta
2. common iliac artery
3. common iliac vein
4. external iliac artery
5. external iliac vein
7. internal iliac artery
8. kidney
9. left ovarian artery
10. left ovarian vein
11. middle sacral artery
12. renal artery
13. renal pelvis
14. renal vein
15. right ovarian artery
16. right ovarian vein
17. sigmoid colon
18. superior mesenteric artery
19. suprarenal gland
20. suprarenal vein
21. ureter
22. urinary bladder
23. uterus
Figure 14.3. Human urinary system. Identify and label indicated parts.
EXERCISE 3. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN OVERVIEW
Using the cat and human specimens available, locate each of the following organs:
• Ovaries (right and left)
• Fallopian tubes (= oviduct, = uterine tube) -- very short in cat
• Uterus -- note extensive right and left horns, and central body in cat
• Ligaments: Round and broad of uterus; suspensory ligament of ovary
• Vagina
How does the human female reproductive system differ from the more generalized mammalian one as
demonstrated by the cat?
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EXERCISE 4. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.
A. Ovarian structures. Using illustrations, micrographs and models study the structure of the human
ovary.
Locate each of the following structures:

• Germinal epithelium
• Ligaments: Ovarian and suspensory
• Primary and secondary follicles
• Vesicular (Graafian) follicles
• Tunica albuginea
• Corpus luteum
• Corpus albicans
• Stroma: Cortical and medullary regions
• Hilus with associated ovarian blood vessels
• Ova
B. Female reproductive organs. Using cadavers, excised specimens and illustrations, locate each
the following organs and parts of organs:
Uterine tubes (= fallopian)

• Infundibulum, ampulla and isthmus
• Ostium (opening into uterine tube - not easy to see in preserved specimens)
• Fimbriae of infundibulum
Uterus
• Location relative to the celom, urinary bladder and rectum
• Regions: Fundus, body, cervix
• Lumen through cervix: Cervical canal, external os, internal os
• Cross sectional structure: Endomysium, myometrium, perimetrium
• Ligaments: Broad and round
Vagina
• Fornix (fornices): Anterior, lateral, posterior
• Vaginal rugae
• Vaginal orifice and hymen
External genitalia (= vulva)

• Labia majora • Opening of greater vestibular
• Labia minora (= Bartholin's) glands
• Vestibule • Opening of paraurethral (= Skene's)
• Clitoris and prepuce glands
• Orifices of vagina and urethra • Mons pubis
Trace the movement of an egg from time of ovulation to fertilization and subsequent implantation in the
uterus. Explain the anatomical parts and events involved.
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1. body of uterus
2. fimbriae of infundibulum
3 infundibulum of fallopian tube
4. ostium of fallopian tube
5. ovary
6. proper ligament of cat ovary
7. region of cervix on cat
8. region of vagina on cat
9. uterine horn of cat
10. uterine septum of cat
11. vagina
Figure 14.4. Female reproductive system of cat. Identify and label indicated parts. How does this
differ from the human?
1. ampulla of fallopian tube

2. body of uterus
3. broad ligament
4. cervix of uterus
5. endometrium
6. external os of cervix
7. fimbriae of infundibulum
8. fundus of uterus
9. infundibulum of fallopian
tube
10. internal os of cervix
11. isthmus of fallopian tube
12. lateral fornix of vagina
13. myometrium
14. osteum of fallopian tube
15. ovary
16. ovarian ligament
17. perimetrium
18. round ligament
19. suspensory ligament of ovary
20. vagina
21. vaginal rugae
Figure 14.5. Female reproductive system of human. Identify and label indicated parts.
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1. anal sphincter, external

2. anal sphincter, internal
3. cervix
4. clitoris
5. fornix, posterior
6. labia majora
7. labia minora
8. mons pubis
9.urinary bladder
10. pubic symphysis
11. rectum
12. urogenital diaphragm
13. urterer
14. uterus
15. vagina
Figure 14.6. Midsagittal view of female pelvis. Identify the indicated parts.
1. ampulla
2. fimbriae
3. infundibulum
4. mature follicle in
ovary
5. ovary
6. uterus
Figure 14.7. Fallopian tube and ovary model. Identify the indicated parts.
EXERCISE 5. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
A. Overview of male system. Using a cadaver study the location and orientation of the male reproductive
system. Locate the following organs and associated structures.
• Penis
• Scrotum
• Spermatic Cord
• Testes
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B. Male reproductive organs. On the cadaver and specimens available, locate the following organs and
parts. You may need to dissect the materials available to see the important structures and learn their
anatomical relationships.
Scrotum:
• Scrotal skin and swellings • Scrotal septum
• Tunica dartos (dartos muscle) • Testis
• Tunica vaginalis • Scrotal ligament
Spermatic cord:
Location: Inguinal ring to scrotum
Components
• External spermatic fascia • Ductus deferens
• Cremaster muscle and fascia • Spermatic artery and vein
Testis
• Tunica vaginalis • Tubuli recti
• Tunica albuginea • Rete testis
• Septa of testis • Ductus efferens
• Lobules • Epididymis: Head, body and tail
• Seminiferous tubules
1. appendix testis
2. ductus efferens
3. epididymis, head
4. epididymis, tail
5. rete testis
6. seminiferous tubules
7. testicular septum
8. tubuli recti
9. tunica albuginea
10. vas deferens
Figure 14. 8. Human testis, coronal section.
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Ducts:
• Ductus deferens (= vas deferens)
• Seminal vesicles (glandular)
• Ejaculatory duct
Urethra
• Prostatic, membranous, spongy
• Meatus
• Glands: Prostate, and Cowper's (= Bulbourethral)
Penis.
Inspect the surface structure of the penis and locate the following structures.
• Glans penis and corona of the glans
• Prepuce (= foreskin)
• Urethral meatus (orifice)
Study a penis in cross section and observe the following structures.

• Erectile bodies: Corpora cavernosa (2), and corpus spongiosum (1)
• Spongy urethra (= cavernous or penile urethra)
• Tunica albuginea
• Arteries and veins: Dorsal and central
• Fascia: Dartos and deep
• Bulb attaches to urogenital diaphragm, Crus attaches to ischiopubic rami
1. central artery
2. corpus cavernosum
3. corpus spongiosum
4. dorsal artery
5. dorsal nerve
6. dorsal vein
7. dartos fascia
8. deep fascia
9. septum of penis
10. spongy urethra
11. tunica albuginea
Figure 14.9. Human penis, cross section. Identify and label the indicated structures
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Compare the important structural differences of the male reproductive organs with those of the female.
Identify five important ways a male and a female reproductive system each may fail, or become dysfunctional.
Explain the anatomical basis of each.
Why is it so important that the ovaries and testes are highly vascular? How are the ovaries and testes supplied
with blood?
1. bulb of corpus spongiosum

2. corpus cavernosum
4. Cowper’s gland
5. crus penis
6. epididymis
7. ejaculatory duct
8. ext. urinary sphincter
9. glans penis
10. int. urinary sphincter
11. membranous urethra
12. prostate gland
13. prostatic urethra
14. seminal vesicle
15. spongy urethra
16. testis
17. ureter
18. urinary bladder
20. vas deferens
Figure 14.10. Male reproductive system. Identify and label indicated parts.
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EXERCISE 6. ORGANS OF THE MALE AND FEMALE PELVIC CAVITY

The organs of the pelvic cavity are important for functional as well as clinical reasons. The pelvic cavity is
restricted in size by the structure of the pelvic bones. Within this cavity the organs are tightly packed in an
orderly fashion. Using the models and illustrations available study the component parts and anatomical
relationships of the indicated structures.
A. Regional anatomy of the female pelvis -- sagittal perspective.

• Positional relationship of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus and vagina.
• Relationship of uterus to urinary bladder.
• Positional relationship of the urethra, vagina, rectum, and urogenital diaphragm.
• Positional relationship of vagina, urethral meatus, and rectum.
1. anal canal
2. anal sphincter
3. anterior fornix
4. body of uterus
5. celom
6. cervix of uterus
7. clitoris
8. coccyx
9. fallopian (uterine) tube
10. fimbriae
11. fundus of uterus
12. infundibulum
13. labium majora
14. labium minora
15. mons pubis
16. ovary
17. peritoneum
18. posterior fornix
19. rectouterine excavation
20. rectum
21. round ligament
22. sacrum
23. symphysis pubis
24. urethra
25. urinary bladder
27. vagina
Figure 14.11. Female pelvis, sagittal section showing regional

pelvic anatomy. Identify and label indicated parts.
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B. Regional anatomy of the male pelvis -- sagittal perspective.

• Relative position of urinary bladder, prostate gland and rectum
• Union of the reproductive and urinary systems in the prostatic urethra
• Location of the urogenital diaphragm, and ischiopubic rami, and their role in attachment of penis.
1. anal sphincter
2. anal canal
3. corona glandis
5. Cowper’s gland
6. epididymis
7. glans penis
8. membranous urethra
9. prepuce
10. prostate gland
11. prostatic urethra
12. rectum
13. scrotum
14. seminal vesicle
15. spongy urethra
16. symphysis pubis
17. testes
18. tunica dartos
19. urinary bladder
21. vas deferens
Figure 14.12. Male pelvic anatomy. Model shows midsagittal plane through male pelvis and
illustrates urogenital organs. Locate the indicated structures.
SELF TEST - UROGENITAL SYSTEMS
word with word or words that will make the statement correct.
1. The urinary bladder is a urinary structure that functions in the reabsorption of water.
2. Male and female urinary systems are structurally similar except for their ureters.
3. The kidneys lie immediately inferior to the adrenal glands.
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4. The kidney is only one of several organs of excretion in humans.
5. The kidneys are surrounded , and cushioned by tissue called omentum.
6. The kidneys are retroperitoneal in location.
7. The outer layer of a kidney is the cortex.
8. The urethra is retroperitoneal.
9. The basic structural unit of excretory function in the urinary system is the seminiferous tubule.
10. The convoluted tubules and renal corpuscles are located in the medulla of the kidney.
11. The collecting tubules join to form ducts that empty, at the apex of the pyramids, into the calyces of the kidney.
12. The pyramids of the kidney are located in the renal medulla.
13. The renal pelvis is funnel-shaped and carries urine directly into the ureter.
14. The superior mesenteric arteries supply the kidneys with a continual supply of blood.
15. The renal veins empty directly into the hepatic portal vein.
16. The renal vein has a wider diameter than the renal artery, and lies anterior to it.
17. The afferent arterioles of the kidney receive blood directly from the interlobar arteries.
18. The renal arteries in the kidney divide into the interlobular arteries, which run between the renal pyramids.
19. Over one million nephrons are normally contained within each human kidney.
20. Renal corpuscles remove substances, such as electrolytes and urea, from the blood primarily by osmosis.
21. Glomerular capillaries are very leaky because of gap junctions.
22. Nitrogen waste products are packaged in the form of urea by the kidneys.
23. Henle’s loops are found primarily in the cortex.
24. The ureters enter the urinary bladder at its superior side.
25. The lumen of the ureters and urinary bladder are lined with simple columnar epithelium.
26. The tuft of capillaries lying within Bowman’s capsule is called a glomerulus.
27. The urethra of males is normally shorter than that of females.
28. The ejaculatory duct, carrying sperm, enters the male prostatic urethra.
29. The male urethra is composed of three parts, the shortest of which is the prostatic urethra.
30. The prostate is an extensive gland that surrounds the urethra just inferior to the urinary bladder.
31. Two muscular sphincters control voiding of urine from the urinary bladder.
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32. Each human ovary contains approximately 400,000 oocytes at time of birth.
33. The broad ligament supports the uterus and fallopian tubes.
34. Fertilization, in humans, normally takes place within the uterus.
35. In humans, the vagina and urethra empty into the vestibule.
36. The labia minora and scrotum are homologous.
37. The clitoris contains erectile tissue.
38. The vesicular ovarian follicles consist of a layer of cells around a developing oocyte.
39. The corpus luteum is derived from cells of the Graafian follicle, following ovulation.
40. The corpus albicans ruptures and extrudes the egg in a process called ovulation.
41. The lumen of the fallopian tubes is lined by ciliated columnar epithelium.
42. The surface of the ovary is covered by connective tissue.
43. The fundus of the uterus projects inferiorly into the superior end of the vagina.
44. Sperm are produced by the seminiferous tubules of testes
45. Testosterone is mainly produced by the prostate gland in mature males.
46. The outer layer of the testis is the tunica albuginea.
47. Mature sperm are mainly stored within the rete testis.
48. Sperm pass through the inguinal canal within the ductus deferens.
49. The seminal vesicles have a primary function of sperm storage.
50. The spermatic cord consists of ductus deferens, spermatic artery and vein, lymphatics, cremaster muscle, and
nerves, and passes out of the peritoneal cavity through the inguinal canal.
51. Secretions from the Bulbourethral glands lubricate the glans penis for easier vaginal penetration, and make the
lumen of the urethra acid.
52. The inner lining of the uterus is called the endometrium.
53. The ovary is supported by the ovarian and suspensory mesenteries.
54. The ductus efferens transports sperm from the rete testis to the epididymis.
55. In males, the urethra runs through the corpus cavernosum.
56. Testes are elevated, or moved superiorly, within the scrotum, by contractions of the ischiopubic muscle.
57. The fold of skin normally covering and protecting glans penis is called the hymen.
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Name: Lab section:
UROGENITAL SYSTEMS
FORMAT: Group report (2-4 students per group); written; Due within 48 hours of urogenital lab.
1. Trace the pathway of urine travel starting with the site of original filtration in the renal corpuscle until it is
voided from the body. Explain what happens to the urine as it passes through each structure.
2. Trace the normal path of a spermatozoon from its initial origin as a spermatocyte in the seminiferous tubule
of the testis to the point of normal fertilization of an ovum. Describe all structures, through which it
passes, all associated glands, and the functions of each structure and gland.
3. Compare and contrast the female reproductive system of humans with that of the cat. What anatomical
adaptations does each show? Make a sketch comparing the female reproductive system of the cat with
that of the human. Label the parts.
4. Make a drawing of the cross sectional structure of the human penis showing urethra and erectile bodies.
Label the important parts. Explain the anatomical basis for erection of the penis.
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LABORATORY 15
LABORATORY FINAL EXAM
The last laboratory of the semester will be the Laboratory Final Exam. This is a broadly comprehensive exam and will
include questions from each of the laboratory sessions. The kinds of questions and scope of the exam will be similar for
each lab section, but specific questions and length of the exam will vary somewhat among the different lab sections.
Purpose and objectives of lab final. The purpose of this exam is to measure student's achievement in the
laboratory part of the Anatomy course. It also attempts to measure student’s long-term retention of laboratory-
associated learning.
Exam Format. The exam will consist of about 25 numbered individual stations distributed around the laboratory.
Each station will have some kind of anatomical specimen along with some appropriate questions. Anatomical
specimens may include a variety of such materials as bones, anatomical specimens, models, microscope slides, cadavers
and cats. These materials will be the kind of materials that were available for you to study during the semester. Most of
the stations will have an "A" and a "B" question. The exam will take about 50 minutes to complete.
An example of a possible format of exam questions is as follows:
1. A. Identify the indicated landmark on this bone.

B. Identify the specific kind of articulation that occurs at the indicated place.
2. A. Indicate the indicated muscle on the cadaver.

B. Give the major actions of this muscle.
3. A. Identify the indicated structure on the cat.

B. Identify the indicated structure on the model.
Exam content. Questions will be taken from the content area of each of the laboratories. Due to limitations of space
and time, there will only be a few questions addressing the subject matter of any single laboratory.
About the lab final.
• Confirm the date and time of your lab final with your lab instructor.
• Do show up on time if you intend to finish the exam.
• There are no make-ups because of the complexity of the exam. Missed exams may be made up
during the following semester.
• Please leave all personal items off the exam tables and out of the traffic path.
• Only one student is permitted at the same station at the same time.
• Carefully watch the accuracy of your question numbering.
• Time limit is 60 minutes.
• Please do not remove or move pointers.
• Ask your lab instructor to clarify questions if needed.
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Name ____________________________________________ Lab Section __________ _
Anatomy Laboratory Final
1. A ________________________________________ 1. B __________________________________________
2. A_________________________________________ 2. B __________________________________________
3. A_________________________________________ 3. B __________________________________________
4. A_________________________________________ 4. B___________________________________________
5. A _________________________________________ 5. B___________________________________________
6. A_________________________________________ 6. B___________________________________________
7. A_________________________________________ 7. B__________________________________________
8. A_________________________________________ 8. B__________________________________________
9. A_________________________________________ 9. B__________________________________________
10. A_________________________________________ 10. B__________________________________________
11. A_________________________________________ 11. B__________________________________________
12. A_________________________________________ 12. B__________________________________________
13. A_________________________________________ 13. B__________________________________________
14. A_________________________________________ 14. B__________________________________________
15. A_________________________________________ 15. B__________________________________________
16. A_________________________________________ 16. B__________________________________________
17. A_________________________________________ 17. B__________________________________________
18. A_________________________________________ 18. B__________________________________________
19. A__________________________________________ 19. B__________________________________________
20. A__________________________________________ 20. B__________________________________________
21. A__________________________________________ 21. B__________________________________________
22. A _________________________________________ 22. B__________________________________________
23. A _________________________________________ 23. B__________________________________________
24. A__________________________________________ 24. B__________________________________________
25. A__________________________________________ 25. B__________________________________________
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REFERENCES
Agur, Anne M. 1991. Grant’s Atlas of Anatomy. Ninth Ed., Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD. 650 pp.
de C. M. Saunders, J. B. and C. D. O'Malley. 1982. The anatomical drawings of Andreas Vesalius. Bonanza
Books, N.Y.: 248 pp.
Carola, R., and C. R. Noback. 1990. Human Anatomy and Physiology. McGraw-Hill, N.Y.: 925 pp.
Chase, R. A. 1989. The Bassett Atlas of Human Anatomy. Benjamin/Cummings, Redwood City, CA.
105 pp.
Crawley & Van DeGraaff. 2003. A photographic atlas for the anatomy and physiology lab. Fifth ed., Morton.
Crouch, J. E. 1985. Functional Human Anatomy. Fourth ed., Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia: 645 pp.
Crouch, J. E. 1983. Introduction to Human Anatomy - a laboratory study guide. Sixth edition, Mayfield, Mt.
View, CA: 267 pp.
di Fiore, Mariano, S. H. 1989. Atlas of Normal Histology, 6 th ed., Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia: 267 pp.
Drake, R.L, Vogl, W, and A.W.M. Mitchell. 2005. Gray’s Anatomy for Students. Elsevier, Philadelphia: 1058 pp.
Francis, C. C. 1959. Introduction to Human Anatomy. Third Ed, Mosby, St. Louis, MO. 548 pp.
Gray, H. 1994. Anatomy of the human body. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia.
Mader, S. 2004. Human Biology. Mc Graw Hill, NY: 538 pp.
Marieb, E. N. 1989. Human Anatomy and Physiology. Benjamin/Cummings, Redwood City, CA: 995 pp.
Marieb, E.N. and J. Mallatt. 2001. Human Anatomy. Third Ed., Benjamin /Cummings, San Francisco. 844 pp.
McKinley, M. and V D. O’Louchlin. 2006. Human Anatomy. McGraw Hill Higher Education, Boston: 888 pp.
McMinn, R. M. H., et. al. 1993. Color Atlas of Human Anatomy. Third ed., Mosby, St. Louis, MO: 359 pp.
Martini, F. H., and M. J. Timmons. 1995. Human Anatomy. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 832 pp.
Netter, F. H. 1993. Atlas of Human Anatomy. CIBA Geigy.
Rohen, J. W. and C. Yokochi. 1988. Color Atlas of Anatomy. Second ed., Igaku-Shoin, N.Y.: 469 pp.
Sauerland, E. K. 1991. Grant’s dissector. Tenth Ed., Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. 208 pp.
Spence, A. P. 1990. Basic Human Anatomy. Third ed., Benjamin/Cummings, Redwood City, CA: 684 pp.
Swan, L. W. 1979. Four Perspectives of Man: A Laboratory and Individual Study Guide for Human
Anatomy. Revised printing. Kendall/Hunt. Dubuque, Iowa: 212 pp.
Tortora, G. J. and M. T. Nielsen. 2009. Principles of Human Anatomy. Eleventh ed. John Wiley & Sons.
892 pp.
Van De Graaff, K. 1984. Human Anatomy. Third ed., Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa: 800 pp.
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APPENDIX 1
LABORATORY PROCEDURES AND SAFETY

CONSIDERATIONS
LABORATORY PROCEDURES
During the laboratory, students will have the opportunity to work with skeletal collections, preserved materials
and histological slides. It is expected that students will come prepared to carry out the laboratory exercises.
This includes preliminary study of the material to be covered, bringing manuals and texts, and bringing
appropriate supplies such as examination gloves, forceps, etc. As part of the course of study, students will
have the opportunity to learn by dissection of embalmed cadavers, cats and other materials. It is important to
handle all study materials carefully, and put all materials away properly after study.
A few guidelines to follow in the laboratory include the following:
1. No eating, drinking, or smoking in the laboratory.

2. Study materials are not to be removed from the laboratory.
3. Laboratory waste disposal protocols:
• All waste tissues from dissections must be placed in proper containers.
• Contaminated gloves and contaminated paper towels must be disposed of in marked containers.
provided.
• Never dispose of contaminants, or tissues in the trash.
• Human tissues must be kept separate in a specially marked container for eventual cremation.
• Embalmed or preserved tissues are never disposed of in the trash.
• Non-human anatomical wastes must be disposed of in special container provided. Never
commingle human tissues and non-human tissues
4. The laboratory is normally kept locked except during class and during scheduled open lab.
5. If you need to open a window for ventilation please don't forget to close it before you leave.
6. Always leave cadavers, cats, and other materials properly stored when not in use.
7. Always clean up your dissection tools after use and leave the lab clean and orderly.
8. Place extra books, packs, and jackets on side counters, out of the way.
9. Dispose of used scalpel blades in the “sharps” container. Never place a blade in the trash.
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SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
There are a number of health and safety concerns regarding working in the human anatomy laboratory. The
major concern is possible exposure to toxic or hazardous substances, most specifically exposure to
formaldehyde in embalming fluid or in fumes generated by embalmed cadavers and other specimens. A file
of information on all toxic substances in the lab is maintained by the biology stockroom, and should be
consulted anytime you have reason for concern. We try to maintain a safe working environment in the lab, but
one should always use good judgment and safe technique when working with potentially toxic substances.
Scientific specimens are usually embalmed or preserved with formalin based preservatives. Excess
preservatives should always be washed off before using such specimens, and one should always try to avoid
direct skin contact and fumes.
The formula for embalming fluid continually changes in the attempt to produce better and safer specimens.
The Cadavers used at SFSU are normally embalmed by the University of California, San Francisco, Anatomy
Department. On the average about 36 liters of embalming fluid is infused into every cadaver. Currently the
embalming fluid used contains the following:
• Water (60%),
• 95% Ethanol (22 %),
• Glycerol (10%),
• 37% (commercial) Formalin (6 %)
• Amphyl (2%),
• Phenol (1%),
• PHA - anticlotting Agent (0.5 %).
This fluid is probably reduced to less than one-half the concentration of original components through dilution
by the natural body fluids of cadaver tissue and by bonding with tissues.
A second hazard to avoid is being cut by the sharp scalpel blades used in dissection. Care should be used in
changing, using and storing blades. If any health or safety concern becomes apparent please report it to the
laboratory instructor or biology stockroom immediately.
The following procedures are recommended for your health and safety:
1. Always wear examination gloves to protect hands from embalming fluid.
2. Always wear eye protection when using autopsy saw. Eye protection is recommended for all
work with embalmed or preserved cadavers or other specimens.
3. Do not wear contact lenses when working with embalmed materials.
4. Change scalpel blades properly, dispose of used blades in used blade container only. Never place
blade in trash! If you don't know how to change a blade, ask!
5. If embalming fluid should accidentally enter an eye, flush thoroughly with water and seek care from
health center.
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6. Avoid breathing excessive fumes, and direct contact with embalming fluid.
7. Any accidental cuts or other wounds should be checked by health center.
8. Never leave dissection tools in cadaver or on carts.
9. Do not dispose of preservatives, or cadaver fluids in the sinks. Use containers provided.
10. In case of fire, earthquake or other emergency, exit the building through the door adjacent to the
laboratory and stand clear of all buildings.
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188
APPENDIX 2
WORKING WITH CADAVERS, AND OTHER

ANATOMICAL SPECIMENS
In the Human Anatomy laboratory you will be continuously studying real human specimens and
cadavers. This is a privilege that will greatly contribute to your learning and understanding of anatomy.
At first you may feel some apprehension about working with human materials, but as your skill and
understanding develops your apprehension will turn to enthusiasm and appreciation. By the end of the
semester you will have gained a great appreciation for the structure of the human body. Always treat the
cadavers with great sensitivity and respect. Distasteful comment or actions are not acceptable.
SOME COMMONLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT CADAVERS

1. What are cadavers and where do they come from?
2. What are the regulations required for working with cadavers and other human specimens?
3. The California "willed body" program: Its purpose and administration.
4. How cadavers are processed?
5. What is the embalming process and why is it important?
6. What makes a good cadaver for instructional purposes?
7. What happens to cadavers after they are studied?
CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF CADAVERS

Cadavers are fragile teaching materials. They must be continually monitored for problems, and must be
properly cared for if they are to serve your study needs throughout the semester. The following are important
guidelines for cadaver use:
1. Replace all tissues after dissection. Tissues for disposal should be placed in the specially
labeled container.
2. Keep a continual watch for mold development.
3. Keep cadavers moistened with "wetting solution". Spray them liberally anytime they appear to
be drying, and every time you put them away.
4. Always cover cadavers when not in use. You will find working with a dehydrated cadaver a
handicap.
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THINGS TO LOOK FOR ON CADAVERS:
1. Scars and other signs of medical problems that may be of interest.
2. Post mortem changes.
3. Fat and water deposits.
4. Color of tissues and signs of circulatory disorders.
5. Collagen buildup.
6. Quality of embalming.
7. Artifacts of aging
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APPENDIX 3
MUSCLES TO DISSECT, IDENTIFY AND LEARN

The muscles normally dissected and studied during the laboratory are outlined below, and are organized
regionally. Associated anatomical structures normally encountered during muscle study are also listed.
Locate each muscle. Describe its primary action or actions, its insertion and origin. Check off muscles
and associated structures as they are learned.
Muscles of the Chest, neck, and shoulder

Anterior
❑ Pectoralis major
❑ Pectoralis minor
❑ Serratus anterior
❑ Sternocleidomastoid
Posterior
❑ Teres major
❑ Teres minor (rotator cuff)
❑ Infraspinatus (rotator cuff)
❑ Supraspinatus (rotator cuff)
❑ Subscapularis (rotator cuff)
Muscles of the Shoulder and Brachium

❑ Deltoid
❑ Biceps brachii
❑ Coracobrachialis
❑ Brachialis (= Brachialis anticus)
❑ Triceps brachii
Associated anatomy
❑ Axillary fossa and region
❑ Axillary fat deposits
❑ Axillary vessels and nerves
❑ Brachial fascia
Muscles of the Forearm (=Antebrachium)
Anterior
❑ Palmaris longus
❑ Flexor carpi radialis
❑ Flexor digitorum profundus
❑ Flexor carpi ulnaris
❑ Flexor digitorum superficialis (= F. d. sublimis)
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❑ Flexor pollicis longus
❑ Pronator teres
❑ Pronator quadratus
Posterior
❑ Brachioradialis
❑ Extensor carpi radialis brevis
❑ Extensor digitorum communis
❑ Extensor indicis proprius
❑ Extensor pollicis longus
❑ Extensor carpi radialis longus
❑ Extensor carpi ulnaris
❑ Extensor digiti minimi
❑ Abductor pollicis longus
❑ Extensor pollicis brevis
Associated anatomy
❑ Palmar aponeurosis (=Palmar fascia)
❑ Antebrachial fascia
❑ Carpal flexor retinaculum
❑ Carpal extensor retinaculum
❑ Hiatus of flexor digitorum sublimis
❑ Carpal tunnel
Muscles of Thigh and Hip.
Anterior
❑ Sartorius
❑ Rectus femoris
❑ Vastus lateralis
❑ Vastus medialis
❑ Vastus intermedius
❑ Tensor fascia lata
❑ Adductor longus
❑ Adductor magnus
❑ Adductor brevis
❑ Pectineus
❑ Gracilis
Posterior
❑ Gluteus maximus
❑ Gluteus minimus
❑ Biceps femoris
❑ Semitendinosus
❑ Semimembranosus
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Associated anatomy
❑ Fascia lata
❑ Femoral artery and vein
❑ Iliotibial band
❑ Inguinal canal
❑ Inguinal ligament
❑ Gluteal fascia, and associated fat deposits
❑ Poplitial space
❑ Sciatic nerve
❑ Femoral vessels
❑ Poplitial artery and vein
❑ Tendon of insertion of quadriceps
❑ Tibial nerve (in Poplitial space)
Muscles of leg
Anterior compartment
❑ Tibialis anterior
❑ Extensor digitorum longus
❑ Extensor hallucis longus
❑ Peroneus tertius
Lateral compartment
❑ Peroneus longus
❑ Peroneus brevis
Posterior superficial compartment

❑ Gastrocnemius
❑ Soleus
❑ Plantaris
❑ Popliteus
Posterior deep compartment

❑ Tibialis posterior
❑ Flexor digitorum longus
❑ Flexor hallucis longus
Associated anatomy
❑ Crural fascia
❑ Tendo calcaneus
❑ Plantar aponeurosis
❑ Cruciate (= inferior extensor) ligament (= retinaculum)
❑ Flexor retinaculum
❑ Peroneal retinaculum (superior and inferior)
❑ Muscle compartments of deep fascia (4)
❑ Median malleolus pulley configuration
❑ Lateral malleolus pulley configuration
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Muscles of the Abdomen and thorax
❑ Rectus abdominis
❑ External oblique
❑ Internal oblique
❑ Transverse abdominis
❑ External intercostals
❑ Internal intercostals
❑ Diaphragm
Associated anatomy
❑ Aponeurosis of M external oblique
❑ Linea alba
❑ Sheath of M rectus abdominis
❑ Tendinous inscriptions of M rectus abdominis
❑ Umbilicus
❑ Inguinal ligament
Muscles of the Back (as time permits)

❑ Trapezius
❑ Latissimus dorsi
❑ Rhomboid major
❑ Rhomboid minor
❑ Levator scapulae
❑ Splenius capitus
❑ Serratus posterior superior
❑ Serratus posterior inferior
❑ Sacrospinalis
❑ Iliocostalis
❑ Longissimus
❑ Longissimus capitus
❑ Spinalis
❑ Semispinalis
Associated Anatomy
❑ Lumbodorsal fascia
❑ Fat deposits: subcutaneous, Axillary, gluteal
❑ Suspension of pectoral girdle
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APPENDIX 4
MIDSEMESTER COURSE CRITIQUE

Please rate the statements below using following scale:
1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. No Opinion
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree
1. _______ My instructor communicates effectively.
2. _______ My instructor uses interesting, relevant examples.
3 _______ My instructor provides clear, well-organized instruction.
4 _______ My instructor is available outside of class.
5 _______ This course stimulates me to think about the material or applications outside of class.
6 _______ This course encourages me to take responsibility for my own learning.
7 _______ I believe this course will be relevant to my future.
8 _______ This course helps me develop my thinking skills.
9. _______ This course is helping me develop my knowledge of the subject.
10._______ When I refer to the text materials, they help me understand the subject.
11._______ This course is a good professional or academic experience.
What do you like best about the lab?
Please list comments or suggestions to make the lab more effective.
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APPENDIX 5
HOW TO STUDY FOR THE LABORATORY

The anatomy laboratory is an especially important part of your study of anatomy. Here you will have the
opportunity for hands on study of human and other anatomical specimens. Through this study you will learn how
to learn through dissection, and to locate information of special interest. For most, this will be a new experience
and some feeling of apprehension may be natural, but this normally goes away quickly. Students who do well in
the Human Anatomy Class tend to have several characteristics in common: Persistence, consistency, pre-lab
preparation, and out of class study group participation.
A few suggestions for success in anatomy are outlined below

• Read ahead and come to every lab prepared.
• Stay for the whole time and be ready to work.
• Form a team of 3-4 students and challenge each other’s understanding.
• Ask questions when appropriate be curious.
• Consult with your instructor or other instructors immediately when you have problems.
• Check over your quizzes and exams for correct grading, and discuss any concerns with your lab
instructor.
• Think of the relevance and application of what you are experiencing and learning. Look for articles of
interest to your study and read them.
• Create drawings of your studies...
• Be proactive, use this time as the unique opportunity it is.
• Keep your objectives in sight and look for the personal relevance of the subject matter.
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APPENDIX 6
SUPPLIES NEEDED FOR LABORATORY STUDY

Dissections begin the third or fourth week of class and run each week through the remainder of the course. Once dissections
begin students need to bring their dissection tools and safety supplies to lab each week. Dissection equipment and supplies
can be purchased at the University bookstore. The biology stockroom also has anatomy dissection kits available. Convenient
hall lockers are available through the biology stockroom for you to keep your dissection equipment, and other school
supplies.
Dissecting supplies from other classes might work satisfactorily and some items may be shared among your working groups.
Never work with a dull scalpel blade, and never work with leaking or damaged gloves.
Required Dissection Equipment includes only:

• Scalpel handle (no. 4), metal ones are best (1)
• Scalpel blades (designed to fit no. 4 scalpel handle), any large size (I like # 22 or 23) (4-6 blades)
• Blades do not need to be sterile.
All other tools are provided in lab.
blades scalpel handle forceps needles
Dissection safety supplies needed each week in lab include:

• Examination gloves (latex or vinyl), bring 2-3 pair each week. These need to be discarded at any sign of leakage, or
damage. You will use these every time you work with a cadaver. Available at bookstore or biology stockroom.
• Eye safety equipment. The campus safety officer recommends safety glasses or goggles. Contact lenses should not
be worn while working with cadavers or embalmed specimens. Available at bookstore.
• Protective clothing. (e.g. Lab coat, apron, or an old shirt). This will protect your skin and clothing. Lab coats are
available at bookstore.
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APPENDIX 7
SELF TEST ANSWER KEYS
At the conclusion of each unit of study students should do a self-assessment of their learning and understanding of each
anatomical topic. Answer keys to self test exercises from labs 1-14 are given in this appendix. Self-test question statements
are true unless otherwise indicated. The words indicated in this answer key should replace incorrect ones in question
statements.
Laboratory 1. Vertebral Column.

2. cephalic 3. lateral 4. posterior 5. superior 7.caudal 8. coronal
15. humans tend to have sorter arms and longer legs 16. superior articular processes and facets
17. vertebral foramen 18. intervertebral 20. atlas 22. atlas 23. thoracic and sacral
24. lumbar 26. manubrium 27. xiphoid process 28. inferior 29. thoracic 30. flexion
31. false ribs 33. false ribs 35. cervical and lumbar 36. lordosis 37. scoliosis 38. five vertebrae
39. manubrium 42. lumbar
Laboratory 2. Skull.
1. 22 (not including branchial bones) 4. squamous 5. alveolar margins 6. choanae 7. maxilla
8. ethmoid 9. alveoli 10. occipital condyles 12. sphenoid 14. fontanels 16. less 17. gomphoses 18.
synovial 23. mandible 24. occipital 26. mastoidal or posterior lateral 29. nasal aperture
31. malleus 32. temporal 33. yes movements 39. temporal
Laboratory 3. Superior Appendicular Skeleton.

3. hyaline 4. lateral 5. short 6. long 9. intertubercular (=bicipital) groove 10. metacarpal
11. humerus 12. scapula 13. carpals 16. hinge 17. abduction 18. supination 19. lateral
21. manubrium of sternum 23. anterior 24. pollex 28. capitulum 29. olecranon 31. 14
35. yellow 36. periosteum 42. alive
Laboratory 4. Inferior Appendicular Skeleton.

1. no internal blood vessels 3. false pelvis 4. fibrocartilage 5. narrower 8. syndesmosis 9. fibula
13. seven 15. pubis 17. plantar flexion 18. circumduction 24. calcaneus 25. transverse
27. acetabulum 28. fovea capitis 29. greater trochanter 31. talus
Laboratory 5. Integumentary system.

3. epidermal 4. stratum basale (= s. germinativum) 5. papillary
6. hypodermal or hypodermal - reticular layer 9. superficial fascia 14. stratum lucidum 19. reticular
Laboratory 6. Muscles of chest, shoulder and brachium.

5. smooth 6. cardiac 8. superficial 10. are not always present 12. extrinsic 13. ulna
14. scapula & clavicle 17. subscapularis 20. pectoralis major 22. inserts 24. flexes
Laboratory 7. Muscles of forearm, wrist and hand.

2. brachioradialis 8. extensors 9. flexor digitorum profundus & sublimis 11. flexor digitorum profundus
Laboratory 8. Muscles of Hip, Thigh and abdomen.

5. xiphoid process + costal cartilage of ribs 5-7 7. rectus femoris 8. sartorius 11. adductor magnus
12. pectineus 15. gluteal 17. quadriceps 18. semimembranosus 19. synovial hinge
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Laboratory 9. Muscles of leg, ankle, and foot.
1. plantaris 3. plantar flexion 5. calcaneus 7. second 9. median longitudinal
11. peroneus tertius 13. peroneal 14. tibialis anterior
Laboratory 10. Celom and Digestive System.

1. anterior body 2. cranium 4. is not apparent 5. double 7. simple squamous 10. posterior
12. lesser 13. liver 17. diaphragm 19. mouth or oral cavity 20. parotid 22. lacks 23. palatine
24. lingual frenulum 25. posterior, superior 26. enamel 28. stratified squamous
30. cardiac or lower esophageal sphincter 31. simple columnar 32. stomach 35. duodenum
37. ileum 38. ileocecal valve 39. stomach 40. greater curvature 41. ascending colon
42. transverse 44. epiploic appendages 46. cecum 47. right colic 49. lacks 50. internal
51. common bile duct 55. gall bladder 57. liver 59. tail 60. visceral peritoneum 61. duodenum
Laboratory 11. Cardiovascular System.

3. visceral pericardium 5. left side 7. cardiac 8. coronary sinus 9. left atrium
11. papillary muscles 12. cuspid valves 13. aortic semilunar valves
15. tunica media/smooth, not cardiac muscle 16. brachiocephalic, left common carotid, and left subclavian
17. brachiocephalic and left subclavian only 18. internal carotids and vertebrals
20. external and internal carotid arteries 21. external carotid arteries 26. femoral 27. larger diameters
28. hepatic portal vein 29. portal vein 30. internal jugular 31. abdominal 32. spleen 33. posterior
Laboratory 12. Respiratory System.

2. nasal (vertical, or perpendicular) septum divides the nasal aperture 3. nasopharynx 4. nasopharynx
5. glottis 6. inferiorly 7. hyaline cartilage 8. superior 9. the cricoid cartilage suspends the trachea
10. adventitia or areolar connective tissue supports the trachea 11. the esophagus is posterior to the trachea
13. thyroid cartilage 14. the costal surface of the lung presses against the ribs 15. thyroid and parathyroid glands
16. tracheal cartilages are “C-shaped”, and open posteriorly 17. the trachea branches into right and left primary
bronchi 18. medially and slightly posteriorly 19. thymus gland (but it decreases in size with age)
20. is not part of the larynx, it is an independent bone derived from the branchial arches
21. alveoli (or alveolar-capillary membranes) 23. base (or diaphragmatic surface) 24. porta 25. right lung 26.
left lung 27. simple squamous 37. respiratory
Laboratory 13. Nervous System.

1. efferent 2. anterior gray horns 4. neurons 5. Schwann cells 7. epineurium
8. endoneurium 13. central 14 vertebral 16. do not normally increase in numbers after birth
18. arachnoid 20. central sulcus 21. frontal 24. corpora quadrigemina 26. circle of Willis
27. right & left vertebral arteries 30. medulla oblongata 33. tentorium cerebelli 35. fits tightly
37. hypothalamus 38. longitudinal 40. falx 41. 12 pairs 42. inferior 43. cranial nerve 10
44. pineal body 46. cranial nerve 10 48. third ventricle 49. cerebrospinal fluid 53. magnum
54. first lumbar 55. coccyx 56. dura mater 57. posterior root ganglion 58. subarachnoid space
59. cerebrospinal fluid 61. spinal nerves 62. central canal 63. inside 67. conus medullaris
68. unmyelinated fibers & cell bodies 69. 31 pairs 71. sensory neurons 72. multipolar 74. superior to inferior
75. lateral gray horns 79. two
Laboratory 14. Urogenital Systems.

1. storage of urine 2. urethra 5. perirenal fascia 7. fibrous capsule 9. nephron
10. cortex 14 renal 15. inferior vena cava 17 interlobular 18. interlobar
20. glomerular filtration 21. fenestrated epithelium 22. liver 23. medulla or pyramids
24. inferior 25. transitional 27. longer 29. membranous 34. fallopian tubes
36. labia majora 40. Graafian or vesicular follicle 42. germinal epithelium 43. cervix
45. interstitial cells (of Leydig) of the testes 46. tunica vaginalis (visceral layer) 47. epididymis
49. seminal fluid production 51. neutral 53. ligaments 55. corpus spongiosum 56. cremaster
57. prepuce
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Appendix 8
Surface Anatomy of the human body

The human body has many surface landmarks that are useful in the study of human anatomy. Knowledge of these landmarks
also has enormous practical and clinical values. These landmarks indicate the location of specific underlying muscles or other
organs. They provide a useful reference points for recording observations. A good understanding of surface anatomy will
facilitate meaningful laboratory study throughout the semester.
Learning Objectives:
l. Examine human cadavers and locate the indicated anatomical reference points on the surface of their skin.
2. Explain how each is recognized or defined.
Class activities:
1. Examine the cadavers for scars, evidence of surgery, pathology, or post mortem changes. Make an outline of what you
what you find.
2. Compare several cadavers to observe diversity that may be related to age, gender, life style, or health.
3. Learn how you should prepare a cadaver for storage after each use.
4. Use proper safety technique with your cadaver study – including use of examination gloves and their proper disposal.
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Appendix 8 (continued)
Surface Anatomy of the Human Body (r = region)
Anterior View
1. antebrachial r (volar, ulnar)

2. axillary r
3. axillary fossa
4. brachium
5. brachial r, (ant, lat, medial, posterior)
6. calcaneal r (of foot)
7. cervical r
8. crural r (= leg) (ant., lat. medial)
9. cubital r (ant., exterior)
10. deltoid r
11. digital r (hand & foot, volar & dorsal)
12. epigastric r
13. femoral r (= thigh) (ant., lat., medial)
14. foot (dorsal, medial & lateral regions)
15. hand (dorsal & volar) r
16. hypochondriac r (rt & left)
17. hypogastric r (= pubic r)
18. inguinal r (r & l)
19. jugular fossa
20. malleolar r (median & lateral)
21. mammary r (r & l)
22. mental r
23. olecranal r
24. oral r
25. orbital r
26. parietal r
27. patellar r
28. sternalis r
29. umbilical r (= mesogastric r)
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Appendix 8 (con’d)
Surface Anatomy -- Posterior View
1. acromial r
2. antebrachial r (ulnar, volar, radial)
3. brachial r (posterior, lateral)
4. calcaneal r
5. crural r (ext, post.)
6. cubital r (post., lat.)
7. deltoid r
8. femoral r (post., lat., med.)
9. foot r (plantar, dorsal, lat., med.)
10. gluteal r
11. hand r (volar & post.)
12. infra-scapular r
13. inter-scapular r
14. knee r (posterior)
15. lumbar r (r &l)
16. malleolar r (ext)
17. nuchal fovea
18. nuchal r
19. occipital r
20. olecranal r
21. popliteal fossa
22. sacral r
23. scapular r (r & l)
24. supra-scapular r
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Appendix 8 (con’d)
Surface Anatomy of Head and Neck
1. buccal r
2. frontal r
3. infra orbital r
4. laryngeal r
5. lateral cervical r
6. mastoid r
7. mental r
8. nasal r
9. nuchal r
10. occipital r
11. oral r
12. orbital r
13. parietal r
14. retro mandibular fossa
15. sternocleidomastoid r
16. submental r
17. supra orbital r
18. supra sternal r
19. temporal r
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Appendix 9. Safety plan for Human Anatomy Program
I. ANATOMY PROGRAM
The Anatomy program is run by the Biology Department at SFSU to provide an in depth understanding of the
human body through study and practical experience.
Contact Name Telephone No. Office E-Mail

Anatomy Lab Coordinator Ben Locke 5-2581 HH 107 blocke@sfsu.edu
( 414-405-2581)
Biology Stockroom Justin Chan x8-1091 HH 540 uchan@sfsu.edu
Animal Care Coordinator Diane Elliott x8-6336 HH 816 delliott@sfsu.edu
II. ANATOMY LAB SAFETY POLICY

Work in anatomy labs, while illuminating and worthwhile, does pose some health and safety risks that need to be
considered and addressed. Below is a list of work practices that MUST be followed during all lab sessions and prep
work.
1. Only two uncovered cadavers may be exposed during any lab session. The ventilation system can only
accommodate two gurneys.
2. Check to make sure ventilation hoods are “ON” before starting work. Do NOT unzip or open cadaver or
specimen bags for a class if you don’t think the hoods are working.
3. Keep cadavers covered in zipped body bags when they are not being studied.
4. Do not eat, drink, apply lip balm, or touch your face while in the Anatomy Lab.
5. Wear examination gloves when handling specimens, cadavers, or waste material.

6. Change gloves when damaged and periodically as needed.
7. Wear eye protection when working with cadavers and preserved specimens.
8. Wear a lab coat or scrubs when doing dissections to protect your clothes. For significant splash hazards,
wear an apron over the lab coat.
9. Dispose of all scalpel blades and other sharps in red “SHARPS” containers.
10. Wash hands and any exposed skin immediately on contact with embalming fluid and before leaving the
dissection area.
11. All waste containers must be kept closed when not actively being filled. Do not overfill.
12. Report injuries or problems to the laboratory supervisor as soon as possible.
III. CADAVER CARE

All human anatomy students are responsible for the proper care of our human cadavers. When work is not actually
being conducted, zip up the body bag to both avoid excessive odors and to prevent the cadaver from
drying out.
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 DO NOT…remove the identification tag on the cadaver
 DO NOT dissect or remove body parts without permission from the instructor.
 Keep the body bag closed when cadaver is not being used.
 Do not open more than two cadaver bags at a time
IV. LABORATORY HYGIENE PRACTICES
A. Required Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Lab Coat  Always, when working Rubber/Plastic Apron  Significant splash hazard
Latex or Nitrile Gloves  Always, when working Heavy Rubber Gloves  Extended contact/immersion
Safety Glasses  Always, when working Face shield  Significant splash hazard
B. Care of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

 Lab Coat
• Wash your lab coat when it gets dirty in a washing machine—not with your regular clothes. Add
bleach as an added precaution.
• Lab coat should not be soaked with fluids. If it is, you should toss the coat in with the hazardous
lab trash.
• If a significant splash hazard exists for a specific task, wear a rubber or disposable apron over the
lab coat.
 Gloves
• Remove disposable gloves and discard in lab-waste container. Do not re-use.
• Check gloves before donning to make sure there are no holes or tears
 Eyewear
• Store safety glasses in a bag, box, or container to prevent contamination
• Store face shield in a clean container/area and decontaminate after each use with a solution of 10%
bleach.
C. Additional Recommendations
 Avoid wearing contact lenses when working with cadavers. In all cases, wear eye protection over contact
lenses.
 If pregnant, consult with your physician before continuing with the Anatomy Lab
 Close lab doors during class sessions.
V. POTENTIAL HAZARDS AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES

Working in an Anatomy Lab is a valuable educational experience, but is not without risk. Fortunately, good work
practices and common sense can minimize the risk of injury and exposure to embalming fluid and biohazards.
Examples include keeping containers closed when not directly working with specimens, not being sloppy, and
consistently wearing latex or nitrile gloves when handling cadavers or specimens.
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A. Implementation of Preventive Measures
The Anatomy Lab Coordinator is responsible for communicating lab policy to the teaching staff and for making
sure established work practices are being followed. Anatomy lab staff must contact the Biology Stockroom to
report problems with ventilation and waste pickup.
B. Review of Hazards and Established Work Practices

Hazard Type Established Work Practices
Chemical Health Hazard • Keep specimen and cadaver bags or containers closed when not
directly working with them.
Headache, nausea
• Work neatly and clean up spilled embalming fluid promptly.
Potential toxic effects
• Dispose of saturated wipes, absorbent pads, and paper towels
Eye and throat irritation promptly
• Keep chemical and biohazardous waste containers securely closed
when not adding waste
• Close and tie/tape waste bags closed when ¾ full to prevent
overfilling and bag breakage.
• Do not work with cadavers when the ventilation system is not
working or while the ducts are loose.
Biological Health Hazard • Only use cadavers that have been properly embalmed and without
known pathogens
Potential exposure to human
pathogens • If decomposition is evident, return the cadaver to its body bag and
do not use.
Potential exposure to mold, fungi,
or bacterial growth • Do not remove human or animal parts from the anatomy lab
Nausea • Keep biological waste containers closed when not in use.
Sharps • Instructor must demonstrate the safe use of scalpels, needles and
how to change blades
Cuts and punctures
• Avoid carrying around scalpels with blades or storing in pockets
Potential injection of chemical or
biological fluids into the body • Put used blades, knives and syringes in the red “sharps” boxes, not
in plastic bags or trash can
Surgical Saw • Only the anatomy lab coordinator and staff designated by him/her
may use the surgical saw without supervision
Serious cuts and gashes
• A student may use the surgical saw only if trained and personally
Splashes or squirts of fluids
supervised by the lab coordinator or designated lab staff
• A rubber/impervious apron should be worn over the lab coat when
cutting open the cadavers
• Use of the surgical saw in this lab poses no threat of flying bits of
bone
VI. Material Handling Protocols

A. Human Parts and Cadavers
UCSF cadavers are embalmed to provide safe specimens for students to dissect. SFSU doesn’t accept cadavers
known to have pathogenic organisms. If decomposition occurs resulting in fungal, mold, or bacterial growth, the
cadaver is sealed up and removed from further study.
 Identification tags and body parts must be kept with the cadaver.
 No parts may be removed without permission from the instructor
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 Body bags are kept closed when not being used
 Only two cadavers may be worked on at any one time due to the capacity of the ventilation hood area
B. Embalming Fluid
The liquid used to preserve animal and human tissue contains chemicals that can be hazardous if mishandled.
 Preservatives such as ethanol, phenol, and formaldehyde are flammable so avoid open flames and ignition
sources
 Phenol and formaldehyde are toxic even in small quantities so proper handling of waste fluids and
functioning ventilation are essential to avoid overexposure
 Inhalation of vapors, injection through cuts/punctures, or ingestion by eating or licking contaminated lip
balm can cause unwanted exposure. Keep food, drinks, gum and cosmetics out of the anatomy lab and
make sure fluid collection containers are closed.
 The formulation of embalming fluid has changed over the years. New formulations are using smaller
concentrations of formaldehyde and other toxic chemicals.
As of 2007, this represents the formulation of the embalming fluid used:
61% Water 5% Commercial Formalin
20% Ethanol 3% Lysol
10% Glycerin 1% Phenol
Note that the formula is subject to change.
C. Preserved Specimens
Preserved organs, tissues, or body parts typically pose no health hazard as long as they are stored in a closed or
sealed container. If a container leaks or breaks, the preservative inside could be hazardous once it’s released.
 Preserved specimens must be kept in closed museum jars
 Tissues from cats and other animals must be collected in a designated container that must be kept closed.
 Cabinet doors must be labeled “Preserved Specimens” to identify contents.
VII. Waste Disposal

The protocol for handling and disposing of Anatomy Lab waste depends on the type of waste. It is important to
keep the different types separate in order to handle the waste materials according to the differing regulations.
Contact the Biology Stockroom for more information.
A. Human Parts and Cadavers

At the end of the semester, cadavers are picked up by a licensed contractor and taken to a crematorium for disposal.
 Do not commingle human waste with animal waste or other materials
 Collect human body parts in a plastic bag and place it inside the cadaver body bag between the legs.
Cadaver parts from other sources may be commingled.
 The Anatomy Lab Coordinator must notify the Biology Stockroom at the end of the semester when the
class is finished with the current group of cadavers.
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B. Animal Specimens
Tissue from cats and other animal-study materials such as hearts and brains must be kept in tightly closed
containers separate from human remains. Animal waste is picked up by a licensed contractor and taken to an
incinerator facility.
 Drain excess preservative into a collection container and close tightly. This waste is now “chemical”
hazardous waste and requires a filled out waste ID tag securely attached.
 As hazardous waste, embalming or preservative fluid waste may only be stored in the lab up to 60 days
from the date the container was first used.
Call the Biology Stockroom for a pick-up before the 60-day expiration date.
 Collect animal specimens and body parts in a closeable bag or container and affix an identifying label.
 Contact the Animal Quarters Coordinator at x8-6336 to arrange for disposal.
C. Embalming Fluid
Used up embalming fluids and preservatives are treated as “chemical” hazardous waste, not biological waste.
 Collect embalming fluid (usually mixed with “body” fluids) from cadavers in 5-gallon carboys.
 Modify a lid to accommodate a drainage hose to keep unwanted vapors contained. Keep the lid sealed on
the carboy.
 Preservative fluid from display samples and specimens may be added to the cadaver carboys.
 Allow the carboy to fill until about ½ to ¾ full, then close it up and tag it as hazardous waste. Do not
overfill carboy and clean up any spills promptly.
 As hazardous waste, embalming or preservative fluid waste may only be stored in the lab up to 60 days
from first use.
Call the Biology Stockroom for a pick-up before the 60-day expiration date.
 A spill kit is available in the lab for cleaning up minor spills. Contact the Biology Stockroom to refill the
spill kit or to report significant spills.
D. Hazardous Lab Trash
Dry waste from regular lab activities (“Lab Trash”) includes used gloves and paper towels that might have
chemical or biological residue on them. Lab trash must be treated as hazardous waste.
 Wear gloves when handling lab trash
 Obtain supplies such as waste containers, waste ID tags, biohazard bags, and heavy-duty opaque trash bags
from the Biology Stockroom.
 Clearly label collection containers and store them in the “Satellite Accumulation Area” for hazardous
waste.
 Keep collection containers securely covered to minimize odors and vapors.
 Tie plastic bag inside container closed when about ¾ full and attach a completed waste ID tag. Only use
heavy-duty opaque plastic bags for hazardous waste.
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E. Sharps Waste
“Sharps” waste includes broken glass, used syringe needles and blades. The sharp points and edges pose a
significant risk of punctures and cuts to people handling the waste materials.
 Do not overfill waste containers. Close up and tape containers when about ¾ full and prepare for disposal
appropriate to waste type.
 Place scalpel blades and needles in red designated plastic boxes labeled “Sharps”.
 Deliver “Sharps” container to Biology Stockroom when ready. Box must be closed, labeled and with no
protruding parts. Do not over fill the container.
 Broken glass that is not contaminated with blood or other biohazards may be placed in a cardboard or
plastic box labeled simply “Broken Glass”. Tape the box closed before putting it in standard trash cans or
garbage bins.
 Broken glass from a dropped preservative or other chemical container must also be handled as “Broken
Glass”. However, instead of disposing in the standard trash, put the sealed up box in with the hazardous
“lab trash”.
 Clearly label collection containers and store them in the “Satellite Accumulation Area” for hazardous waste
or biological waste collection area, as appropriate.
“SATELLITE ACCUMULATION AREA” BIOLOGICAL WASTE

FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE COLLECTION AREA
Biological
Chemical
Waste Embalming Waste
Fluid Waste
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Biol 328 Fall 2018 Lab Manual Part 2 (Labs 10-14)

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Biol 328 Fall 2018 Lab Manual Part 2 (Labs 10-14)

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Lab 10.

Celom and digestive system

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Greek and Latin Origin of Words

Word Definition Example

EXERCISE 1. STRUCTURES OF THE ABDOMINAL WALL

EXERCISE 2. CELOMIC CAVITIES AND VISCERA

1. coronary ligament of liver

Figure 10.1. Body cavity, midsagittal view showing arrangement of viscera.

EXERCISE 3. ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Dissect the stomach open and locate the gastric rugae.

What is the function of the gastric rugae?

Why does the stomach have so many mucous secreting cells?

What functions does the stomach have?

Locate the following:

1. accessory pancreatic duct

Locate the following.

Locate the following:

The pancreas is considered to be both an endocrine and an exocrine gland -- Explain.

Figure 10.7. General arrangement of organs of the

SELF TEST -- CELOM AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. The posterior body cavities develop from the embryonic celom.

Name: Lab section:

❑ Identify the organs of the cardiovascular system.

GREEK AND LATIN ORIGIN OF WORDS

Word Definition Example

EXERCISE 1. LOCATION AND ORIENTATION OF THE HEART

Locate the following structures:

EXERCISE 2. HEART STRUCTURE

great cardiac vein

right coronary art.

posterior interventricular art.

middle cardiac vein

EXERCISE 3. MAJOR CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS TO LEARN

EXERCISE 4. MAJOR ARTERIES AND VEINS TO LEARN

Figure 11.4. Arterial system. Label the indicated arteries.

Figure 11.5. Venous system. Label indicated veins.

Figure 11.6. Hepatic portal system. Label all indicated parts.

EXERCISE 5. STRUCTURE OF VEINS AND ARTERIES

SELF TEST -- CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

1. Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood.

Name: Lab section:

GREEK AND LATIN ORIGIN OF WORDS

Word Definition Example

EXERCISE 1. GENERAL ORIENTATION OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

EXERCISE 2. ORGANS AND STRUCTURES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

Try to retain the following structures with the larynx:

Figure 12.3. Human larynx, posterior and coronal views.

What is surfactant? Where does it come from? How is it adaptive?

Figure 12.4. Bronchial tree. Label indicated structures.

Figure 12.5. Alveolar sacs. Label indicated structures.

Lungs: Left Right

Why is lung cancer considered serious?

What is emphysema? How does it impair breathing?

What are lung adhesions? Why are they of concern?

c. pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

Figure 12.6. Lung structure and orientation

SELF-TEST -- RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

3. The Eustachian tubes open into the laryngeal pharynx.

4. The adenoids are lymphoid masses located in the laryngeal pharynx.