Precourse TUM Management & Technology 2019

Dr. Michael Kaplan <kaplan@ma.tum.de>

Winter Term 2019/20

Contents

I Sets and Statements 1

1 Set Theory 1
1.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Inclusion and Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Sets with Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 The Cartesian Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Statements 3
2.1 Sentential Connectives and Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

II Language and Symbols of Mathematics 5

2.3 Proof Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Calculating with Sets 6

3.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Sigma and Product Symbols 8

4.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 Index Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 Two Important Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

III Relations and Mappings 11

5 Relations 11
5.1 Binary Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2 Special Binary Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

6 Mappings 12
6.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2 Co-Domain and Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.3 Important Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.4 Monotony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.5 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.6 Graph of a Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.7 Image and Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.8 Inverse Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.9 Restriction and Inverse Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

IV Elementary Functions 1 17
7 Elementary Functions 17
7.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7.2 Evaluation of Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7.3 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7.4 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7.5 Root Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7.6 Radian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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V Elementary Functions 2 21
7.7 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.8 Arc Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.9 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

VI Related Function and (In-)Equalities 25

7.10 Related Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

8 Equations 26
8.1 Permitted Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.2 Roots of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

9 Inequalities 28
9.1 Permitted Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.2 Case-by-Case Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.3 Graphic Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

VII Differential Calculus 31

10 Derivation 31
10.1 From the Secant to the Tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.2 Important Calculation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
10.3 Monotony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10.4 Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10.5 Newton Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
10.6 Higher Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

VIII Integral Calculus 37

11 Antiderivative 37
11.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
11.2 First Calculation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
11.3 Additional Calculation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

12 Definite Integrals 38
12.1 Calculation of Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
12.2 Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
12.3 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
12.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

IX Systems of Linear Equations 43

13 Systems of Linear Equations 43
13.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
13.2 Solution Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
13.3 Matrix Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
13.4 Elementary Line Transformations and Row Echelon Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
13.5 From the Row Echelon Form to the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

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Part I
Sets and Statements
1 Set Theory
1.1 Notation
Georg Cantor (1845-1918) gave the following definition:

Definition 1.1.1. A set is any collection to a whole of definite, separate objects of our intuition or our thought
which are referred to as the elements of this set.

• The word ‘Definition’ should be placed in quotation marks here, since the term to be defined is defined
using further undefined terms. In contrast, a real definition may only be based on terms which have
already been defined.

• This concept of the set introduced in this manner quickly results in ambiguities and logical contradictions.

A set M is usually expressed in one of the 3 following ways:

(1) By an unambiguous verbal formulation:

Example: M is the set of students matriculated in winter semester 2019/2020 at the TU Munich.

(2) By enumeration (if possible: this is not possible e.g. with R!) of the elements a1 , a2 , . . . of the set M .
Notation: M = {a1 , a2 , . . . }

(3) By a characteristic property E for the objects from the basic set G which is attributed to exactly those
elements of M :
Notation: M := {x | x ∈ G satisfies E} or M := {x ∈ G | x satisfies E}.
Example: M := {x ∈ N | 3 divides x}.

1.2 Inclusion and Identity

Definition 1.2.1. Given that A and B are sets. A is a subset of B or B is a superset of A, in symbols A ⊂ B
or A ⊆ B, when it is true that

A ⊆ B : ⇐⇒ for all x ∈ A it is true that x ∈ B .

A and B are identical, in symbols A = B, when it is true that

A = B : ⇐⇒ A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A .

If A ⊆ B and not A = B, then we write A ( B (real subset).

• The symbol : ⇐⇒ is an abbreviation for ‘is defined as. . . ’

• Using what are called quantifiers and sentential connectives (see corresponding sections) such statements
can be notated in a more compact form, which however may at first be more difficult to read.

Definition 1.2.2. For a finite set M we express the number of elements with |M |. |M | is the cardinal number
or cardinality of M . For sets with a non-finite number of elements we write |M | = ∞.

1
1.3 Sets with Conjunctions
• The following are several important sets:

∅ :={x | x 6= x} empty set.

N :={1, 2, 3, . . . } set of natural numbers,
Z :={0, −1, 1, −2, 2, . . . } set of whole numbers,
a
Q :={x | exists a ∈ Z, exists b ∈ N : x = } set of rational numbers,
b
R :={x | x is a decimal fraction (finite or infinite)}
set of real numbers,
C :={z | exists a ∈ R, exists b ∈ R : z = a + i · b ∧ i2 = −1}
set of complex numbers.

• It is true that ∅ ⊂ N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.

• Given that there exists a non-empty set G and a binary internal operation ‘◦’ on G, i.e. for all g1 , g2 ∈ G,
g1 ◦ g2 ∈ G is uniquely defined.
• Check the following statements by for example replacing ‘◦’ with the conventional ‘+’, ‘−’, ‘·’ or ‘:’ and
one of the sets N, Z, Q or R for G.
(G1 ) For all a, b, c ∈ G : a ◦ (b ◦ c) = (a ◦ b) ◦ c associativity
(G2 ) There is an e ∈ G such that for all a ∈ G : e ◦ a = a identity element
(G3 ) For all a ∈ G there is a0 ∈ G : a0 ◦ a = e inverse element

Definition 1.3.1. A set G with a binary operation ‘◦’ is called a group when it has the properties (G1 )-(G3 )
from above. If in addition a ◦ b = b ◦ a is true for all a, b ∈ G (commutativity) then G is called a commutative
group or abelian group
Example 1.3.2. The set of the rational numbers Q with the operation ‘◦ = +’ is a commutative group with the
identity element 0 and the inverse element a0 = −a for each a ∈ Q.
Example 1.3.3. The set Q \ {0}1 of the rational numbers Q without zero with the operation ‘◦ = ·’ is also a
commutative group, but containing the identity element 1 and the inverse element a0 = a−1 for each a ∈ Q \ {0}.
Definition 1.3.4. A set K with at least two distinct elements 0 and 1 and two binary operations ‘+’ and ‘·’ is
called a field when the following is true:
(K1 ) The set K with the operation ‘+’ is a (commutative) group.
(K2 ) The set K \ {0} with the operation ‘·’ is a (commutative) group.
(K3 ) For all a, b, c ∈ K it is true that a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c distributivity (with multiplication/division before
addition/subtraction - or short: ‘dot’ before ‘dash’).
Example 1.3.5. The distributive law in Q together with 1.3.2 and 1.3.3 shows that Q with the usual ‘+’ and ‘·’
is a field. Additional examples of fields are R and C. In addition to many other fields with infinite size there
are also important finite fields for many applications.

1.4 The Cartesian Product

Definition 1.4.1. Given that A and B are non-empty sets, a, a0 ∈ A and b, b0 ∈ B. An ordered pair or tuple of
elements a ∈ A and b ∈ B is written (a, b). Two such tuples are called identical when they match element by
element, in symbols
(a, b) = (a0 , b0 ) : ⇐⇒ a = a0 and b = b0 .
Definition 1.4.2. Given that A and B are non-empty sets. The set of all ordered pairs (a, b) for which a ∈ A
and b ∈ B is called a cartesian product or cross product of the sets A and B, in symbols
A × B := {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B} .
1 Definition follows

2
Definition 1.4.3. Let A1 , A2 , . . . An with n ∈ N and n ≥ 2 be non-empty sets. We consider n-tuples
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) of elements ai ∈ Ai for which i = 1, . . . , n. Two such n-tuples are called identical when they
match element by element, in symbols
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = (a01 , a02 , . . . , a0n ) : ⇐⇒ ai = a0i for all i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}
Definition 1.4.4. The set of all ordered n-tuples (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is called the n-ary cartesian product or n-ary
cross-product of the sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An , in symbols
A1 × A2 × · · · × An := {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) | ai ∈ Ai for all i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}} .

• For n-fold Cartesian products of a set with itself, we also use power notation, i.e.

An := A × · · · × A .
| {z }
n-times

• The notation R3 for all 3-tuples of real numbers will be familiar from primary school.

Example 1.4.5. For A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b} the following is true

A × B ={(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} ,
B 2 ={(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)} .

Theorem 1.4.6. If A1 , A2 , . . . An are non-empty sets, the the following is true:

|A1 × A2 × · · · × An | = |A1 | · |A2 | · · · · · |An | .

Proof: By simple enumeration.

2 Statements
2.1 Sentential Connectives and Truth Tables
Definition 2.1.1. A statement (or proposition) is an element of the set {true,false} (also written {t, f } or {1, 0}
etc.).
Example 2.1.2. The statement ‘The cross sum of 28 is divisible by 3’ is false.
The statement ‘The cross sum of 27 is divisible by 3’ is true.

If A and B are two statements, then new statements can be formed using so-called logical connectives:

Logical connective Meaning Symbol

Negation not A ¬A
Conjunction A and B A∧B
Disjunction A or B A∨B
Implication if A, then B A⇒B
Equivalence A if and only if B A ⇐⇒ B

The truth values of the statements made in this manner are expressed using a truth table specifying the truth
values of the connected statement for each true-false combination of the associated statement.
Definition 2.1.3.
A B ¬A A∧B A∨B A⇒B A ⇐⇒ B
t t f t t t t
t f f f t f f
f t t f t t f
f f t f f t t
Definition 2.1.4. In an implication A ⇒ B, A is called the premise and B is called the conclusion. If the
implication is true, then A is said to be sufficient for B and B is said to be necessary for A.

3
 • Truth tables can be used to prove simple calculation rules for these sentential connectives, e.g.:
• A ⇒ B can also be explained using the sentential connectives introduced above as ¬A ∨ B, i.e. the
following definition is also possible:
(A ⇒ B) : ⇐⇒ (¬A ∨ B) (2.1)

• A ⇐⇒ B stands for A ⇒ B ∧ B ⇒ A (the latter also written as A ⇐ B), thus:

(A ⇐⇒ B) : ⇐⇒ (A ⇒ B ∧ B ⇒ A)

Theorem 2.1.5 (De Morgan’s Laws). Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) For statements A and B it is true
that
¬(A ∧ B) ⇐⇒ (¬A ∨ ¬B) (2.2)
¬(A ∨ B) ⇐⇒ (¬A ∧ ¬B) (2.3)
Proof:
A B ¬A A ∧ B ¬(A ∧ B) ¬B ¬A ∨ ¬B
t t f t f f f
t f f f t t t
f t t f t f t
f f t f t t t
Theorem 2.1.6.
(A ⇒ B) ⇐⇒ (¬B ⇒ ¬A)
Proof: with a simple table as above or as follows:
(A ⇒ B) ⇐⇒ (¬A ∨ B) ⇐⇒ (¬A ∨ ¬¬B) ⇐⇒
(2.1)
⇐⇒ (¬¬B ∨ ¬A) ⇐⇒ (¬(¬B) ∨ (¬A)) ⇐⇒
⇐⇒ (¬B ⇒ ¬A)

2.2 Quantifiers
• Predicates are a generalization of statements. These are linguistic expressions that contain variables.
When these variables are assigned values, the predicates become statements.
Example 2.2.1. (cf. 2.1.2) ‘The cross sum of x is divisible by 3’ is a predicate. If we define x = 28, the result is
a false statement; if we define x = 27, the result is a true statement.
Definition 2.2.2 (The Existential Quantifier). If A(x) is a predicate, then the statement ∃x : A(x) (i.e.: ‘There
exists an x with A(x)’) is true when there is at least one x for which A(x) is true. The statement ∃x : A(x)
is false when there is no x for which A(x) is true. In order to express that exactly one such x exists, we write
∃1 or ∃!.
Example 2.2.3. ∃x ∈ Z : x2 + x − 6 = 0 is true because x = −3 and x = 2 result in a true statement. With the
basic set N we can also write more exactly ∃1 x ∈ N : x2 + x − 6 = 0.
Example 2.2.4. If the basic set is finite, then the sentential connective ‘or’ can be used instead of the existential
quantifier. If we abbreviate x2 + x − 6 = 0 as A(x), then ∃x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4} : A(x) is equivalent to A(1) ∨ A(2) ∨
A(3) ∨ A(4).
Definition 2.2.5 (The Universal Quantifier). If A(x) is a predicate, then the statement ∀x : A(x) (i.e.: ‘A(x)
is true for all x’) is true when the statement A(x) is true for all x. The statement ∀x : A(x) is false when there
is one x for which A(x) is false.
Example 2.2.6. ∀x ∈ {5, 6, 7} : x2 + x − 6 6= 0 is true because none of the 3 numerical values is a root of
x2 + x − 6.
Example 2.2.7. If the basic set is finite, the sentential connective ‘and’ can be used instead of the universal
quantifier. If we abbreviate the predicate x2 + x − 6 6= 0 as B(x), then ∀x ∈ {5, 6, 7} : B(x) is equivalent to
B(5) ∧ B(6) ∧ B(7).
Example 2.2.8. ∀b ∈ {1, 4, 9}∃1 a ∈ {1, 2, 3} : a2 = b