3

Shortenings: Science and

Technology
Douglas J. Metzroth

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Definition and Characteristics

Shortening is a commercially prepared edible fat used in frying, cooking, baking,
and as an ingredient in fillings, icings, and other confectionery items. It may have
been so named because, when dough is mixed, water-insoluble fat prevents cohe-
sion of gluten strands, literally ‘‘shortening’’ them and thus generating tender baked
goods. Shortening is a typically 100% fat product formulated with animal and/or
vegetable oils that have been carefully processed for functionality and to remove
undesirable flavor and aroma. Overall, shortening improves the texture and palat-
ability of food products while its calories provide heat and energy to fuel the body.
In its most recognized form, household shortening is a white, relatively soft,
plastic solid with a bland flavor and no detectable odor. Some types have a butter-
like color and flavor added. Household and industrial all-purpose shortenings are
products formulated with properties permitting their use in both frying and baking.
Pourable types include clear liquid or fluid (opaque) shortenings. Liquid shorten-
ings are typically used as cooking or salad oils. Fluid or opaque shortenings are
pourable products with a small amount of solid fat or emulsifier suspended in
oil. Because they are convenient to use, pourable shortenings are increasing in

Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Sixth Edition, Six Volume Set.
Edited by Fereidoon Shahidi. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

83
84 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

popularity especially for frying and baking. Shortening is also available in dry form
as powder, pellets, or flakes encapsulated in a water-soluble material. Skim milk,
cheese whey, corn syrup, soy protein isolate, and cellulose compounds have proven
feasible as encapsulating materials (1).

1.2. Products with Characteristics Similar to Shortening

Lard, tallow, and ghee are traditional animal fats that have existed for centuries.
Like most shortenings, all of these products are 100% fat. Vanaspati, another all-
fat product now primarily vegetable-based, is popular in all Eastern countries but
especially India and Pakistan. Other commercial shortening-like products are avail-
able with fat contents from 5% to 90%. Most of these contain an aqueous phase
emulsified in the oil phase. Butter and margarine are water-in-oil emulsions
manufactured worldwide, and most areas have legal labeling stipulations fixing
their fat content at 80% minimum. Table spreads are formulated with intermediate
fat levels generally from 40% to 80% and many popular brands fall within the
50–70% range. New low-fat or dietary products, spreads with fat levels of
5–40%, have recently been developed and are just entering the marketplace.
Animal fats were once the primary source oils in both North America and
Europe; however, shortening, margarine, spread, and low-fat, dietary table products
are now usually formulated from vegetable oils. Blends containing animal fats are
still available and popular in certain areas. In fact, new ‘‘blends’’ of butter and
vegetable oil are gaining acceptance. Animal fats and marine oils are important
fat sources in many areas of the world, and quality products are available in Latin
America, Australia, and Asia based exclusively on or containing significant levels
of these oils.

1.3. Production of Shortening

Shortening is generally considered an American invention. Table 1 gives U.S.
supply and utilization of shortening for the period 1986–2000 (2).
The focus of this chapter is shortening; brief information regarding margarine
and other similar products is offered due to similarities in raw materials, usage,
production methods, and equipment.

1.4. Functionality
Functionality is a term food technologists employ to describe how well a product
performs in a specific application. Shortening and margarine are often characterized
as highly functional products. In baking, margarine and shortening contribute to the
quality of the finished product by imparting a creamy texture and rich flavor, ten-
derness, and uniform aeration for moisture retention and size expansion. Liquid and
fluid shortenings are used in salad oils and for restaurant and industrial deep-fat and
pan frying. In frying, shortening functions as more than a heat transfer medium; it
also reacts with components in the food to develop unique, savory flavors and
 INTRODUCTION 85

TABLE 1. U.S Supply and Utilization of Shortening (in million lb) (2).

Supply Utilization

Production Food Disappearancea

Vegetable Animal Total Shipments to Per
Year Oil Fat Total Supplya Exports U.S. Territories Total Capita

1986 4,238 1,136 5,374 5,500 36 10 5,318 22.1

1987 4,233 1,005 5,237 5,374 31 10 5,195 21.4
1988 4,241 1,087 5,328 5,467 40 12 5,270 21.5
1989 4,288 1,027 5,315 5,460 19 13 5,309 21.5
1990 4,729 860 5,589 5,708 21 13 5,558 22.2
1991 5,004 720 5,724 5,841 31 8 5,654 22.3
1992 4,988 731 5,719 5,866 33 10 5,722 22.3
1993 5,818 706 6,524 6,626 37 7 6,488 24.9
1994 5,658 676 6,334 6,427 32 14 6,291 23.9
1995 5,316 659 5,975 6,065 33 12 5,914 22.2
1996 5,327 603 5,929 6,035 40 3 5,911 21.9
1997 5,034 622 5,656 5,737 39 3 5,603 20.5
1998 5,208 516 5,724 5,815 54 2 5,668 20.5
1999 5,447 498 5,945 6,037 65 1 5,886 21.1
2000 6,105 488 6,593 6,679 69 1 6,512 23.1
2001
a
Computed from unrounded data.
Source: USDA/Economic Research Service.

odors. Dry shortenings are convenient to store and use. Grease will not soak packa-
ging materials, and although expensive, it can be used in prepackaged cake, biscuit,
and pie crust mixes, which are free-flowing at room temperature. Those fat-based
products formulated and processed for plasticity spread readily and disperse thor-
oughly and uniformly in dough, batter, icing, and so on over a wide temperature
range.

1.5. Solid Fat Profiles for Margarine

The fat in shortening and margarine products exists in both liquid and solid form.
The solid fat index (SFI) is an analytical measure approximating the solid fat
content. It is always less than the actual solid content and, to be meaningful,
must be determined at several standard temperatures, usually 10
C (50
F),
21.1
C (70
F), 26.7
C (80
F), 33.3
C (92
F), 37.8
C (100
F), and sometimes
40
C (104
F).
The SFI measurements for table margarine are usually determined at 10
C
(50
F) as an indication of consistency during crystallization and refrigeration, at
21.1
C (70
F) to simulate room conditions during use, and at 33.3
C (92
F) to
approximate ‘‘mouth feel’’ or eating quality. If the 33.3
C (92
F) SFI level is too
high, the margarine will melt slowly in the mouth, often creating a ‘‘waxy’’ sensa-
tion. SFI curves for stick table-grade margarine are generally steep with solids
86 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1. Typical solid fat indices for margarine oils. (Courtesy of Kraft Food Ingredients,
Memphis, Tennessee.) ——, Table-grade stick; - - - -, soft tub.

levels from about 30% at 10
C (50
F) to less than 5% at 33.3
C (92
F) (3). Soft tub
margarine oils have less steep SFI curves for a smooth, more plastic consistency.
The SFI curves in Figure 1 are typical for U.S. tub- and stick-type margarine.

1.6. Solid Fat Profiles for Shortening

The SFI profile is a good indicator of the plastic range of a fat formulated for short-
ening. High-stability shortenings have a steep SFI profile and a narrow plastic
range. Typical all-purpose plastic shortenings retain much of their solid fat content
over a wider temperature range than high-stability types and consequently possess
much flatter profiles. Liquid pourable shortenings include clear oils as well as fluid
or opaque types. Pourable shortenings contain low solids levels with very flat SFI
profiles. Specialty shortenings have been formulated for specific applications
including cakes, dry cake mixes, bread, Danish and puff pastry, pie crust, cookies,
crackers, icing, creams and fillings, coating fat, nondairy products, and frying.
Specialty shortenings may be of any general type depending on the requirements
for that specific application, and their SFI profiles will be characteristic of that
particular type.
High-Stability Shortenings. A steep SFI profile is indicative of a narrow plastic
range. Products with this type of profile are often referred to as high-stability short-
enings. The SFI values may be 50 or greater at 10
C (50
F) but usually less than 10
at 40
C (104
F). As their SFI profiles indicate, these shortenings are not intended to
be workable over a wide temperature range. They tend to be hard and brittle below
18.3
C (65
F) and soft above 32.2
C (90
F). High-stability shortenings are used for
deep frying, as center fat for confectionery and bakery items, replacements for but-
ter and coating fats, in vegetable/dairy systems, and for crackers and hard cookies.
 INTRODUCTION 87

All-Purpose Shortenings. All-purpose shortenings were developed for household

use and to allow production of a wide variety of baked goods by firms that cannot
stock individual types formulated for every specialty item. Typical all-purpose plas-
tic shortenings contain 15–30% solid (crystalline) fat and retain many of these
solids over their intended temperature usage range of 16–32
C (60–90
F) (4). A
wide plastic range is essential as these products must resist breakdown during
creaming and are subject to wide temperature variations in the workplace and dur-
ing shipping and storage. All-purpose shortenings for baking contain emulsifiers to
enhance creaming ability and to improve air retention. As they reduce the smoke
point, emulsifiers should be omitted from the formulation when this type shortening
is used for deep frying. All-purpose shortenings are formulated as a compromise of
individual properties but yet to possess capabilities making them suitable for frying,
baking, and confectionery uses.
Pourable Shortenings. It is not unusual to classify an edible fat or oil as short-
ening simply to differentiate it from products such as margarine that contain moist-
ure and other nonfat materials. Liquid shortenings include clear oils as well as fluid,
opaque pourable products. The SFI profiles for clear oils are very flat as they nor-
mally contain very low levels of oil-soluble emulsifiers or hard fat. Clear oils can be
used in household grilling and frying and in institutional deep frying provided the
turnover rate is high enough (15–25%) so that stability is not a concern. The flavor
and oxidative stability of such oils is greatly improved by partially hydrogenating
soybean, safflower, corn, sunflower, or other source oils. After hydrogenation, the
oil is fractionated and the clear liquid oil is separated from solid portion. Above
16
C (60
F), these oils are usually free of suspended solids.
Fluid shortenings can be distinguished from liquid shortenings by their
opacity resulting from the suspension of high-melting emulsifiers or fully
hydrogenated fats. The total amount of suspended solids ranges between 5%
and 15%. These products are usually fluid between 18.3
C (65
F) and 32.2
C
(90
F); outside of this range, opaque shortenings may loose their pourability or
become more fluid depending on how temperature has altered their solid content.
Fluid shortenings are widely used in commercial frying but have also been
formulated and marketed successfully for baking cakes, bread, buns, rolls, and
pie crust.
Specialty Shortenings. Roll-in shortenings are specialty products used almost
exclusively for baking. Their primary use is as an ingredient in puff pastry. Puff
pastry is prepared by placing a layer of shortening on a layer of dough. This is
folded and sheeted until there are more than 700 fat–dough layers. When baked,
the shortening melts, liberating moisture that becomes steam ‘‘puffing’’ the thin
dough layers into a very delicate flaky structure. The SFI profile for puff pastry
is fairly flat with solid levels of 40% or higher at 10
C (50
F) to about 20% at
33.3
C (92
F).
Dry shortenings are fats that have been encapsulated in a water-soluble coating
material; their fat content is generally between 75% and 80%. Dry shortenings are
used in ready-to-use mixes where only water is added to form a batter ready for
baking.
88 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Figure 2. Typical solid fat indices for shortening. (Courtesy of Kraft Food Ingredients, Memphis,
Tennessee.) ——, High stability frying; - - - -, all-purpose;     , all-purpose emulsified; –  –  –,
bread; - -  - -  , liquid (fluid) frying.

Ambient temperatures, source oils, performance requirements, and storage

conditions change throughout the world, requiring SFI profile adjustment to meet
varying product needs. Typical SFI shortening profiles are shown in Figure 2.

2. PLASTIC THEORY

2.1. Plastic Solids

Modern edible fats are blends of one or more of about a dozen common oils. Those
with higher fat levels such as shortening, margarine, and spreads are formulated to
possess special physical characteristics. These products appear to be solid yet, when
subjected to a shearing force great enough to cause a permanent deformation, all
assume the rheological flow characteristics of a viscous liquid. Such solids are
referred to as plastic solids. Their plastic nature enables them to spread readily
and combine thoroughly with other solids or liquids without cracking, breaking,
or liquid oil separating from the crystalline fat. These solids are usually relatively
soft at ambient temperature and may actually contain as little as 5% solidified fat;
assuming that fat crystals are uniform spheres packed in a close cubical pattern, the
theoretical maximum solid content is slightly more than 52%.

2.2. Process Definition for Shortening

Shortening is a classic example of a plastic solid. In fact, from a process view,
shortening can be defined as a highly functional plastic solid commercially
 FORMULATION 89

prepared by carefully cooling, plasticizing, and tempering correctly formulated

blends of molten, edible fats and oils.

2.3. Conditions Essential for Plasticity

Plastic solids derive their functionality from their unique plastic nature. Three con-
ditions are essential for plasticity (5): (1) both liquid and solid phases must be pre-
sent; (2) the solid phase must be so finely dispersed that the entire solid–liquid
matrix can be effectively bound together by internal cohesive forces; and (3) proper
proportions must exist between the phases. Incorrect phase ratios adversely influ-
ence product rheology. For example, deficient solids content may result in oil
separation, whereas excessive solids can cause hardness or brittleness instead of
the desired viscous flow.

2.4. Influence of Crystal Size

Crystal size has a major influence on the rheological properties of plastic solids and
is therefore a critical factor that must be considered in their formulation. Fats exist
as a three-dimensional liquid–solid matrix in which the liquid oil must be con-
tained. Statically cooled molten fats always form large crystals; crystal population
is low and, when the total surface area is insufficient to bind the liquid phase within
the crystalline matrix, oil separation occurs. Products become progressively firmer
as the crystal size decreases. Rapidly chilling the same fat produces many more and
much smaller crystals with a far greater combined surface area enabling the liquid
phase to adhere more effectively to the crystal surface. A rapidly chilled shortening
formulation will be more stable, much firmer, and possess a greater plastic range
than a statically or slowly cooled fat. Typical commercially prepared shortenings,
especially those formulated from vegetable or marine oils, usually have mean
crystal sizes ranging from 5 mm to 9 mm (6).

3. FORMULATION

3.1. Crystalline Nature

Commercial fats solidify in several crystalline polymorphic forms. Two desirable
stable forms are commonly designated by the Greek letters beta (b) and beta-prime
(b0 ). Table 2 (7) lists many common fats and oils and their most commonly exhib-
ited polymorphic crystalline form.
When the higher melting portion of a solidifying fat crystallizes in a stable b0
form, the entire fat will crystallize in this same b0 configuration. Plastic shortenings
in this polymorphic form consist of small, uniform needlelike crystals, exhibit a
smooth texture, aerate well, have excellent creaming properties, and make good
cake and icing shortenings. Palm or cottonseed oils in their liquid and partially
hydrogenated forms are often included in shortening and margarine formulations
to promote b0 crystallization ensuring these qualities.
90 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

TABLE 2. Classification of Fats and Oils According to

Crystal Habit (7).

b Type b0 Type

Soybean Cottonseed
Safflower Palm
Sunflower Tallow (beef)
Sesame Herring
Peanut Menhaden
Corn Whale
Canola Rapeseed (high erucic acid)
Olive —
Coconut Milkfat (butter oil)
Palm kernel —
Lard Modified lard
Cocoa butter —

Fats that crystallize in the b polymorphic form tend to be more coarse textured
with large granular crystals. They are poor aerators; yet they function well in pie
crust applications. Lard crystals tend to be large and grainy, but pie crusts formu-
lated from it have earned wide acceptance because of their flaky texture.
The degree to which these crystallization tendencies will be exhibited is influ-
enced somewhat by blending but more significantly by the hardness of the fat in the
formulation. For example, fluid margarine, stick products with 75–80% oil, and soft
polyunsaturated tub types can be formulated by blending a high level of liquid oil
with a low level of a high-melting-point fat. Stick and soft tub products containing
50% oil can be blends comprising an intermediate level of a liquid oil plus an
intermediate level of a moderately hard fat. Base stock blending is the basis for
the successful formulation of stick margarine using 100% soybean oil—an oil
with a definite predisposition toward b crystallization (8).

3.2. Fatty Acid Distribution

Fats and oils are essentially triglycerides—glycerol molecules to which three fatty
acids are attached. The symbolic representation of this chemical structure is shown
in Figure 3.
Three different fatty acid chains are represented in Figure 3 by R1, R2, and R3. In
actuality, either two or all three may be the same. However, each source oil has
characteristic fatty acid compositions and distributions within their triglyceride
molecules that influence the melting point and crystalline structure of the solidified
fat in ways that are not always beneficial or desirable. For example, if all of the fatty
acid chains represented by the letter R are different or R1 and R2 the same but dif-
ferent than R3 , the triglyceride is asymmetrical. Fat blends with a high proportion of
asymmetrical triglycerides tend to develop a granular consistency on cooling that is
objectionable for most shortening and margarine compositions. Palm or cottonseed
oil is often included in blends because their b0 behavior promotes small needlelike
 FORMULATION 91

Figure 3. Structure of a triglyceride.

crystals that result in smooth-textured products. One reason for this behavior may
be that palm and cottonseed oils have a high ratio of symmetrical triglycerides (9).
Fat and oil are interchangeable terms. The distinguishing criterion is their phy-
sical state at ambient temperature; oils are usually thought of as liquids while fats
are considered as solids. Table 3 (10) lists the melting point, titer, and iodine value
(IV) of many oils commonly used to formulate shortening. Melting points for liquid
oils are usually not measured, but titer and iodine value are general indicators of the
relative fluidity of these oils. Titer is an analytical method for determining the con-
geal point of fats and for measuring the melting point of fatty acids. Although the
melting point of a triglyceride is not the same as its titer, it generally approximates
within a few degrees the actual melting point of harder fats. A high IV is a

TABLE 3. Melting Point, Titer, and Iodine Value of Selected Oils (10).

Fat or Oil Melting Point (
C) Titer (
C) Iodine Value

Coconut 24–27 20–24 7.5–10.5

Palm kernel 24–26 21–27 14–22
American lard 36.5 36–42 46–70
Tallow — 40–46 35–48
Butter oil 38 34 33–43
Palm oil 38–45 43–47 48–56
Sunflower — 16–20 125–136
Sesame — 20–25 103–116
Corn — 14–20 103–128
Safflower — — 140–150
Rapeseed — 11.5–15 97–108
Soybean — — 120–141
Cottonseed — 30–37 99–113
Peanut — 26–32 84–100
Cocoa butter — 45–50 35–40
Herring — 25 115–160
Menhaden — 32 150–165
Whale — — 110–135
Olive — 17–26 80–88
92 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

characteristic of a liquid oil while a low IV is indicative of a solid fat. Some fats
such as lard, palm, and cocoa butter are solids only at the highest ambient tempera-
tures while sesame, soybean, and peanut are clearly liquid except in cold climates.
To achieve shortening products with desirable physical and functional end prop-
erties, the melting and crystallization habits of commercial fats are manipulated
through hydrogenation, fractionation, interesterification, or combinations of these
processes. Each process is a legitimate topic for study. Without these processes,
or more specifically, without the modified oil products obtained from them, margar-
ine and shortening manufacture would be much more difficult. This chapter deals
briefly and only in a general way with these processes and the role of each in the
formulation of edible fat products. It is assumed that properly modified oil products
are available and used correctly.
Producers normally rely on only a few source oils indigenous to their geographic
area or that can be imported economically. Soybean is the primary oil used in the
United States while very little palm is consumed and none is produced. Canada’s
major oil is canola (low-erucic-acid rapeseed). Malaysia, Indonesia, and Central
America are the largest producers and users of palm oil. Eastern Europe, like Canada,
relies on low-erucic-acid rapeseed (LEAR), sunflower, and soybean oils. It is appar-
ent from Table 3 that it is virtually impossible to formulate products with controlled
melting and crystalline properties using only one of these oils. Even in areas where
conditions and economics justify a variety of types, modification methods other than
blending are essential to adequately control rheologic properties.

3.3. Fractionation
Gasoline, lubricating oil, fuel oil, diesel fuel, and various solvents are all familiar
products obtained from petroleum. Several processes are employed in a petroleum
oil refinery to separate and recover these useful ‘‘fractions’’ from the base oil.
Edible oils also contain liquid and solid fractions that can be separated by a frac-
tionation process. Dry fractional crystallization is a process in which two or more
components with different melting points are cooled and separated based on their
solubility or crystallization at different temperatures. Fractional crystallization is
frequently applied to palm oil to separate liquid palm olein from solid palm stearin.
Solvent fraction is a process in which the various fractions are separated by dis-
solving the triglyceride in a solvent. This solution is then carefully cooled until the
desired fraction precipitates. The precipitate is recovered by filtration. Solvent frac-
tionation can be applied to virtually any edible oil (11).

3.4. Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is a chemical process in which hydrogen gas is reacted with oils to
increase their oxidative and thermal stability by converting liquid components to
semisolid fractions. The melting and crystalline characteristics developed are essen-
tial for formulating shortenings with specific desirable physical and functional
properties.
 FORMULATION 93

It is a catalyzed reaction dependent on catalyst type, temperature, time, pressure,

agitation, and the starting oil. Platinum and palladium catalysts have been used but
nickel, supported on an inert carrier, is now much more common. The catalyst must
be removed after hydrogenation usually by filtration.
Each carbon atom in a fatty acid chain can be bonded to as many as four other
atoms—two hydrogen and two carbon. When four bonds are present, they are
referred to as single bonds and the fatty acid chain is saturated with hydrogen
atoms. Naturally occurring triglycerides contain unsaturated fatty acid chains
with carbon atoms interconnected by double bonds. In the hydrogenation reaction,
hydrogen gas reacts with triglycerides at these selective points of unsaturation in
their fatty acid chains.
Hydrogenation can be conducted in batch converters or continuous reactors. The
reaction is controlled by stopping the flow of hydrogen gas. As hydrogen is added at
the double-bond sites, the melting point of the original oil or fat gradually
increases. If only a small amount of hydrogen is added to liquid oils such as
soybean or cottonseed, the end product can still remain liquid. As more hydrogen
reacts, more saturation is achieved, and soft base fats suitable for shortening formu-
lations will be obtained. Hydrogenation can be continued until all of the double
bonds have been saturated with hydrogen and the oil ‘‘fully’’ hardened. Fully
hardened products are solids at room temperature and, although generally hard
and brittle, are still useful formulation tools.
As the hydrogenation reaction is exothermic, it affords interesting possibilities
for energy conservation. This heat of reaction can be used to preheat the feed oil,
which in turn cools the hydrogenated fat. Systems are also available that use this
heat to produce steam.
Hydrogenation is the most widely used and practical method of preparing fats
and oils capable of imparting essential physical and functional properties to short-
ening. It is presently used to modify and stabilize marine, animal, and all types of
vegetable oils. An excellent synopsis of batch and continuous hydrogenation pro-
cesses is presented by Edvardsson and Irandoust (12).

3.5. Interesterification
Interesterification is an effective tool for raising and/or lowering the melting points
of edible oils. Like hydrogenation, it is a catalyzed chemical reaction; however, it
alters fats by rearranging the fatty acid distributions in their triglyceride molecules.
This rearrangement can be effected in a random or directed manner. Total randomi-
zation is the most widely used practice but either randomization process results in
profoundly different triglyceride compositions, which follow the laws of probability
based on the composition of the starting triglycerides.
The random rearrangement reaction can be conducted in continuous or batch
reactors. The batch reaction vessel is agitated and fitted with a nitrogen sparger
and coils for heating and cooling. Moisture, which poisons the alkaline catalyst,
is removed by heating the fat or oil blend under vacuum. After drying and cooling
to the reaction temperature, the catalyst is added to the reaction vessel and the
94 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

oil–catalyst mixture vigorously agitated for 30–60 min. In the continuous reactor,
the fats are flash dried and the fat–oil slurry is formed continuously by adding
catalyst to the oil as it passes through coils sized to provide adequate time for
randomization. When the reaction is completed, the catalyst is neutralized with
water or acid and the salts formed or removed by filtration or centrifugation.
In directed rearrangement, the randomization process is interrupted by selec-
tively removing one or more of the reaction products through continuous distillation
or fractional crystallization. The remaining reactants continue to randomize
promoting the formation of specific glycerides.
Palm oil production has increased significantly in the last 10 years and may soon
exceed that of all other edible oils. Palm oil is also the only b0 type whose crystal
habit is not changed by interesterification. Interesterification has no effect on the
oils in the b classification either; however, randomization in the presence of another
oil can moderate their b tendency (13).
Interesterification is regularly used to process palm, palm-kernel, and coconut
oils for use in various types of confectionery, margarine, cooking and frying fats,
and as blends with lauric oils in reduced-calorie spreads. These three oils crystallize
slowly, are often difficult to chill and package, and tend to become hard and grainy
during storage. Interesterification often reduces or eliminates these undesirable
characteristics (14).

4. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT

4.1. General
The ultimate consistency attainable depends on the fats and oils in the formulation,
the processes to which these have been subjected, the equipment and conditions
used to solidify them, and the conditions under which these products are stored
prior to utilization. Properly formulated liquid blends can be converted to true
plastic solids only when the apparatus employed provides controlled cooling,
crystallization, and working techniques. The manner in which these plasticity
and crystallization theories have been applied and employed in practice can be
discerned by examining commercial production apparatus.

4.2. Anco Cooling Roll

The cooling roll is one of the earliest unions of equipment and theory actually
applied to solidifying lard and shortening. Anco, with a commercial installation
in 1881 in Chicago, was a pioneer supplier of this type of apparatus. As shown
in the sketch in Figure 4, the device consisted of a hollow, internally refrigerated
cast-iron cylinder rotating at 7–11 rpm in a trough containing molten fat slightly
above its melting point. As this cylinder revolved, a thin film of fat solidified on
its surface and was continuously removed by a doctor blade. The solidified fat
film dropped into a special screw conveyor called a picker box. The flights of the
 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT 95

Figure 4. Anco cooling roll sketch. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)

conveyor were interspersed with blades that incorporated air while beating and
working the fat. High-pressure pumps then forced the fat through orifices, slots,
screens, and valves to break crystal aggregates and further disperse the entrapped
air.
Figure 5 is a photograph of a roll with its ancillary equipment. Cylinder sizes
ranged from 610 mm (2 ft) in diameter by 762 mm (2.5 ft) long to 1219 mm (4 ft)
in diameter by 2743 mm (9 ft) long. Capacities for lard ranged from 454 kg/h to
6350 kg/h (1000–14,000 lb/h) and for shortening from 227 kg/h to 3175 kg/h

Figure 5. Anco cooling roll. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)

96 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(500–7000 lb/h). Although still employed to produce fat flakes, the cooling roll is
now virtually extinct having been replaced almost entirely by the Votator process
for crystallizing and plasticizing shortening and margarine.

4.3. Votator Process

More than 60 years ago, Votator invented what is still the world’s only closed con-
tinuous process for cooling, crystallizing, and plasticizing edible fat. A simplified
diagram for this process is shown in Figure 6. This system employs Votator
scraped-surface heat exchangers (A units) for cooling and agitated holding units
(B units) for working and plasticizing the product as it crystallizes. Positive-
displacement pumps develop high internal product pressure within the cooling
and working units that, when combined with special extrusion valves, ensure that
the crystallized shortening will be free of crystal aggregates, uniformly aerated, and
possess the desired texture and plastic structure.

4.4. Votator Scraped-Surface Heat Exchanger

Scraped-surface heat exchangers are the most commonly used devices for chilling
edible fats. Votator manufactured the first such heat exchanger in the early 1920s.
The name has since become synonymous with the device and many scraped-surface
heat exchangers are now commonly referred to as ‘‘Votators.’’
Figure 7 is a photograph of a two-cylinder Votator with a gravity ammonia
refrigeration system. Its basic construction is shown in Figure 8, which is a
cross-sectional view of a Votator scraped-surface heat exchanger. Each cylinder
consists of a hollow cylindrical tube usually 152 mm (6 in.) in diameter by
1829 mm (72 in.) long. This tube is externally jacketed for cooling using brine or
direct expansion refrigerants such as ammonia. As the molten oil formulation
passes through the tube and cools, an electric motor rotates a shaft centrally located
inside the product tube. This ‘‘mutator’’ shaft is fitted with mechanical seals at each
end and floating blades that, as the shaft spins, constantly clean the heat transfer
surface by scraping and removing the product film from the tube wall. Each mutator
shaft has two effective rows of 152-mm (6-in.) long blades staggered along its
entire length. This staggered blade arrangement provides improved mixing over
the older conventional in-line blade mounting system. All margarine and shortening
cooling units are equipped with a hollow mutator shaft and a rotary joint through
which hot water can be circulated to prevent solids buildup on the shaft body. Stan-
dard shafts are 119 mm (4.6875 in.) in diameter and are rotated at about 400 rpm.
Larger and smaller diameter shafts with three and four rows of in-line or staggered
blades are available for special applications.
Shortening units are constructed of carbon steel. The water phase in margarine
is corrosive, and sanitation procedures require that all of the equipment used to
manufacture it must be chemically cleaned. Margarine processing units contain
chromium-plated commercially pure nickel heat transfer tubes and stainless steel
for all product-contacted metal surfaces.
 Figure 6. Votator shortening process—block flow diagram. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)
97
98 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Figure 7. Votator scraped-surface heat exchanger. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville,

Kentucky.)

4.5. Supercooling and Direct Expansion Refrigeration

In order to form small crystals, shortening must be cooled very rapidly; so rapidly
in fact that the flow at the exit of the Votator must contain virtually no crystals
although cold enough for significant levels of solid fat to exist. In reality, the
heat exchanger must be capable of supercooling the molten shortening formulation.
Fortunately, all triglycerides exhibit a definite propensity for supercooling but, to
achieve it, the residence time within the cooler must be limited to invariably less
than 20 s. This mandates highly efficient heat exchangers and the use of refrigerants
with favorable physical properties and effective heat transfer characteristics.
Ammonia and chlorofluorocarbons fulfill these demands and are widely used as
refrigerants in heat exchangers for cooling shortening.
This cooling concept is commonly called direct expansion refrigeration.
Currently there are four basic variations employed: gravity, forced circulation,
pool boiling, and liquid overfeed.
Gravity Refrigeration System. The gravity refrigeration system shown in
Figure 9 is the simplest to comprehend. Liquid refrigerant flows from its receiver
 Figure 8. Cross-sectional view of a Votator scraped-surface heat exchanger. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)
99
100 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Figure 9. Direct expansion gravity refrigeration system. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville,

Kentucky.)
 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT 101

in the compressor plant to a surge drum installed above the freezing cylinder(s). A
modulating thermostatically controlled expansion valve automatically maintains the
correct refrigerant level in this vessel. The temperature of the liquid refrigerant,
even if subcooled, has no detrimental influence on the operation of this type of sys-
tem. Gravity forces the refrigerant into the cooling jacket where product heat
vaporizes a portion of the liquid while reducing the bulk density of the remainder.
The flow of vapor and this density difference combine to create the classic thermo-
syphon effect, which forces liquid refrigerant to circulate from the surge drum to the
cooler. Baffles in the surge drum effectively separate the vapor from the liquid. A
pressure-regulating valve controls the pressure in the surge drum and, consequently,
the temperature of the refrigerant in the cooling cylinder. Makeup liquid enters
through the level control and the entire cycle continues. Individual surge drums
can be provided for each cooling cylinder or a single drum can be used for as
many as three cylinders.
The gravity system protects against freeze-up through an instantaneous current
relay system. The current drawn by the heat exchanger drive motor is continuously
monitored and, at a preset but higher than desired operating level, it closes a sole-
noid valve in the line from the cylinder to the surge drum. Refrigerant circulation is
stopped and residual heat from hot metal surfaces and the product vaporizes enough
refrigerant to build sufficient pressure to instantly force any remaining liquid refrig-
erant to return to the surge drum. When the current draw returns to normal, the sole-
noid valve opens and the heat exchanger automatically resumes cooling. Optional
hot gas controls can be provided to assist in removing refrigerant for pump down.
Forced Circulation Refrigeration Systems. Forced circulation direct expansion
refrigeration systems employ principles similar to gravity systems. Refrigerant
must be physically transported to the cooling cylinder since the surge drum is
generally located below the heat exchanger. Liquid level can be regulated with thermo-
static controls or float valves. Some designs use a mechanical pump while others
depend on pressure differential and gas pressure to force the liquid to flood the heat
transfer tube. Injectors, based on Bernoulli’s theorem, take advantage of the liquid
supply pressure to transport refrigerant from the surge drum to the cylinder. Freeze-
up protection devices sense motor load and either turn off the pump or stop the
motive refrigerant flow to the injector. Since the surge drum is physically below
the cylinder, refrigerant naturally drains to it. Hot gas systems can also be provided.
Pool Boiling Refrigeration Systems. In a pool boiling system, the jacket area
surrounding the heat exchanger tube serves as the refrigerant surge drum. The
heat exchanger tube is flooded with liquid refrigerant, and a level control device
maintains this flooded condition by simply replacing the liquid as it vaporizes. A
valve in the line returning vapor to the compressor plant regulates the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant in the jacket. This type of system is often provided
with a ‘‘drop tank’’ to which the refrigerant charge is dumped during pump down or
to prevent freeze-up. Hot gas systems are available.
Liquid Overfeed Refrigeration Systems. One commonality of all of the previous
systems is that all of the liquid refrigerant entering is intended to be returned as
vapor. Liquid overfeed (LOF) is a proven direct expansion concept in which only
102 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

25–35% of the liquid flowing to the heat exchanger is actually vaporized. A large
low-pressure receiver replaces individual surge drums. This receiver, normally
located in the compressor plant, is designed to separate the vapor from the circu-
lated liquid (15). Overload protection against freezeup is included and hot gas
systems can be provided.
Where LOF is already employed or when new installations require four or more
surge drums, economics favor LOF. Advantages include:

1. One low-pressure receiver replaces multiple surge drums.

2. Surge drum controls and safety devices are eliminated.
3. Refrigerant volume in the operating area is reduced.
4. Oil does not accumulate in heat exchanger jackets.
5. The low-pressure receiver also serves as a suction trap.
6. Subcooled liquid can be used.
7. Liquid from one receiver can be returned to receivers at higher or lower
pressures.
8. Has extremely rapid boil-off.
9. Refrigerant is immediately evacuated to the low-pressure receiver during
pump down.

Only Votator is known to have designed scraped-surface heat exchangers for

LOF refrigeration and to have plants actually operating successfully using this
principle.

4.6. Crystallization
With efficient heat exchangers cooling through direct expansion refrigeration, the
product delivered is supercooled significantly below its equilibrium temperature
and primed for crystallization. A supercooled fat composition allowed to solidify
without agitation and mechanical work will solidify to form an extremely strong
crystal lattice and exhibit a narrow plastic range. This is a desirable characteristic
for stick margarine formulations but, where specific body and plasticity is neces-
sary, the plastic range can be altered and extended by mechanically working the
fat while it is crystallizing from the supercooled state (16). In general, these fats
require crystallization times with mechanical working of about 2–5 min. Votator
developed a special device for this purpose—the agitated working unit.

4.7. Votator Agitated Working Unit

Figure 10 is a cross-sectional, cutaway view of a Votator working unit often
referred to as a B unit. Depending on the product and the required residence
time, B units vary in size from 76 mm (3 in.) in diameter by 305 mm (12 in.)
long to 457 mm (18 in.) in diameter by 1372 mm (54 in.) long. All sizes contain
 Figure 10. Cross-sectional view of a Votator agitated working unit. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)
103
104 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Figure 11. Votator agitated working unit. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)

relatively small diameter shafts with pins fixed throughout the length of the shaft. A
photograph of a B unit is shown in Figure 11. Pins welded into the product cylinder
intermesh with the shaft pins as the shaft rotates. The mechanical working accom-
plished by this device during the primary crystallization period distributes the latent
heat evolved uniformly and forms fine discrete crystals throughout the crystallizing
mass. For shortening, the residence time is normally 2–3 min with standard shaft
speeds of 100–125 rpm. Margarine processing generally requires less residence
time but variable and often higher agitation speeds. Although the product tempera-
ture rises within, B units are normally not jacketed for external cooling, but it is
beneficial to jacket margarine B units with hot water to aid in melting and cleaning.
Shortening worker units can be constructed of carbon steel, but stainless steel is
required for margarine units.

4.8. Tempering
Definition. Except for table margarine, plasticized edible fats are usually packaged
and immediately transported to and stored in a constant temperature room for 24–
72 h. This quiescent heat treatment is referred to as tempering. It is generally agreed
that tempering should be conducted at about 27
C (80
F) and that it improves
 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT 105

plasticity and creaming properties and a plastic fat’s ability to maintain a uniform
consistency despite reasonable temperature fluctuations during storage.
Theory. Considerable confusion exists and theories abound as to exactly what
happens during tempering. One contends that low-melting-point triglycerides
dissolve and recrystallize to produce a stronger more homogeneous structure
(17). Another proposes that all crystalline forms exist initially and that conversion
to a stable polymorphic form for slowly transforming formulations requires quies-
cent holding at a temperature just below the melting point of the lowest melting
polymorph with 29
C (85
F) being an acceptable temperature compromise (18).
These products have complex triglyceride structures that can and do crystallize
in multiple polymorphic forms. Since they pass from molten oils to packaged
plastic solids in normally less than 5 min, all possible crystalline forms will be pre-
sent. Most of these, however, are not stable but, given time and sufficient energy
input, all will revert to stable structures. Whatever the mechanism, it is generally
agreed that the rheologic properties most affected by crystal transformation are
substantially stabilized during the first 48 h of tempering.
Fluid shortenings are finding increased acceptance in all segments of the bakery
industry. While fluid products based on b0 hard fats can be stabilized by normal
quiescent tempering; products based on b hard fats require tempering under agita-
tion to form a stable suspension. Votator’s current recommendation for bakery
shortening systems and fluid shortenings in general is that agitated tempering for
at least 4 and preferably 6 h is necessary to form a crystalline dispersion with a
viscosity low enough for pumping but high enough for prolonged suspension.
Constant–temperature rooms for tempering shortening are expensive to operate
and create logistic problems maintaining and rotating inventories. While it cannot
be eliminated, tempering time can be reduced in many cases by 50% or more.
Obviously, the material leaving the B unit is not completely crystallized nor has
it crystallized into a completely stable polymorphic form. Nevertheless, it must still
conform to the laws of physical chemistry. Phase equilibria dictate that, if cooled
further, additional liquid must solidify. Further cooling of this viscous crystalline
mass is possible through the use of a special scraped-surface heat exchanger or
‘‘postcooler’’ often called a C unit.
The Votator C Unit. The Votator C unit is essentially an A unit with the mutator
shaft installed 6 mm (14 in.) off the centerline of the heat transfer tube. This
‘‘eccentric’’ design forces the scraper blades into a cam-type motion with each
revolution of the mutator, and this continuous oscillation gently kneads the product
while cleaning the tube surface. Consequently, sufficient mixing is developed to
maintain efficient heat transfer even at very low shaft speeds. Since high shaft
speeds are not required, mechanical power input is minimized. The net result is
that the viscous crystalline material from the B unit can be cooled back to the
temperature achieved in the A unit. Liquid fat, which in the quiescent state would
ordinarily crystallize onto existing crystals increasing their size, is forced to crystal-
lize creating more stable individual crystals. The C unit can reduce tempering time
while also providing a means of controlling both viscosity and temperature at
the filling station.
106 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

5. SHORTENING PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

5.1. Votator Carbon Steel Lard and Shortening Systems

Because shortening is a 100% oil product, expensive stainless steel equipment for a
shortening is not required, and the Votator model LS182 shortening system is con-
structed entirely of mild steel. All of the equipment is cleaned simply by circulating
oil until all of the fat has been melted and then purging with air or inert gas. No
chemical cleaning is necessary.
The basic system components are an accumulator for storage of the direct expan-
sion refrigerant and its necessary valves and controls, two 6  72 Votators located
directly below the accumulator and an 18  54 agitated working unit. The accumu-
lator is shown on the top right in Figure 12 immediately above the two cylinder
scraped-surface heat exchanger. The working unit is installed on the same frame
beneath the cooling cylinders. The pumping system on the left includes a raw mate-
rial tank and two high-speed rotary gear pumps driven by a single, double-shafted
motor. Special extrusion and backpressure valves are included in the interconnected
product piping provided and installed at the factory.
Figure 12 is the process flow diagram for the Votator model LS182 shortening
system described above. Prepared shortening formulations are normally stored at
between 49
C (120
F) and 60
C (140
F). From storage, the molten oil is either
pumped or gravity flows to a raw material tank located at the lower right-hand
corner of the diagram. A float valve maintains a constant level in this tank as a
high-speed positive displacement rotary gear pump draws oil from it. Air or inert
gas is usually injected into the oil at the suction of this pump. The backpressure
control valve maintains a constant pressure of approximately 24 bar (350 psig) at
the pump discharge. With a controlled level in the raw material tank and a constant-
speed positive-displacement pump, a fixed ratio of oil and air is maintained ensur-
ing a constant product density. Shortening normally contains 10–15% air by volume
although considerably more can be uniformly incorporated in proper formulations.
A water-jacketed shell-and-tube-type heat exchanger precools the molten oil to
just above its melting point, usually 43–46
C (110–115
F). From this precooler, the
oil flows directly to the Votator two-cylinder A unit. The primary function of the
precooler is to reduce the heat load on the A units, thus maximizing their cooling
capacity and ensuring that the greatest number of crystal nuclei are developed as the
fat is supercooled. The A units chill the oil from the precooler to about 18
C (65
F)
or to a previously determined temperature required to produce the desired plasticity.
Very little crystallization actually occurs in the A unit although SFI profiles indicate
that 25% or more solidification is possible at the A-unit exit temperature. The fat
leaves the A unit in a semifluid supercooled state primed for crystallization and
ideally prepared for plasticizing via the B unit.
The supercooled stream from the A unit flows directly to the worker unit. There
is normally a 5–8
C (10–15
F) temperature rise across the B unit most of which
results from latent heat of crystallization; mechanical power does not add signifi-
cantly to the total heat input. The plasticized fat from the B unit is forced through
a special extrusion valve that also maintains an internal pressure of 17–20 bar
107

Figure 12. Process flow diagram for a Votator model LS182 shortening system. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)
108 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(250–300 psig) inside all the A and B units. This pressure combines with the action
of the extrusion valve to ensure thorough gas dispersion and breaks any crystal
aggregates that form. A second rotary gear pump develops the pressure necessary
to transport the viscous crystalline mass to distant filling points while producing
enough pressure for final texturization by a second extrusion valve located just prior
to filling.
By varying the size and number of the coolers and working units, systems with
virtually any desired capacity can be provided. Completely engineered and
prepackaged shortening systems are available in capacities from 1361 kg/h to
9072 kg/h (3000–20,000 lb/h). Pilot plants for 91 kg/h (200 lb/h) are also available.

5.2. Votator Stainless Steel Margarine/Shortening Systems

While many manufacturers produce only shortening, there is an increasing demand
for combination systems capable of processing margarine as well. In 1993, Votator
introduced the stainless steel lard/shortening (SLS) series. Completely engineered,
prepackaged, assembled, and factory-tested SLS combination margarine/shortening
systems are now available with capacities from 1361 to 9072 kg/h (3000–20,000 lb/h)
of shortening or 1043 to 6350 kg/h (2300–14,000 lb/h) of stick or tub-type margarine.
Figure 13 is a photograph of a system that has a capacity of 4536 kg/h
(10,000 lb/h) for shortening and 3175 kg/h (7000 lb/h) for margarine. The metal

Figure 13. Votator model SLS182 margarine/shortening system. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell,

Louisville, Kentucky.)
109

Figure 14. Process flow diagram for a Votator model SLS182 margarine/shortening system. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)
110 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

surfaces in the feed pump, B unit, and all interconnecting valves and piping are
stainless steel as is the mounting frame. All metal product-contacted surfaces in
the Votator A units are also stainless steel except for the heat transfer product
tube, which is commercially pure nickel with a hard chromium plating inside.
Independent gear motor drives are provided for all A and B units.
The process flow diagram for the Votator model SLS182 margarine/shortening
system in Figure 13 is shown in Figure 14. A units supercool the molten oil blend
while B units work and texturize it as it crystallizes. A high-pressure stainless steel
feed pump generates sufficient pressure to overcome the resistance created during
supercooling and plasticizing and to transport this viscous product to the filling
station. A units and B units experience higher internal pressures than with the
two-pump arrangement and must be designed for at least 41 bar (600 psig). Newer
designs are currently capable of operating at 68–102 bar (1000–1500 psig). The
only option required to convert from shortening to soft margarine production are
variable-speed drives for the feed pump and B units. Because of the elimination

Figure 15. Control panel for Votator SLS margarine/shortening systems. (Courtesy of Cherry
Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)
 SHORTENING PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 111

of the raw material tank, one feed pump and several control valves, a Votator SLS
system is only about 20% more expensive than an all-carbon-steel Votator carbon
steel lard/shortening (LS) system despite the upgrade to all stainless steel construc-
tion and individual gear motor drives.
A completely redesigned manual control panel is shown in Figure 15. The opera-
tor panel, now a stainless steel washdown enclosure, also contains the necessary
start/stop push buttons and running lights as well as digital indicators for product
and refrigeration temperatures. The refrigeration temperature is adjustable from the
operator panel. Circuit breakers, conforming to the International Electrical Code
(IEC), have replaced fuse-protected motor starters. Motor current is sensed and
indicated on an ammeter with a digital display. Freeze-up is prevented by stopping
cooling at a factory preset current level. This power level can easily be reset in
the field.

5.3. Chemetator Scraped-Surface Heat Exchanger

In 1993, Crown Iron Works Company of Roseville, Minnesota, acquired controlling
interest in a new U.K.-based joint-venture operation. The new company, Crown
Chemtech Ltd., provides processing systems for the manufacture of margarine
and shortening. Figure 16 is a photograph of a Chemetator model 246-A4M with
four cooling cylinders. Each cylinder has an individual ammonia refrigeration sys-
tem and a separate drive motor for each mutator.

Figure 16. Chemoreactor scraped-surface heat exchanger unit. (Courtesy of Crown Chemtech
Ltd., Reading, U.K.)
112 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Figure 17. Gerstenberg & Agger Perfector type (2 þ 2)  92R. (Courtesy of Gerstenberg &
Agger A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark.)

5.4. Gerstenberg & Agger Margarine/Shortening Systems

Gerstenberg & Agger A/S also provides processing systems to manufacture short-
ening and margarine. Figure 17 is a photograph of a shortening system with a pro-
duction capacity of 10,000 kg/h (22,000 lb/h). It has four chilling tubes, two
independent cooling systems, and is also suitable for production of soft margarine.
Special features include a unique drop tank system to ensure product does not
freeze inside the chilling tubes in case of short production breaks, a maximum
allowable product pressure rating of 80 bar (1176 psig), high-efficiency outside
corrugated chilling tubes with chrome plating inside, tungsten carbide mechanical
product seals, and optional separate cooling systems for each tube. The heat
exchangers feature special floating knives as shown in Figure 18.
Figure 19 is a photograph of a puff pastry margarine system with a production
capacity of 4000 kg/h (8800 lb/h). It has six chilling tubes, three independent
cooling systems, a maximum product pressure rating of 180 bar (2646 psig) and
a ‘‘bulldog’’ knife system. This unit also contains the special features described
for the shortening Perfector type (2 þ 2)  92R shown in Figure 18.
 SHORTENING PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 113

Figure 18. Gerstenberg & Agger floating knife mutator shaft system for Perfector type
(2 þ 2)  92R. (Courtesy of Gerstenberg & Agger A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark.)

Figure 19. Gerstenberg & Agger Perfector type (2 þ 2)  180. (Courtesy of Gerstenberg &
Agger A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark.)
114 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Figure 20. Gerstenberg & Agger intermediate crystallizer type 15 Ltr. for Perfector type 125.
(Courtesy of Gerstenberg & Agger A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark.)

Figure 20 is a photograph of an intermediate crystallizer that can be mounted

directly on each chilling tube to ensure correct plasticity and crystal formation in
all types of products such as table margarine, soft margarine, shortening, and cake
and cream margarine. Intermediate crystallizers can be equipped with T pins that
are especially suited for production of puff pastry.

6. ANALYTICAL EVALUATION AND QUALITY CONTROL

Control of the quality and consistency of the final product depends on understand-
ing, adhering to, and applying the principles underlying cooling, crystallizing, and
texturizing to production and selecting and controlling the ingredients that consti-
tute the formulation. The Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the
American Oil Chemists’ Society (19) is the definitive analytical reference for eval-
uating raw materials and finished products in the fats and oils industry. Referred to
in the industry as simply the AOCS Methods, it is an essential tool for every ana-
lytical laboratory. The fourth edition contains approximately 1200 pages in two
heavy-duty loose-leaf ring binders, details more than 400 collaboratively tested
and verified methods, and is currently used in more than 40 countries. Procedures
and the apparatus required are described for all analyses required to properly char-
acterize shortening. Typically, analytical methods are conducted to measure crystal
size, color, solid fat index or content (SFI or SFC), iodine value, refractive index,
Wiley melting point, dropping and softening point, oxidative stability, peroxide
value, viscosity, penetration, consistency, and texture and color.
Sophisticated instruments have been developed to reduce the time needed to
measure critical factors influencing shortening’s rheologic properties. These include
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), polarized light microscopes, x-ray scatterers,
revolving laser beams, gas–liquid chromatography (GLC), high-performance liquid
 ANALYTICAL EVALUATION AND QUALITY CONTROL 115

chromatography (HPLC), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), and differential

scanning calorimetry (DSC).
Crystal size and distribution was first measured using polarized light microscopy
but the analysis is time consuming and inaccurate. Recently, light or x-ray scatter-
ing and sedimentation methods coupled with computer analysis have provided new
and improved techniques for measuring mean crystal size and size distribution.
A revolving laser beam generated by a laser particle counter can be coupled with
a computer using special software to measure and record crystalline information.
Crystal structure can be viewed by polarized light microscopy.
The SFC and SFI values can be determined by dilatometric methods or by pulsed
NMR. The dilatometric method is still considered the most accurate, but NMR
provides reliable information much more quickly.
Until the advent of chromatography, triglyceride and fatty acid analysis was
difficult and time consuming. With GLC, HPLC, or TLC these analyses are now
routine.
Differential scanning calorimetry is used to determine the melting behavior of
shortenings. A small sample is rapidly chilled using liquid nitrogen and then
reheated. The cooling and heating rates are accurately controlled at about 5
C
per minute. Energy is graphed as a function of temperature. Exothermal crystalliza-
tion appears as a peak in these curves. Curves for most shortenings contain a single
major peak occurring at a temperature 4
C or 5
C (39.2
F or 41
F) higher than the
softening point. Products crystallizing in the b0 polymorphic form exhibit a single
sharp melting peak while those in the b configuration have broader peaks.
Hydrogenated fat may appear as additional peaks at higher melting temperatures.
Differential scanning calorimetry analyses can be used to determine the poly-
morphic form of pure components, but these melting curves are not absolute
indicators of the crystalline structure of compound shortenings (20).
Devices have also been developed to measure hardness and plasticity by com-
pression. A curve is obtained comparing the compressing force applied to the
resulting deformation. Initially, the curve is straight with the degree of deformation
dependant on the formulation and the force applied. If the compressing force is
increased further, a break will appear in most shortenings. Samples that are hard
and brittle have a narrow plastic range and the breaking point occurs after very little
deformation. Viscous flow and plasticity is indicated by curves that round off with
long flat sections.
A cone penetrometer can also be used to determine hardness (AOCS Method Ce
16–60) (21). A cone of specified mass and dimensions is dropped into a prepared
sample. The relative hardness of the sample is determined by dividing the mass of
the cone by the depth of penetration. The cone penetrates farther into soft products
and produces subsequently lower relative hardness values. A single temperature
penetration value is not a true indication of overall relative plasticity. Narrow
differences in penetration values at low and high temperatures indicate a wide
plastic range while huge differences indicate a narrow range. Some products are
formulated to be naturally firmer than others, depending on geographic area and
intended usage.
116 SHORTENINGS: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Management support is the key to any quality assurance program. High-product

quality standards must be established and line production supervision must have the
technical training, authority, and support of upper management to enforce those
controls and ensure the production of quality shortenings.

7. PACKAGING AND STORAGE

Semisolid plastic shortenings are usually packaged in 0.5-kg and 1.5-kg (1-lb and
3-lb) cans, cubes, 50-kg (110-lb) cartons, and in drums containing about 175 kg
(380 lb). This type of plastic shortening is also available in ‘‘chubs,’’ prints, and
sheets ready for direct end-use application.
Cubes, comprised of cardboard cartons with plastic liners, are probably the most
popular foodservice and food processor packaging form. Systems equipped with
optical sensors assure that an empty carton is in position on a scale before filling
is initiated, and automatic controls then fill it to the correct weight. Most systems
use two scales and switch to the second carton slightly before the first finishes
filling. Cube sizes range from 10 kg to 25 kg (22 lb to 55 lb).
Chub packages are especially popular in Latin America. They are produced by
machines that form plastic into cylindrical sheets and fill the cylinders with from
0.11 kg to 5 kg (0.25 lb to 10 lb) of shortening. The chubs are sealed by crimping
both ends with metal clips.
Prints can be formed by extruding product directly into sticks or bricks with
weights ranging between approximately 0.5 kg and 5 kg (1 lb and 10 lb). Prints
can also be produced using rotary machines to fill plasticized shortening in paper-
lined containers. The quick chilled shortening is fluid enough at filling to assume
the shape of the container as it is filled but rapidly crystallizes into a rigid form.
Puff pastry shortening can be extruded in flat sheets or printed in 2-kg or 4.5-kg
(5- or 10-lb) blocks. It is usually provided in corrugated boxes containing several
sheets or slabs with paper sheets between the slabs to prevent them from sticking
together.
Fluid and liquid shortenings are usually sold in 4-L, 8-L, and 20-L (1-gal, 2-gal,
and 5-gal) containers or in bulk 200-L (50-gal) drums and 40,000-L (10,000-gal) or
larger tanks. The 20-L (5-gal) size is available as a rigid package consisting of a soft
plastic container inserted in a corrugated paper-board box. It is best to package
liquid oil in dark containers since light catalyzes oxidation reactions in fats and
oils. However, for household use, the consumer seems to prefer clear containers
and some brands are packaged in clear glass or plastic. Polyethylene is permeable
to oxygen and, because of low turnover rates, household oil stored in clear poly-
ethylene containers frequently becomes rancid before it can be consumed. Other
oxygen-impermeable plastics such as polyvinyl chloride, opaque polyethylene,
and saran-coated polyethylene seem to be satisfactory packaging materials.
Pockets of free oil sometimes form in the package if the shortening has poor gas
dispersion, a weak plastic structure, insufficient hard fat in the formulation, or the
storage temperature is too high. If exposed to a sufficiently high temperature long
enough for the lower melting fat fractions to liquify, plastic shortenings will
 INNOVATIONS 117

recrystallize improperly resulting in a loss of functionality. Products that have suf-

fered heat damage during storage must be remelted and completely reprocessed to
restore their plastic properties. In general, solid shortenings need not be refrigerated
during storage but, since they will absorb odor, the storage area should be cool, dry,
and free of odoriferous materials. Plastic shortenings that have been correctly for-
mulated and properly prepared are stable and will tolerate considerable abuse dur-
ing storage and transportation.
Clear liquid cooking and salad oils require no special storage considerations.
They have no crystal structure or suspended solids and, if the storage temperature
is low enough to cause some solids to form, these usually melt when the normal
storage temperature is resumed. Should these solids not remelt, it is advisable to
mix and suspend them before using the affected containers.
Fluid (opaque) shortenings are frequently used in applications where plastic
crystallographic properties are not as important as pourability, homogeneity, and
stability. Because they contain suspended solids, storage temperature is important.
Most fluid products in the United States are formulated to be stored between 18.3
C
and 35
C (65
F and 95
F). Storage below this temperature will cause the shortening
to set up or lose fluidity. Warming normally reverses this condition. Storage at too
high of a temperature results in partial or complete melting of the suspended solids.
This situation is not reversible since reducing the storage temperature will result in
the formation of large crystals that may settle to the bottom of the container. The
loss of these solids may be of little consequence or it may have a disastrous effect
on the functionality of the product.
Dry or powdered products are packaged in multiwalled paper bags or fiber
drums. The bags usually contain 25 kg (50 lb) while drum capacities range from
45 kg to 90 kg (100–200 lb). As is recommended for semisolid plastic products,
the storage area for these shortenings should also be cool, dry, and free of
odoriferous materials.
All types of shortening have been formulated and prepared to possess essential
functional properties. It is apparent that these properties can be impaired or totally
destroyed by even limited exposure to excessively high temperatures during packa-
ging, storage, or shipment.

8. INNOVATIONS

8.1. Automation and Computer Control

With a proven process and time-tested reliable equipment, recent innovations have
been directed toward improved process control and automation. Shortening lines
are now available with semiautomated or completely automated screen-based con-
trol systems.
The process flow diagram for an automatic bakery shortening system is shown
in Figure 21. The heart of the processing system is a standard A and B unit
combination. A C unit can be added after the B unit for additional temperature con-
trol, crystal stabilization, and product flexibility. Shortening from the B unit
is transferred to and held in agitated, jacketed tempering tanks until properly
118

Figure 21. Process flow diagram for an automatic Votator bakery shortening system. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)
 INNOVATIONS 119

Figure 22. Control panel for an automatic Votator bakery shortening system. (Courtesy of
Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)

Figure 23. PLC for an automatic Votator bakery shortening system. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell,
Louisville, Kentucky.)
120

Figure 24. Graphic display for an automatic Votator bakery shortening system. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)
 INNOVATIONS 121

tempered and ready for use. Shortening is metered, on demand, from these tanks to
end users. A programmable logic controller (PLC) continuously monitors and
maintains product levels in the tempering tanks, filling each with the proper formu-
lation as required. For each formulation change, the system is automatically purged
to prevent intermixing. A user-friendly message center reports any anomaly and a
graphic panel displays the current system status.
The next three figures are photographs of a typical control panel, PLC, and gra-
phic display for the Votator bakery shortening system in Figure 21. Figure 22 con-
tains all of the high-voltage switch gear, motor starters, as well as an operator
control section with push button stations and running lights. The PLC is shown
in the photograph in Figure 23. Figure 24 depicts the process flow diagram in
Figure 22 and provides a visual indication of the process and equipment status.
Automation and control devices have been integrated into the system to pass
information developed in the semiautomatic system to a full-color screen-based
interface. This interface allows remote access to view, while in operation, process
flow diagrams indicating product and utility status, valve positions, motor loading
conditions, alarm status, and all other critical parameters with the ability to reset
control variables simply by touching the display screen. A fully automatic
screen-based control system is shown in Figure 25. Figure 26 is a typical screen
display of a process and instrumentation diagram.

Figure 25. Graphic screen-based fully automatic control system. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell,
Louisville, Kentucky.)
122

Figure 26. Schematic of a process flow diagram graphic screen display. (Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell, Louisville, Kentucky.)
 REFERENCES 123

State-of-the-art control systems are also capable of accumulating, storing, and

presenting production records. Many feature trending with records offered as
options for formatted tables and histograms. Of course, all include screens for
indicating and resetting control values and displaying alarm messages.

REFERENCES

1. T. J. Weiss, Food Oils and Their Uses, AVI Publishing Co., Westport, Connecticut, 1983,
p. 129.
2. Oil Crops Situation and Outlook, Economic Research Service, USDA, Oct. 2000, online
update 2004.
3. E. G. Latondress, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 58, 187 (1981).
4. A. E. Thomas III, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 55, 831 (1978).
5. A. E. Bailey, Industrial Oil and Fat Products, 2nd ed., Wiley-Interscience, New York,
1951, pp. 211–212.
6. P. Chawla and J. M. deMan, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 67, 329 (1990).
7. L. H. Wiedermann, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 55, 825 (1978).
8. Ref. 7, p. 826.
9. M. S. A. Kheiri, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 62, 414 (1985).
10. N. O. V. Sonntag in Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products, vol. 1, 4th ed., Wiley-
Interscience, New York, 1979, pp. 292–448.
11. Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils, Inc., Food Fats and Oils, 13 (1988).
12. J. Edvardsson and S. Irandoust, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 71(3), 235 (1994).
13. Ref. 7, p. 825.
14. S. J. Laning, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 62, 403 (1985).
15. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineers, Refrigera-
tion Handbook, vol. 2, 1990, pp. 2.1–2.9.
16. Ref. 7, p. 827.
17. N. T. Joyner, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 30, 531 (1953).
18. Ref. 4, p. 832.
19. Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists’ Society,
Champaign, Illinois.
20. L. deMan, J. M. deMan, and B. Blackman, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 68(2), 64 (1991).
21. W. E. Link, ed., Official and Tentative Methods of the American Oil Chemists’ Society,
American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, Illinois, 1974.
22. S. Mielke, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 64(3), 298 (1987).