`

Table Of Contents
SECTIONA: MECHANICS ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER1: DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY ........................................................................................... 5
1.1.0: FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES ............................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.1: DERIVED QUANTITIES.............................................................................................................................................. 5
1.1.2: DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY ........................................................................................................ 5
1.1.3: USES OF DIMENSIONS............................................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER2: MOTION ......................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1.0: LINEAR MOTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1.1:UNIFORM ACCELERATION & EQUATIONS ...................................................................................................... 11
2.1.2: MOTION UNDER GRAVITY .................................................................................................................................... 16
2. PROJECTILE MOTION...................................................................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 3: COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF VECTORS .................................................................... 34
3.2.0: RELATIVE MOTION ................................................................................................................................................ 41
3.2.3: SHORTEST DISTANCE AND TIME TO SHORTEST DISTANCE .............................................................. 46
CHAPTER 4: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION ........................................................................................................ 54
4.1.0: IDENTIFICATION OF FORCES AND THE APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAWS ............................... 55
4.1.1: MOTION OF CONNECTED PARTICLES ............................................................................................................ 59
4.1.2: LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE................................................................................................................ 62
4.1.3: WHY LONG JUMPER BEND KNEES .................................................................................................................... 63
4.1.4: LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM .................................................................................. 63
4.1.6: COLLISIONS ................................................................................................................................................................. 64
4.1.9: BALLISTIC PENDULUM........................................................................................................................................... 68
4.2.4: MEASUREMENT OF COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION ....................................................................... 75
4.2.5: MEASUREMENT OF COEFFICIENT OF KINETIC FRICTION ..................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 5: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER........................................................................................................... 80
5.1.0: WORK ............................................................................................................................................................................. 80
5.2.0 : ENERGY ........................................................................................................................................................................ 81
5.2.3: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY ......................................................................................................... 83
5.2.4: PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY ................................................................ 83
5.2.5: CONSERVATIVE AND NON CONSERVATIVE FORCES ................................................................................ 84

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5.3.0: POWER........................................................................................................................................................................... 85
CHAPTER 6: STATICS ....................................................................................................................................................... 86
6.1.0: CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM ............................................................... 93
6.1.1: TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM ........................................................................................................................................ 94
6.2.0: TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES............................................................................................................................. 95
6.2.1: MOMENT OF A FORCE............................................................................................................................................. 95
6.2.2: PRINCIPLE `OF MOMENTS .................................................................................................................................... 95
6.3.0: COUPLES .................................................................................................................................................................... 100
6.3.1: MOMENT OF A COUPLE (TORQUE OF A COUPLE) ................................................................................... 100
6.3.2: WORK DONE BY A COUPLE................................................................................................................................ 100
6.3.4: CENTER OF GRAVITY ........................................................................................................................................... 100
CHAPTER 7: CIRCULAR MOTION............................................................................................................................. 103
7.1.1: CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES .............................................................................................. 106
7.1.5: MOTION OF A CAR ROUND A FLAT CIRCULAR TRACK [NEGOTIATING A BEND]..................... 112
7.1.6: MOTION OF A CAR ON A BANKED TRACK ............................................................................................... 114
7.1.7: MOTION OF A CYCLIST ROUND A BEND ..................................................................................................... 117
CHAPTER 8: GRAVITATION ........................................................................................................................................ 112
8.1.0: KEPLER’S LAWS OF GRAVITATION ................................................................................................................ 121
8.1.1: NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION ............................................................................................................... 121
8.1.4: EXPERIMENTAL MEASURE OF G ..................................................................................................................... 122
8.1.6: MASS OF THE EARTH ........................................................................................................................................... 123
8.1.8: RELATION BETWEEN G AND g ....................................................................................................................... 123
8.1.9: VARIATION OF g OF A BODY DURING FREE FALL ................................................................................... 124
8.2.1: GEOSTATIONARY/SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT ................................................................................................. 126
8.2.2: HOW COMMUNICATION IS DONE USING A SATELLITE ........................................................................ 126
8.2.3: PARKING ORBIT ..................................................................................................................................................... 127
8.2.4: PERIOD OF A SATELLITE .................................................................................................................................... 127
8.2.5: ENERGY OF A SATELLITE ................................................................................................................................... 129
8.2.6: EFFECT OF FRICTION ON A SATELLITE....................................................................................................... 130
8.2.7: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL [U] .................................................................................................................. 131
8.2.8: VELOCITY OF ESCAPE .......................................................................................................................................... 132
8.2.9: WEIGHTLESSNESS ................................................................................................................................................. 133

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CHAPTER 9: SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION......................................................................................................... 168
9.1.1: PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF S.H.M ................................................................................................................... 136
9.1.3: EQUATIONS OF S.H.M ........................................................................................................................................... 136
9.2.1: determination of acceleration due to gravity (g) using a simple pendulum ................................. 143
9.2.2: determination of acceleration due to gravity using a vertically loaded spring ............................ 146
9.2.4: vertically loaded springs in parallel .............................................................................................................. 151
9.3.0: ENERGY CHANGES IN S.H.M ............................................................................................................................ 161
9.4.0: MECHANICAL OSCILLATION ............................................................................................................................. 163
CHAPTER 10: ELASTICITY .......................................................................................................................................... 168
10.1.0: EXPERIMENT TO STUDY ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF STEEL .............................................................. 169
10.1.1: STRESS-STRAIN GRAPHS ................................................................................................................................. 170
10.1.2: STRESS-STRAIN GRAPH FOR GLASS, COPPER AND RUBBER........................................................... 171
10.2.2: ENERGY STORED IN A STRETCHED MATERIAL [STRAIN ENERGY] ............................................. 173
10.2.3: ENERGY STORED PER UNIT VOLUME ........................................................................................................ 173
10.2.4: FORCE ON A BAR DUE TO THERMAL EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION ....................................... 181
CHAPTER 11: FLUID MECHANICS ............................................................................................................................ 186
11.1.0: FLUID FLOW .......................................................................................................................................................... 186
11.1.1: VISCOSITY............................................................................................................................................................... 186
11.1.2: LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW............................................................................................................. 186
11.1.3: EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW ...................................... 187
11.1.4: COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY ( ) ................................................................................................................. 187
11.1.5: EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON VISCOSITY.......................................................................................... 188
11.1.6: STEADY FLOW OF A LIQUID THROUGH A PIPE (POISEUILLE’S FORMULA) ............................. 189
A: MEASUREMENT OF OF A LIQUID (E.G WATER) BY POISEUILLE’S FORMULA ............................. 190
11.2.0: STOKE’S LAW AND TERMINAL VELOCITY ............................................................................................... 191
11.2.2: TERMINAL VELOCITY........................................................................................................................................ 191
11.3.0: EQUATION OF CONTINUITY ........................................................................................................................... 196
11.3.2: BERNOULLI’S EQUATION................................................................................................................................. 197
11.3.5: MEASUREMENT OF FLUID VELOCITY ........................................................................................................ 202
11.4.0: FLUIDS AT REST .................................................................................................................................................. 207
11.4.1: DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY ............................................................................................................. 207
11.4.2: ARCHIMEDE’S PRINCIPLE .............................................................................................................................. 207

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11.5.0: FLOATATION ....................................................................................................................................................... 214
11.6.0: PRESSURE ............................................................................................................................................................... 219
11.6.1: RELATION OF PRESSURE P WITH DEPTH h ............................................................................................ 219
11.6.2: PRESSURE OF A GAS [U-TUBE MANOMETER] ........................................................................................ 219
11.6.3: DENSITY OF A LIQUID [U-TUBE MANOMETER] .................................................................................... 220
CHAPTER 12: SURFACE TENSION ............................................................................................................................ 225
12.1.0: MOLECULAR EXPLANATION FOR EXISTENCE OF SURFACE TENSION ....................................... 225
12.1.1: FREE SURFACE ENERGY ( ) .......................................................................................................................... 234

12.14: ANGLE OF CONTACT Θ....................................................................................................................................... 227

12.2.0: PRESSURE DIFFERENCE ACROSS A SPHERICAL INTERFACE .......................................................... 232
12.2.1: PRESSURE DIFFERENCE ACROSS AN AIR BUBBLE .............................................................................. 232
12.2.2: EXCESS PRESSURE (PRESSURE DIFFERENCE) FOR A SOAP BUBBLE .......................................... 233
12.3.0: CAPILLARITY......................................................................................................................................................... 227
12.4.1: MEASUREMENT OF OF A LIQUID BY JAEGERS METHOD ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.

4
 SECTIONA: MECHANICS
CHAPTER1: DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY
1.1.0: Fundamental quantities
These are quantities which can’t be expressed in terms of any other quantities by using any
mathematical equation. E.g.
Mass - M Length - L Time- T

1.1.1: Derived quantities

These are quantities which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities of mass,
length, and time e.g.
i) Pressure iii) Momentum
ii) Acceleration iv) Density

1.1.2: DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY

This refers to the way a derived quantity is related to the three fundamental quantities of length,
mass and time.
Or It refers to the power to which fundamental quantities are raised.
Symbol of dimensions is [ ]
Examples
[Area]
[Volume]
[ ]
[ ] M
[ ]
[ ]
[Velocity] [ ]

[ ]
[Acceleration] [ ]
=

[Momentum] [Mass][Velocity] M
[Weight] [Mass][Gravitational acceleration] M
[Force] [Mass][Acceleration] M
[ ]
[Pressure] [ ]
M

NB. Dimension less quantity has no dimensions and is described by a number which is
independent of a unit of measurement chosen for the primary quantities
5
Examples of dimension less quantities
 Refractive index  relative density
 strain  all constants such as 2π, 2, π, 4 π, .
They are always given a dimension of one, (1)

1.1.3: USES OF DIMENSIONS

1. Used to check the validity of the equation or check whether the equation is
dimensionally consistent or correct.
2. Used to derive equations

a) Checking validity of equations (dimensional homogenity)

When the dimensions on the L-H-S of the equations are equal to the dimensions on the
R-H-S, then the equation is said to be dimensionally consistent.

Examples

1. The velocity V of a wave along a flat string is given by √

T - Tension in the string

L - Length of the string
M - Mass of the string
Show that the formula is dimensionally correct.
Solution

√ ( ) =( )

L.H.S [ ]

[ ][ ]
R.H.S *√ + = *( ) += ( [ ]
) L.H.S = R.H.S

Tension (T) is a force therefore takes the Since dimension on left are equal to

dimensions of force. dimensions on right then its correct

2. The period T, of a simple pendulum is given by T 2 √ Show that the equation is

dimensionally correct.

6
Where 2 dimension less constant Acceleration due to gravity
length of pendulum
Solution
L.H.S [T] T

[] ⁄
R.HS [ √ ] * ( )+ [2 ] ( ) ( ) ( ) T
[ ]

Since the dimensions on the L.H.S are equal to the dimensions on the R.H.S then the equation is
dimensionally consistent.

NB: Dimensions cannot be added or subtracted but for any equation to be added or subtracted
then they must have the same dimensions.

Example
Show that the equation = is dimensionally correct.
Solution
L.H.S [ ] ( )
R.H.S [ ] [2as]
( ) L

Since dimensions on the L.H.S are equal to dimensions on the R.H.S then the equation is
dimensionally correct.

Exercise
Show that the following equations are dimensionally consistent.
i)

ii)
iii)

b) Deriving equations (dimensional analysis)

The method of dimension analysis is used to obtain an equation which is relating to relevant
variables

Example 1
7
 Assume that the period (T) depend on the following
i) Mass (m) of the bob
ii) Length (l) of the pendulum
iii) Acceleration due to gravity (g)
Derive the relation between T, m, l, g
Solution
T Dimensions of M y=
T= K ………x ……………1
x 0, y ,z
Where K is a constant Dimensions of L
Since T = K
If it’s dimensionally …………2
consistent then Dimensions of T T= K
[T] = [ K] [ ] [ ] [ ] = 1………..3
T
T= ( ) z=

Put into equation2 T √

y+ =0

Note:
Dimensional analysis does not give the value of a constant K. it can be determined using
mathematical analysis.

Example ii
Use dimensional analysis to show how the velocity of transverse vibrations of a stretched string
depends on its length (l) mass (m) and the tension force (F) in the string.
solution
V For dimensions of L
V …………(2)
Also for equation(2)
[V ] [ ] For dimensions of T
[V ] [ ][ ][ ][ ] - ………..(3)
( )
but V
since [K]=1 Put into equation(1)
M0LT-1 V

For dimensions of M V = K√
y+ 0
………….(1)
8
 Example iii UNEB 1999 No 2 b(c)
The viscous force (F) on a small sphere of radius (a) falling through a liquid of coefficient of
viscosity ŋ with a velocity V given by F=K
Use the method of dimensions to find the values of x, y, z (5marks)
Solution
[ ] = (M )y ( )z
[ŋ]=[ ] [ ]
= Put into equation(2)
[F] = and [A] =
[ ]
For M : ……….(1)
[Velocity gradient] = [] For L: …….(2)
[Velocity gradient] For T: – ……..(3)

= Put equation (1) into F K

equation(3) F KaŋV
[ŋ] =

[ŋ] = M
[F]=[K][ ][ ][ ]

Example iv UNEB 2005 No1 b

The equation for the volume V of a liquid flowing through a pipe in time t under a steady flow is

given by =
ŋ

Where r = radius of the pipe l=length of the pipe

P=pressure difference between the 2 ends ŋ = coefficient of viscosity of the liquid
Show that the equation is dimensionally consistent (3mks)

UNEB 2010 N0 4 (d)

The velocity V of a wave in a material of young modulus E and density ρ is given by V=√( )

Shows that the relationship is dimensionally correct (03 marks)

UNEB2009 No 3b
A cylindrical vessel of cross sectional area, A contains air of volume V, at pressure p trapped by
frictionless air tight piston of mass, M. The piston is pushed down and released.

9
 i) If the piston oscillates with simple harmonic motion, shows that its frequency f is

given √ (06 marks)

ii) Show that the expression for f in b(i) is dimensionally correct (03 marks)
UNEB2003 No 1(a)
Distinguish between fundamental and derived physical quantities. Give two examples of each
(04marks)
UNEB2002 No1
a) i)What is meant by the dimension of a physical quantity (01mark)
ii)For a stream line flow of a non-viscous, in compressible fluid, the pressure P at a point is
related to the width h and the velocity v by the equation.
(P -a) = ρg(h-b) + ½ ρ (v2-d) where a, b and d are constant and ρ is the density of the fluid and g
is the acceleration due to gravity. Given that the equation is dimensionally consistent, find
the dimensions of a, b and d (03 marks)
Solution
NB: We only add and subtract quantities which have the same dimensions.
( ) ( ) ½ ρ (v2 d) [b] = L
LHS: [P] = [a] ½ ρ(v2 d)
[ ] ½ ρv2 – ½
[ ]
[ ] [½ ρv2] = [½ ]
[a] = [v2] = [d]
On the RHS: [ ][ ][ ] ( ) [ ]
[ ][ ][ ] [ ][ ][ ] [ ]
[h] = [b]

UNEB 2001 No 2 b
The velocity V of sound travelling along a rod made of a material of young’s modulus y and

density ρ is given by V=√ Show that the formula is dimensionally consistent (03 mks)

UNEB 1997 No 1
a) i) What is meant by dimensions of a physical quantity (1mk)
ii)The centripetal force required to keep a body of mass moving it a circular path of radius

is given by show that the formula is dimensionally consistent. (04 marks)

10
 CHAPTER2: MOTION
2.1.0: LINEAR MOTION
This is motion is a straight line

Distance
This is the length between 2 fixed point

Displacement
This is the distance covered in a specific direction

Speed
This is the rate of change of distance with time
OR It is the distance covered by an object per unit time.
The SI unit of speed is ms-1

Velocity
It is the rate of change of displacement with time
OR It is the distance covered per unit time in a specific direction
The SI unit of velocity is ms-1

Uniform velocity
Is the velocity of a body which covers equal displacement in equal time intervals.

Acceleration
It is the rate of change of velocity with time
It SI unit is ms-2

Acceleration =

2.1.1:UNIFORM ACCELERATION & EQUATIONS

Uniform acceleration
Its a motion in which the velocity of a body changes by equal magnitudes in equal time intervals
no matter how small the intervals are.
OR Constant rate of change of velocity.
11
Equations of motion
1st equation
Suppose a body moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration a, increases its velocity
from u to v in a time t, then from definition of acceleration

Acceleration =

…………….1

2nd equation
Suppose an object with velocity u moves with uniform acceleration for a time t and attains a
velocity v, the distance s travelled by the object is given by
S = average velocity x time ( )

( )

But
( )
……………………2

3rd equation
( )
From S +
Since ( )
S

S
S u( )+ ( ) 2as
( ) ………………..3
S +

Note
 The three equations apply only to uniformly accelerated motion
 When the object starts from rest then (u=0m/s) and when it comes to rest (v=0m/s)
 The acceleration can be positive or negative. When its negative, then it known as a
retardation or deceleration

Numerical examples

12
 1) A car moving with a velocity of 10ms-1 accelerates uniformly at 1ms-2 until it reaches a
velocity of 15ms-1. Calculate,
i) Time taken
ii) Distance traveled during the acceleration
iii) The velocity reached 100m from the place where acceleration began.
Solution
i) ii) iii) , v=? u=10ms-1a=1
u=10m/s, a=1m/s, v=15ms-1, s

2) A particle moving in a straight line with a constant acceleration of 2ms-2 is initially at rest;
find the distance covered by the particle in the 3rd second of its motion.
Solution
Using S Distance in 3rd
Distance for 3s – distance for 2s
u=0m/s, t=2s and t=3s a= 2ms-2
t=2 : ½ 22
Distance in 3rds in 5m
When t=3: a=2ms-2 u=0m/s
½ 32

3) A Travelling car A at a constant velocity of 25m/s overtake a stationery car B. 2s later car B
sets off in pursuit , accelerating at a uniform rate of 6ms-2. How far does B travel before
catching up with A
Solution If B is to catch up with A t
√

For A: SA then it must travel faster i.e

t=12s or t=
it will take a time of (t-2)s
Since it moves with a
SB = 0x(t-2)+ ½ x6(t-2)2 Since the car leaves 2s later
constant velocity a 0
SB = 3t2-12t+12…………..(2) then time 12s is correct
SA = 25t---------------(1)
since it gives a positive

For B to catch A then value

For B: SB
SA=SB SB = 25x12

25t 3t2 SB = 300m

3t2
13
 4) A train travelling at 72kmh-1under goes uniform deceleration of 2ms-2,when brakes are
applied. Find the time taken to come to rest and the distance travelled from the place where
brakes are applied.
Solution
u 20m s = ut+ ½ at2
s= 20x10+1/2 x-2x102
a=-2ms-2, v=0 comes to
s= 100m
rest

EXERCISE1
1. A car moving with a velocity of 54km/hr accelerates uniformly at a rate of 2ms-2. Calculate
the distance travelled from the place where acceleration began, given that final velocity
reached is 72km/hr and find the time taken to cover this distance. An [ , 2.5s]

2. A particle x travels with a constant velocity of 6m/s along straight line. It passes a particle y
which is stationery. One second later y accelerates at 2m/s. how long after being passed
does it take for y to draw level with x? [leave your answer in surd form] An[t=(3+√ )]

3. A body accelerates uniformly from rest at the rate of 6ms-2 for 15 seconds. Calculate
i) velocity reached within 15 seconds
ii) the distance covered within 15 seconds An[90m/s, 675m]

4. A particle moving on a straight line with constant acceleration has a velocity of 5ms-1 at one
instant and 4s later it has a velocity of 15ms-1. Find the acceleration and distance covered by
particle. An [a = 2.5ms-2, s=40m]

1. Motion graphs for uniform velocity

a) Displacement-time graph (b) Velocity-time graph (c) Acceleration-time graph
Velocity Acceleration
Displacement (m/s) m/s2
(m)

No acceleration

Time(s) Time(s) Time(s)

14
 2. Motion graph for uniform acceleration
a) Velocity-time graph (b) Acceleration-time graph (c) Constant deceleration
Acceleration Velocity
Velocity m/s2 m/s
(m/s)

Time(s) Time(s) Time(s)

3. Scalar graphs for an object falling freely

a) Speed-time graph (b) Distance-time graph

Distance
Speed (m)
(m/s)

Time(s) Time(s)

4. Motion graph for an object thrown vertically upwards from the top of a cliff
a) Displacement-time graph (b) Velocity-time graph
B Velocity A
Displacement
(m/s)
(m)
A
B C

O C
Time(s) Time(s)

5. Scalar graph for an object thrown upwards from a cliff

a) Distance-time graph (b) Speed-time graph
Speed
Distance
(m/s)
(m)

O
Time(s) Time(s)

Note
For a body thrown vertically downwards, For a body projected vertically upwards
becomes becomes
ecomes ecomes

15
2.1.2: MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
1. Vertical motion
a) When a body is projected vertically upwards its acceleration (a) is given a g 9.81ms-2
g 9.81ms-2 means the velocity of a body decreases by a 9.81ms-1 after every second till the time
when the velocity is zero (maximum height) and the body falls down again with a positive
direction due to gravity.
b) An object freely falling vertically downwards has an acceleration of a=+g = +9.81ms-2. This
implies that its velocity increases by 9.81ms-1 after every second.

Definition
Acceleration due to gravity is rate of change of velocity with time for an object falling freely under
gravity.
OR The force of attraction due to gravity exerted on a 1kg mass.

Numerical examples
1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial speed of 20ms-1. Calculate.
i) Time taken to return to the thrower
ii) Maximum height reached
solution
u=20ms-1 81ms-2 s projected But the total time ta ken to return to the
upwards
V=0 thrower = 2t

Smax
U=20m/s

From
At max height at max height v=0m/s, u=20m/s,
1ms-2

Time taken to reach

maximum height

2. A particle is projected vertically upwards with velocity of 19.6ms-1. Find

i) The greatest height attained
ii) Time taken by the particle to reach maximum height
16
 iii) Time of flight
Solution
V=0 ii) From
.81ms-2 at max height
Smax
U=19m/s

At greatest height /s t ≈ 2.0s Time to maximum height

81ms-2
iii) Time of flight
Time of flight time to max height

=
Time of flight
=19.58m

3. A man stands on the edge of a cliff and throws a stone vertically upwards at 15ms-1. After what
time will the stone hit the ground 20m below the point of projection
Solution
V=0 When the ball begins to return down from
max height u=0m/s and
Smax
a=g=+9.81m/s
U=15m/s

20m
½ x9.81t2

√
u=15m/s, g=-9.81m/s
v=0m/s at max height, =? t=?
Total time ( )
Method I
Time taken to hit the ground

Method II
The height of the cliff = 20m which is
Time to maximum height = 1.53s
below the point of project therefore
s=-2m g=-9.81m/s2 u=15m/s
0 = 152 2x9.81

½ x9.81t2
=11.47m 4.905t2
Maximum height = 11.47m
Total height = (11.47+20) = 31.47m Time taken to hits the ground = 4.06s

17
4. A car decelerates uniformly from 20ms-1 to rest in 4s, then reverses with uniform acceleration
back to it original starting point also in 4s
a) Sketch the velocity-time graph for the motion, and use it to determine the displacement
and average velocity
b) Sketch the speed-time graph for the motion and use it to determine the total distance
covered and the average speed.
Solution
a)Velocity-time graph
=½ +½ ( )
V(m/s)
20

0 4 8 t/s Average velocity =

-20
=
Displacement s = ½ ½ = 0m/s
b) Speed-time graph
= 80m
V(m/s)
20 Average speed =
=
= 10ms-1
4 8 t/s
Total distance ½ ½

5.The graph below shows a ball which is thrown up into the air and then caught

V(m/s) a)Describe the motion briefly

12
b) Calculate the acceleration

2.4
c) Find the height reached
0
t/s
(above the point where the ball starts)

-12

Solution
a) The ball decelerates uniformly from 12ms-1 to rest in 1.2s and then it reverses with uniform
acceleration back to its original position in another 1.2s

18
 b) v=-12ms-1 u=12ms-1 t=2.4s

.42
-2 S =0m

UNEB 2003 No 1 b(ii)

A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 10ms-1from a point 50m above the ground.
Describe with the aid of a velocity - time graph, the subsequent motion of the ball. (10marks)
Solution
B V=0 Time to reach max height At Max height v=0
v=0, u=10ms-1 g=-9.81ms-2 u=10ms-1 g=-9.81ms-2
Smax
U=10m/s 0 = 102
A Smax
5m
Time to reach maximum Total height = (5.1+5)
C
height is 1.02s

Time taken to move from max height to

the ground is Final velocity when the ball hits the ground
t=?, u=0m/s g=9.81ms-2 v=?

v=14.03m/s
√
Vel-time graph
decelerates uniformly at -9.81ms-1 and its
V(m/s) velocity reduces to zero at B(maximum
10 A height).
 The time taken to reach maximum height
B is 1.02s and the maximum height is 5.1m
0 1.02 2.45  After reaching the maximum height, the
B C t/s ball begins to fall downwards with a
uniform acceleration of 9.81m/s2 but the
-14.03
direction is now opposite and therefore
the velocity is negative until it reaches a
final velocity of 14.03m/s in a time of
 When the ball is thrown vertically 2.45s from the time of projection.
upwards with a velocity of 10ms-1 it
19
UNEB 2014 No 1(c)
(i) State Newton’s laws of motion (03marks)
(ii) Explain how a rocket is kept in motion (04marks)
(iii) Explain why passengers in a bus are thrown backwards when the bus suddenly starts
moving. (03marks)

UNEB 2013 No 3(d)

(i) Define uniformly accelerated motion (03marks)
(ii) A train starts from rest at station A and accelerates at 1.25 m until it reaches a speed of
20 m . It then travels at this steady speed for a distance of 1.56km and then decelerates
at 2 m to come to rest at station B. Find the distance from A and B
An ( 1 820m) (04marks)
UNEB 2011 No 1(a)
Define the following terms
(i) Uniform acceleration (01mark)
(ii) Angular velocity (01 mark)

UNEB 2010 No 1(d)

(i) Define uniform acceleration (01 mark)
(ii) With the aid of a vel-time graph, describe the motion of a body projected vertically upwards
(03 marks)
UNEB 2009 No 2
a) Define the following terms
(i) Velocity
(ii) Moment of a force (02marks)
b) i) A ball is projected vertically upwards with a speed of 50ms-1, on return it passes the point
of projection and falls 78m below. Calculate the total time taken An(11.57s)
(05 marks)
UNEB 2008 No 1(a)
i) Define the terms velocity and displacement (02 marks)
ii) Sketch a graph of velocity against time for an object thrown vertically upwards
(02 marks)
UNEB 2007 No 4(b)
20
(i) What is meant by acceleration due to gravity

UNEB 2006 No 1
a) i) What is meant by uniformly accelerated motion (01 mark)
ii) Sketch the speed against time graph for a uniformly accelerated body (01 mark)
b) (i) Derive the expression S = ut+ ½ at2
For the distance S moved by a body which is initially travelling with speed u and is
uniformly accelerated for time t (04 marks)

UNEB 1993 No 1
(a) Define the terms
(i) Displacement
(ii) Uniform acceleration
(b) i) A stone thrown vertically upwards from the top of a building with an initial velocity of
10m/s. the stone takes 2.5s to land on the ground.
ii) Calculate the height of the building
(iii)State the energy changes that occurred during the motion of the stone (03 marks)

EXERCISE2
1. A ball is dropped from a cliff top and takes 3s to reach the beach below. Calculate
a) The height of the cliff An(44.1m)
b) Velocity acquired by the ball An(29.4m/s)
2. With what velocity must a ball be thrown upwards to reach a height of 15m An(17.1ms-1)

3. A body is thrown upwards with an initial velocity at 2m/s. Calculate;

(i) The maximum height attained
(ii) Time taken to reach the maximum height.
4. An object is dropped from a helicopter. If the object hits the ground after 2s. Calculate the
height from which the object was dropped.

5. A body is thrown upwards with an initial velocity of 12m/s.

(i) Calculate the maximum height it attained.
(ii) Time taken by the body to return to the ground
21
 2. PROJECTILE MOTION
This is the motion of a body which after being given an initial velocity moves under the
influence of gravity.
Consider a ball projected at O with an initial velocity um/s at an angle θ to the horizontal.

Y-axis U

θ
O
X-axis

Resolution of velocity
From the figure:
Y-axis = -------------------(1)
U Uy
θ Also: =
UX X-axis
= -------------------(2)

Equation (1) is the initial vertical component of velocity

Equation (2) is the initial horizontal component of velocity

Note

The horizontal component of velocity [ = ] is constant through the motion and therefore

the acceleration is zero.

MATHEMATICAL FORMULAR IN PROJECTILES

All formulas in projectiles are derived from equations of linear motion

Y-axis U
α vx
Vy
θ
O
X-axis

22
Finding velocity at any time t.
Horizontally: =
a g Direction of motion
= ,
to the
a=0 (constant velocity)
horizontal
Velocity at any time t

√
Vertically:

Finding distances at any time t

horizontally : + ½ at2 = ,
= , a= 0

Vertically: + ½ at2

TERMS USED IN PROJECTILES

1. MAXIMUM HEIGHT [GREATEST HEIGHT] [ ]

Y-axis U V=0
( ) –
Smax
θ
O
X-axis

For vertical motion : at max height v=0,

= , ,s Note : ( ) but

2. TIME TO REACH MAX HEIGHT [t]

Vertically at max height v=0

23
3. TIME OF FLIGHT [T]

It refers to the total time taken by the projectile to move from the point of projection to the

point where it lands on the horizontal plane through the point of projection.

Y-axis U T( )= 0

Either T=0 or ( ) =0
θ
O A X-axis
( ) =0

Vertically: = t + ½ at2
at point A when the projectile return to
the plane =0,
t=T(time of flight),
Note: The time of flight is twice the time
to maximum height

4. RANGE [R]
It refers to the horizontal distance from the point of projection to where the projectile lands
along the horizontal plane through the point of projection.

Y-axis U

θ
O R A X-axis

Neglecting air resistance the horizontal component of velocity remains constant during
the flight
Horizontally : = t + ½ at2 R=
, a=0 (constant velocity), t=T
But from trigonometry

But T =

5. MAXIMUM RANGE [ ]

24
For maximum range sin2θ =1, R=
2θ ( )
2 θ = 90

6. EQUATION OF A TRAJECTORY
A trajectory is a path described by a projectile.
A trajectory is expressed in terms of horizontal distance x and vertical distance y.
For horizontal motion at any time t

Either
t= ----------------[1]
Or
For vertical motion at any time t
-------------[2]
Putting t into equation [2]

y= – ( ) Where = sec2θ

Hint
If a particle is projected directly (vertically) upwards the motion it describes is purely
kinematics (motion under gravity). But if it is projected at an angle to the horizontal, the
motion is parabolic (projectile motion).

Numerical examples
A. Objects projected upwards from the ground at an angle to the horizontal

1. A Particle is projected with a velocity of 30ms-1 at an angle of elevation of 300. Find

i) The greatest height reached
ii) The time of flight
iii) The velocity and direction of motion at a height of 4m on its way downwards
Solution

25
 30m/s
ii) T =
Y-axis

T=
30o
O
X-axis T= 3.06s

u = 30m/s , θ = 300, g=9.81ms-1

i) iii) R

= R

= 11.47m R= 79.45m

Y-axis 30m/s B Vx
A α
4m V
4m
30o Vy
O
X-axis
= 12.06m/s
For vertical motion
√

– √

or
The value of t=0.30s is the correct time since
Direction :
it’s the smaller value for which the body
moves upwards.

=24.90 to the horizontal

Velocity is 28.64m/s at 24.9o to horizontal

2. A projectile is fired with a velocity of 320m/s at an angle of 300 to the horizontal. Find
(i) time to reach the greatest height
(ii) its horizontal range
(iii) maximum range
Solution
26
 ii) range R= time of flight
Y-axis 320m/s
Time of flight =twice time to max height

O
30o R [ ]
X-axis
R= 9039.92m
i) At max height v=0,

iii) max range

3. A projectile fired at an angle of 600 above the horizontal strikes a building 30m away at a point
15m above the point of projection. Find
(i) Speed of projection
(ii) Velocity when it strikes a building
Solution

Y-axis um/s
Vx
α
V ( *
15m
60o Vy
O 15 = 51.96152423
30m X-axis
u2 = ( )
i) Horizontal distance at time t
√
u= 21.86m/s

Also vertical distance at any time t

v =13.60m/s
ii)but since t =
Vy
velocity at any time
36.580
√
The velocity is 13.60m/s at
√ 36.580 to the horizontal

27
Alternatively
Using the equation of a trajectory

( )
y=15m, x=30m, u=?
√
u= 21.86m/s

4. A body is projected at an angle of 600 above horizontal and passes through a net after 10s.
Find the horizontal and vertical distance moved by the body after it, was projected at a
speed of 20m/s
Solution

y-axis
20m/s

Vertical motion;
60o y ( ) –
x x-axis

Horizontal motion :

UNEB MARCH 1998 N0 1c

5. A ball is kicked from the spot 30m from the goal post with a velocity of 20m/s at 300 to the
horizontal. The ball just clears the horizontal bar of a goal post. Find;
(i) Height of the goal post
(ii) How far behind the goal post does the ball land
Solution
( ) ( )
y-axis
20m/s

y Height of the goal post = 2.61m

30o
30m
x
z x-axis ii) Time of flight
horizontal motion : T=

T = 2.04s
iii) Horizontal distance:
For vertical motion
35.33m

28
 but
z = 5.33m The ball 5.33m behind the goal

EXERCISE 3
1. A particle is projected at an angle of 60o to the horizontal with a velocity of 20m/s. calculate
the greatest height the particle attains An[15.29m]
2. A particle is projected from level ground towards a vertical pole, 4m high and 30m away
from the point of projection. It just passes the pole in one second. Find
i) Its initial speed and angle of projection An [39.29m/s, 16.50]
ii) The distance beyond the pole where the particle will fall An [24.42m]
3. A stone thrown upwards at an angle θ to the horizontal with speed ums-1 just clears a
vertical wall 4m high and 10m from the point of projection when travelling horizontally.
Find the angle of projection An[38.660]
4. A particle is projected with a velocity of 30m/s at an angle of 400 above the horizontal plane.
find ;
a) The time for which the particle is in the air.
b) The horizontal distance it travels An [3.9s, 22.9m/s]

B. Objects projected upwards from a point above the ground at an angle to the
horizontal

1. A particle is projected at an angle of elevation of 300 with a speed of 21m/s. If the point of
projection is 5m above the horizontal ground, find the horizontal distance that the particle
travels before striking the ground
Solution
21m/s -
30o

5m t or t
Time of flight t=2.54s
X

u= -5m since it’s below the point of For horizontal motion

projection
For vertical motion: ( )

29
The horizontal distance = 46.19m Alternatively use equation of
trajectory but not y=-5m

2. A bullet is fired from a gun placed at a height of 200m with a velocity of 150ms-1 at an angle of
300 to the horizontal find
i) Maximum height attained
ii) Time taken for the bullet to hit the ground
Solution
The max height attained is 286.70m from
150m/s
the point of projection
Smax
30o ii) Time taken for the bullet to hit the ground
Vertical motion :
200m
since its below the point of
X projection

i)
–

Time taken is 17.61s

= 286.70m

EXERCISE 4
1. A particle is projected with a velocity of 10ms-1 at an angle of 450 to the horizontal, it hits
the ground at a point which is 3m below its point of projection. Find the time fro which it is
in the air and the horizontal distance covered by the particle in this time An[1.76s, 12.42m]

2. A pebble is thrown from the top of a cliff at a speed of 10m/s and at 300 above the
horizontal. it hits the sea below the cliff 6.0s later , find;
a) The height of the cliff . An[150m, 52m]
b) The distance from the base of the cliff at which the pebble falls into the sea.

3. A pencil is accidentally knocked off the edge of a horizontal desktop. The height of the desk
is 64.8cm and the pencil hits the floor a horizontal distance of 32.4cm from the edge of the
desk, What was the speed of the pencil as it left the desk. An[0.9ms-1]

30
 C. An object projected horizontally from a height above the ground
Examples
1. A ball rolls off the edge of a table top 1m high above the floor with a horizontal velocity 1ms-1.
Find;
i) The time it takes to hit the floor
ii) The horizontal distance it covered
iii) The velocity when it hits the floor
Solution
U=1m/s

1m

vx
x α
vy v
u=1ms-1 θ=00 y=-1m below
the point of projection
vertical motion: √

√( ) ( )

ii) Direction:

77.20
iii) velocity when it hits the
The velocity is 4.5m/s at 77.2o to the
ground
horizontal

2. A ball is thrown forward horizontally from the top of a cliff with a velocity of 10m/s. the
height of a cliff above the ground is 45m. calculate
i) Time to reach the ground
ii) Distance from the cliff where the ball hits the ground
iii) Direction of the ball just before it hits the ground
Solution

31
 U=10m/s

45m

vx
x α
vy v
u=10ms-1 θ=00 y=-45m below the
point of projection
For vertical motion
√

√( ) ( )
v =√ m/s

ii)

α=71.40
iv) velocity when it hits the ground
The velocity is V =√ m/s
at 71.4o to the horizontal

UNEB 2014 No1 (a)

(i) What is a projectile motion (01marks)
(ii) A bomb is dropped from an aero plane when it is directly above a target at a height of
1402.5m. the aero plane is moving horizontally with a speed of 500km . Determine
whether the bomb will hit the target. An (misses target by 2347.2m) (05marks)

UNEB 2012 No 3 (d)

(i) Derive an expression for maximum horizontal distance travelled by a projectile in terms of
the initial speed u and the angle of projection θ to the horizontal [02 marks]
(ii) Sketch a graph to show the relationship between kinetic energy and height above the
ground in a projectile.

UNEB 2010 No (d)

32
iii) Calculate the range of a projectile which is fired at an angle of 450 to the horizontal with a
speed of 20m/s An [40.77m]

UNEB 2009 No 1 (d)

A stone is projected at an angle of 200 to the horizontal and just clears a wall which is 10m high
and 30m form the point of projection. Find the;
i) Speed of projection (04marks)
ii) Angle which the stone makes with the horizontal as it clears the wall (03marks)
An[73.78m/s, 16.90]

UNEB 2006 No 1 (c)

A projectile is fired horizontally from the top of a cliff 250m high. The projectile lands
1.414x103m from the bottom of the cliff. Find the
i) Initial speed of the projectile (05 marks)
ii) Velocity of the projectile just before it hits the ground (05 marks)
An [198m/s, 210m/s at 19.50]
UNEB 2000 No 3 (b)
(i) Define the terms time of flight and range as applied to projectile motion (02 marks)
(ii) A projectile is fired in air with a speed um/s at an angle θ to the horizontal. Find the time of
flight of the projectile (02marks)

MARCH UNEB 1995 No 1

a)i) write the equation of uniformly accelerated motion (03 marks)
ii) Derive the expression for the maximum horizontal distance travelled by a projectile in terms
of the initial speed u and the angle of projectile θ to horizontal (04 marks)
b) A bullet is fired from a gun placed a height of 200m with a velocity of 150m/s at an angle of
300 to the horizontal. Find
i) The maximum height attained
ii) The time for the bullet to hit the ground (07marks)

33
 CHAPTER 3: COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
3.1.0: VECTOR QUANTITY

It is a physical quantity with both magnitude and direction.

Example; displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, weight and momentum

3.1.2: SCALAR QUANTITY

It is a physical quantity with only magnitude.

Example; distance, speed, time, temperature, mass and energy

3.1.3: VECTOR ADDITION

A. Vectors acting in the same line

i) If vectors are acting in the same direction then resultant along that direction is just the sum of

the two vectors.

A 3N
B 2N

Resultant(A+B) 5N

ii) If they are moving in the opposite direction then, the resultant is difference of the vectors
but along the direction of the bigger vector.

A 3N
B 2N

Resultant(A-B) 1N

B . vectors acting at an angle

With vectors inclined at an angle to each other, a triangle of vectors is used to find the resultant.

The resultant given by the line that completes the triangle.

Components of a vector

The component of a vector is the effective value of a vector a long a particular direction. The

component along any direction is the magnitude of a vector multiplied by the cosine of the

angle between its direction and the direction of the component.

34
 Suppose a force F pulls a body of mass m along a truck at an angle θ to the horizontal as shown

below;

F
θ
M
The effective force that makes the body move along the horizontal is the component of F along the
horizontal

-------------------------------[1] -----------------[2]
Alternatively
Fy=Fsinθ
F
90-θ
θ
M
Fx=Fcosθ
=
( )
( )
( )

Hints
When a vector is inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal then;
 along the horizontal, the component of the vector is
 along the vertical, the component of the vector is

When a vector is inclined at θ to the vertical then;

 along the horizontal, the component of the vector is
 along the vertical, the component of the vector is

Examples
1. Three forces are applied to a point as shown below

35
 y
6N Calculate

45o a) The component in directions Ox and

O x
45o 14N Oy respectively
8N b) Resultant force acting at O

Solution
Components along Fx=4.1N
θ 19.00 Below the
Fy=1.41N
FR horizontal
Resultant force is 4.34N at
√ 19.0 below the
horizontal
√
Component along FR = 4.34N

Direction

2. A particle is acted upon by three coplanar forces, the resultant force is in the direction due

west

N Components along north – south component is

6N
50o – zero
W E
θ
2N i.e.
5N
S
Calculate the value of θ to

the nearest degree Fy=1.86-5sinθ =

Solution Fx=-4.6-5cosθ
-
θ= ( )
Component along
Since the resultant force is θ=21.840
due west, then the

3. Forces of 2N, 4N, 3N, 6N, and 7N act on a particle in the direction 00, 300, 1200, 2700 and 3300
respectively. Find the magnitude and direction of a single force represented by the above forces.
36
Solution
Note.
The direction given has 1, 2 , 3digit values therefore, the direction is in form of angles and hence
they should be read anticlockwise from the positive x-axis
Fx=10.03N
3N 4N θ
60o 2N
Fy=4.90N
30o
30o
FR

7N
6N
√
Resultant component along x-axis
√
FR = 11.16N

Resultant component along y-axis

θ = 26.040
The resultant force is 11.16Nat 26.040 below
the horizontal.

4. Forces of 2N, 3N, 4N, 5N, and 6N act on a particle in the direction 0300, 0900, 1200, 2100, and
3300 respectively. Find the resultant force.
Solution
Note
The direction are given in 3-digit values, therefore they are bearings and must be measured
from the north (positive y-axis) clock wise.
6N
2N

30o FR
60o 3N Fy
30o
30o θ
5N Fx
4N

Resultant along the x-axis √

Resultant along the y-axis

Direction θ = 16.90

37
The resultant force is 2.053N at 16.90 above the horizontal

5. Forces of 6N, 5N, 7N, 8N, 5N, and 9N act pm a particle in the direction N300E, N300W, S500E,
N600W, N800E and s400w, respectively. find the resultant force.
Solution
N
5N 6N

30o 30o 5N
W 10o
30o E
50o
8N 40o 7N

9N S

Fx
θ
Fy FR

θ = 68.90

Resultant force is 5.36N at 68.90 below horizontal

6. A particle at the origin 0 is acted upon by the three forces as shown below. Find the position
of the particle after 2 seconds of its mass is 1kg.
7N
3N 60o

4N
38
Solution √
Resultant along horizontal

But
Resultant along vertical

From
FR
Fy
θ
Fx from the origin

EXERCISE 5
1. Two coplanar forces act on a point 0 as shown below
y Calculate the resultant force
10N
5N
An[12.3N at 68.00 above the
horizontal]
45o 60o X
2. Three coplanar forces act at a point as shown below
y Find the resultant force acting at 0
5N
4N An[3.4N at 73.10 above the horizontal]
60o 30o
X
O
3N

3. Forces of 2N, 1N, 3N and 4N act on a particle in the directions 00, 900, 2700 and 3300
respectively. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
An[6.77N at 36.20 below the horizontal]

39
4. Forces of 7N, 2N, 2N, and 5N act on a particle in the direction 0600, 1600, 200 0 and 3150
respectively. Find the resultant force. An[4.14N at 52.360 below the horizontal]

5. Three forces act on a body of mass 0.5kg as shown is the diagram. Find the position of the
particle after 4 seconds.
6N An[3.44N, 6.88ms-2, 55.2m]

90o
120o 3N
1N

UNEB 2008 No1

b
2.0N Three forces of 3.5N, 4.0N and 2.0N act at
3.5N
a point 0 as shown above. Find the
30o
60o
O
resultant force. (4marks)
An[1.07N at 15.50 above the
4.0N
horizontal]

UNEB 2007 No 4
ii)
30N
y A body m of mass 6kg is acted on by
25N
40o
20o forces of 5N, 20N, 25N and 30N as
x
60o
M 5N shown above. Find the acceleration of

20N m [05 marks]

An[5.5ms-2]
UNEB NOV/DEC 1998 No1
c)
y Forces of 2.83N, 4.00N and 6.00N act on a
2.83N
45o particle 0 as shown above. Find the
x
30o resultant force on the particle
60o
4N [06marks]
4N

40
3.2.0: RELATIVE MOTION
It comprises of;
1-Relative velocity
2-Relative path

3.2.1: Relative velocity

This is the velocity a body would have as seen by an observer on another body. Suppose A and B
are two moving bodies, the velocity of A relative to B is the velocity of A as it appears to an
observer on B.
It’s denoted by AVB = VA-VB
Note that AVB BVA since [BVA = VB -VA]

Numerical calculations
There are two methods used in calculations
 Geometric method
 Vectorial method

1. Geometrical method
In this method make sure that the velocities of moving objects originates from a common point
and their relative velocity closes to form a triangle of velocities.

Note
The direction of the relative velocity must be from the observer because it’s the one observing
where the other object is moving.
B

AVB

O
A

Apply either cosine formula or sine formula to obtain the unknown quantities
i.e and
2. Vector method
Find component of velocity for each object separately
Therefore AVB = VA-VB

Example
1. Particle A is moving due to north at 30ms-1 and particle B is moving due south at 20m/s. find
the velocity of A relative to B.
Solution
Method II

AVB =( ) - ( )
VA=30m/s

AVB =( )
VB=20m/s
/AVB/ √
AVB = 50m/s due north

VA= ( ) VB =( *
-
AVB = VA-VB
41
2. A cruiser is moving at 30km/hr due north and a battleship is moving at 20km/hr due north,
find the velocity of the cruiser relative to the battleship.
Solution
Method II[vector ] CVB =( ) - ( ) CVB √
Vc= ( ) VB ( ) V
C B =10km/h due north
cVB=( ) due north
CVB = VC-VB

3. A particle A has a velocity of 4i+6j-5k (m/s) while particle B has a velocity of

-10i-2j+6k (m/s). find the velocity of A relative to B
Solution
AVB = VA-VB AVB ( +

AVB ( + ( + AVB = 14i + 8j – 11k (m/s)

4. A boy runs at 5km/h due west and a girl runs 12km/hr at a bearing of 1500. Find the
velocity of the girl relative to the boy.
Method I [geometrical]

GVB =15.13kmhr-1
N
Direction: using sine rule

VG 150o
θ
30o
GVB VB
( )
The arrow of relative velocity is from the 43.40
boy since he is the observer The relative velocity is 15.13km/hr at
(GVB) = VB2+VG2 - 2 VB VGcos200 43.40 below the western direction or
(GVB) 2= 52+122-2x12x5cos120 S46.60W
(GVB)2 =229
GVB √

Method II (vector)
N N
GVB/ √( ) ( )
GVB/ = 15.14km/hr
VG=5 150o
VB=12 11
30o θ
10.4
VG = ( ) VB =( )
GVB = VG-VB θ=43.40
- below the western direction
GVB =( * -( )
Relative velocity is 15.14km/hr at 43.40
GVB =( ) below the horizontal.

42
5. Plane A is flying due north at 40km/hr while plane B is flying in the direction N30oE at
30km/hr. Find the velocity of A relative to B.
Solution
Method I (Geometric)
VA=40km/hr VB=30km/hr Direction
θ
AVB
θ
VA
VB
30o
-
= ( )
AVB
2= VB2+VA2 - 2 VB VAcos300 = 46.90
= 302+402-2x30x40cos30 The relative velocity is 20.53 km/hr in the
AVB =
direction N46.9 W or S46.9 E
AVB = 20.53km/hr

Method II vector
N N

40km/h 30o 30km/h

A B

VA= ( ) VB=( ) Direction

AVB =VA-VB 14.02

θ
AVB =( ) ( )
15

AVB= ( )
θ=43.070 above the Horizontal
AVB =√(- ) ( )
The relative velocity is 20.53 at N46.930W
AVB = 20.53km/hr

6. Ship P is steaming at 60km/hr due east while ship Q is steaming in the direction N600W at
50km/hr. Find the velocity of P relative to Q.
Method I (geometric)
VP =60km/hr VQ = 50km/hr

PVQ
VQ -
= ( )
60o N
θ θ=13.60
VP Direction is ( )
S76.40E
Velocity of p relative to q is 106.3km/hr at
pVq2 Vp2+Vq2 2VpVqcos150 S76.40E.
pVq2 602+502 2x60x50cos150
pVq 106.3km/hr

43
Method II vector
N
N
50km/h
60o
P 60km/h Q

Vp = ( ) Vq =( ) N

pVq=Vp-Vq
103.301
θ
25

pVq =( )-( )

pVq= ( *
-
θ= 13.600
/ / √( ) (- ) Direction ( )
106.3km/hr Relative velocity is 106.3km/hr at S76.40E

7. To a cyclist riding due north at 40km/hr, a steady wind appears to blow from west at
30km/hr. find the true velocity of the wind.
Method geometric Method II vector
Vc =40km/hr wVc =30km/hr Vc ( ) wVc ( ) Vw ( )
wVc
Vc =Vw Vc
Vc Vw ( ) ( ) ( )
θ
X=30 And y = +40
2 Cos90
N 40
√ θ
Vw= 50km/hr 30

Vw ( ) Vw √
V w= 50km/hr
θ=53.130
-
= ( ) Direction ( )
θ =36.90 N36.87 E
True velocity is 50km/hr at N36.90E

Exercise 6
1. Car A is moving East wards at 20m/s and car B is moving Northwards at 10m/s. find the
i) Velocity of A relative to B An [ 10√ m/s]
ii) Velocity of B relative to A An [ 10√ m/s]

2. In EPL football match, a ball is moving at 5m/s in the direction of N450E and the player is
running due north at 8m/s. Find the velocity of the ball relative to the player.
An[5.69m/s at S38.380E].

44
3. A ship is sailing south East at 20km/hr and a second ship is sailing due west at 25km/hr.
Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the first ship relative to the second. An
[41.62km/hr at S70.130E]

4. On a particular day wind is blowing N300E at a velocity of 4m/s and a motorist is driving at
40m/s in the direction of S600E
a) Find the velocity of the wind relative to motorist An [40.2m/s at N54.280W]
b) If the motorist changes the direction maintaining his speed and the wind appears to
blow due East. What is the new direction of the motorist? An[N85.030W]

3.2.2: RELATIVE PATH

Consider two bodies A and B moving with VA and VB from points with position vectors RA and RB
respectively.
Position of A after time t is Relative path
RAt OA + t VA ARB RAt RBt
Position of B after time t is ARB (OA tVA) (OB tVB)
RBt OB + t VB ARB (OA OB) t(VA VB)
ARB (OA OB) t(AVB)
EXAMPLE
1. A car A and B are moving with their respective velocities and , if their position
vectors are and respectively. Find the path of A relative to B
i) At any time t ii) At t 2s
Solution
i) VA ( ) VB ( ) ii) When t 2 ARB ( ) ( )

OA ( ) OB ( ) ( ) ( )
ARB (OA-OB) + t(AVB) ARB ( )
ARB *( ) ( )+ *( ) ( )+

ARB ( ) ( )

2. Two ships A and B move simultaneously with velocities 20km/hr and 40km/hr respectively.
Ship A moves in the northern directions while ship B moves in N600E. Initially ship B is
10km due west of A. determine
a) The relative velocity of A to B b) The relative path of A to B
Solution
a) AVB ( )
AVB 34.64km/hr
20km/h
60o
40km/h b)
A B 10km
B A

ARB ( ) (AVB)
VA = ( ) VB= ( ) OB ( ) OA ( )
AVB = VA-VB ARB *( ) ( )+ + ( )
AVB ( )- ( )
ARB ( ) ( )
45
 3.2.3: SHORTEST DISTANCE AND TIME TO SHORTEST DISTANCE
[DISTANCE AND TIME OF CLOSEST APPROACH]
When two particles are moving simultaneously with specific velocities, time will come when
they are closest to each other without colliding

Numerical calculations
There three methods used
 Geometrical  Vector  Differential

1. Geometrical
It works when the information given is either a bearing (direction) or in two dimensions i.e. only
i and j components
Procedure
 Draw a diagram showing the initial positions of the particles
 Consider the motion of one body relative to another i.e. A relative to B
 Represent the velocities of the bodies on the diagram with their directions specified.
 Superimpose the relative velocity to the observable body
 Shortest distance is perpendicular to the relative velocity as shown below;
N N
AB
A B
θ

AVB
d

Shortest distance

AVB is a velocity, therefore to express it as a distance, it becomes /AVB/ t

But /AVB/ t ABcos
Time to shortest distance t=

2. Vector
Consider particles A and B moving with velocities VA and VB from point with positions vectors
OA and OB respectively.

Then shortest distance d /ARB /

For minimum distance to be attained then AVB . ARB = 0 This gives the time
Or time Where AB. AVB is a dot product

3. Differential
The minimum distance is reached when A RB / 2 0 This gives the time
Minimum distance d A RB /

EXAMPLE
1. A particle P starts from rest from a point with position vector with a velocity
( )m/s. A second particle Q starts at the same time from a point whose position vector is
with a velocity of ( )m/s . Find;
i) The shortest distance between the particles
ii) The time when the particles are closest together
iii) How far each has travelled by this time
46
Solution:
Method I vector

i) OP ( + Vp ( + PRQ ( + ( +6.2

( + ( +m/s PRQ ( +

PV Q VP –VQ /PRQ/ √( )
/PRQ/= 5.08m
PV Q ( + ( + ( +
iii) How far each has travelled
PRQ ( ) + (PVQ)t RP = OP +VPt
[( + ( +] ( + RP ( + ( +

PRQ ( + ( + RP ( +
For minimum distance
/RP/= √
PVQ PRQ
/RP/= 11.6m
( + ( + RQ = OQ +VQt

RQ ( + ( +

ii) Shortest distance d=/PRQ/ RQ ( +

PRQ ( + ( + /RQ/ =√
/RQ/ = 6.8m
t=6.2

Method II (differential)
PRQ/2 0 PRQ/2

PRQ ( + ( +

Minimum Distance d = PRQ/

PRQ ( +
d ( +
PRQ/2 ( ) ( ) ( )
PRQ/2
d ( +
PRQ/2

PRQ/2 d √( ) ( ) ( )
d 5.08m

2. Initially two ships A and B are 65km apart with B due East of A. A is moving due East at
10km/hr and B due south at 24km/hr. the two ships continue moving with these velocities.

47
 Find the least distance between the ships in the subsequent motion and the time taken to
the nearest minute for such a situation to occur.
Solution Method I (Geometric)
First get the relative velocity

AVB
B N
10km/h 67.38o
A 24km/h A B
65km

VA=( ) VB ( )
Least distance
AVB VA VB 65sin67.38
AVB ( ) ( ) ( ) Least distance 60.0km

24km/h
N Time t=
α
10km/h AVB ( )
-
67. 380 /AVB / √
N22.610E /AVB / 26km/h
AVB = √
/AVB /= 26km/h Time t=
Relative velocity is 26km/h at N22.620E Time = 0.96hr
Time=0.96x60≈58minutes
Sketch

Method II (vector) Alternatively t can be obtained from

least distance d = ARB/ time = AB ( )
For least distance (AVB . ARB) = 0
( ) ( )
But AVB ( ) time =
(√ )
( )
A
65km
B
t=

A ( ) B ( ) t
t=0.96hr
ARB ( ) AVB t

*( ) ( )++ ( ) least distance d = ARB/

ARB = [(OA)-(OB)] + AVB t
ARB ( ) [ ]
ARB = ( )
AVB . ARB=0

( ).( ) ARB ( )
ARB/ √( )
/ ARB/

3. At noon a boat A is 30km from boat B and its direction from B is 2860. Boat A is moving in
the North east direction at 16km/hr and boat B is moving in the northern direction at
48
 10km/hr. Determine when they are closest to each other. What is the distance between
them?
Solution For relative velocity
45o VA
A Direction
74o VB 1.314
B α
286o 11.314
VA ( ) VB ( )
AVB = VA- VB ( *
AVB ( ) ( ) 6.620 ( )
Relative velocity is 11.39km/hr at N
AVB ( ) 83.380E
/AVB /= √
/AVB /= 11.39km/hr

SKETCH
Time t=

A
6.62
16
d t=
30km t = 2.43hrs
B Time is 2.43hours from noon or 2 hours
and 25.8 minutes
It occurs 2:26pm at a distance of 11.54km
( )
( )

Exercise7
1. A ship A is 8km due North of Ship B, ship A is moving at 150kmh-1 due west while B is
moving at 200km/hr due N300W. After what time will they be nearest together and how far
apart will they be. An(2.22km, 0.043hrs)

2. The point p is 50km west of q. Two air crafts A and B fly simultaneously from p and q
velocities are 400km/hr N500E and 500km/hr N200W respectively. Find;
(i) The closest distance between the air crafts
(ii) The time of flight up to this point An(20.35km, 5.24 minutes)

3. Ship A steams North-west at 60km/hr whereas B steams southwards at 50km/hr, initially

ship B was 80km due north of A. find;
(i) The velocity of A relative to B
(ii) The time taken for the shortest distance to be reached
(iii) The shortest distance between A and B.
An(101.675km/hr at N24.70W, 42.9minutes, 33.382km)

49
3.3.0: Motion of bodies with different frames of reference
It involves crossing the river and flying space

3.3.1: Crossing the river

There are three cases to consider when crossing a river

a. Case I (shortest route)

If the water is not still and the boat man wishes to cross directly opposite to the starting point.
In order to cross point A to another point B directly opposite A (perpendicularly), then the
course set by the boat must be upstream of the river.
usinθ B Sin
W =
u ucosθ is the direction to the vertical but the
θ direction to the bank is (90- )
A Time taken =
u is the speed of the boat in still water,
w is the speed of the running water
At point B: w

b. Case II. The shortest time/as quickly as possible

If the boat man wishes to cross the river as quickly as possible, then he should steer his boat
directly from A to B as shown. The river pushes him down stream.
B D Or distance downstream =
W
u VR
tan =
θ
The resultant velocity downstream VR
A

Time to cross the river t VR = √

Distance covered downstream is =

C. Case III
D B Resultant velocity ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗

u VR

EXAMPLES
1. A river with straight parallel bank 400m apart flows due north at 4km/hr. Find the direction
in which a boat travelling at 12km/hr must be steered in order to cross the river from East
to West along the course perpendicular to the banks. Find also the time taken to cross the
river.
Solution
Hint. Since the course is perpendicular to the bank, then it requires crossing directly to the
opposite point.

50
 UCosθ
The direction is (90-19.47) to the bank.
B A
θ Direction is 70.530 to the bank
W
U Time taken =
Time taken =
W=4km/hr U=12km/hr Time = 0.035hrs
AB=400m=0.4km Time =2.1 minutes
Sin = = =19.470

2. A man who can swim at 6km/hr in still water would like to swim between two directly
opposite points on the banks of the river 300m wide flowing at 3km/hr. Find the time he
would take to do this.
Solution
U=6km/hr W= 3km/hr Time taken =
AB=300m AB = 0.3km
Time taken =
usinθ B
Time = 0.058hrs
W
Time =3.46minute
u ucosθ He must swim at 300 to AB in order to
θ cross directly and it will take
A
3.46minutes

Sin = = =30o

3. A man who can swim at 8m/s in still water crosses a river by steering at an angle of 126.870
to the water current. If the river is 75m wide and flows at 5m/s, find;
(i) The velocity with which the person crosses the river
(ii) The time he takes to do this
Solution
u=8m/s w=5m/s AB=75m √
B
VR=6.4m/s
126.87o w
The person crosses with 6.4m/s.
53.13o α
ii) Time taken =
VR
u But VR=
θ
Time = = 11.72 seconds
A
is not 900
Using cosine rule

4. A man who can swim at 2m/s at in still water wishes to swim across a river 120m wide as
quickly as possible. If the river flows at 0.5m/s, find the time the man takes to cross and how
far down streams he travels.
Solution
U=2m/s w=0.5m/s AB=120m

51
 B
t=
D
W t=60s
u
θ
VR i. Distance downstream = wt
= 0.5x60
A Distance downstream 30m

5. A boat can travel at 3.5m/s in still water. A river is 80m wide and the current flows at 2m/s,
calculate
a) The shortest time to cross the river and the distance downstream that the boat is carried.
b) The course that must be set to apoint exactly opposite the starting point and the time taken
for crossing
Solution
a) U=3.5m/s, w=2m/s AB=80m t= t= 22.95
B D Distance downstream BD=wt
W =2x22.9
u VR Distance downstream BD 45.8m
θ

Shortest time t =

b. U=3.5m/s, w=2m/s, AB=80

usinθ B =
W =34.80
The course must be 34.80 to AB.
u ucosθ Time for crossing Time taken =
θ
Time taken =
A
t=27.8s
Sin =

UNEB 2003 No1c

6. A boat crosses a river 3km wide flowing at 4m/s to reach a point on the opposite bank 5km
upstream. The boat’s speed in still water is 12m/s. Find the direction in which the boat must
be headed. (04marks)
Solution
In order for a boat to cross to a point C upstream on the opposite bank then the course set must
be such that the resultant velocity of the boat is along AC upstream.
U=12m/s, w=4m/s, AB=3km, AC 5km
52
 C
=149.040
5km B
Also using sin rule
W
µ γ
3km
u α θ
β ( )
A =9.870
But =900
tan =59.040 +9.87+59.04=900
But + =900 =21.090
The boat must be headed at 21.090 to the
=30.960 river bank upstream
But + =1800
+30.960=1800
=1800-30.960

Exercise8
1. A man who an row at 0.9m/s in still water wishes to cross the river of width 1000m as
quickly as possible. If the current flows at a rate of 0.3m/s. Find the time taken for the
journey. Determine the direction in which he should point the boat and position of the boat
where he lands An [1111.11s, 71.57o to the bank, 333.33 downstream]

2. A man swims at 5kmh-1 in still water. Find the time it takes the man to swim across the river
250m wide, flowing at 3kmh-1, if he swims so as to cross the river;
(i) By the shortest route An [178.6s]
(ii) In the quickest time An[217.4s]

3. A boy can swim in still water at 1m/s, he swims across the river flowing at 0.6m/s which is
300m wide, find the time he takes;
(i) If he travels the shortest possible distance
(ii) If he travels as quickly as possible and the distance travelled downstream.
[375s,180m]
(iii)
4. A boy wishes to swim across a river 100m wide as quickly as possible. The river flows at
3km/hr and the boy can swim at 4km/h in still water. Find the time that the boy takes to
cross the river and how far downstream he travels. An [90s,75m].

53
 CHAPTER 4: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
LAW I : Everybody continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted
upon by an external force.
This is sometimes called the law of inertia

Definition
Inertia is the reluctance of a body to start moving once its at rest or to stop moving if its
already in motion.

LAW II: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and
takes place in the direction of the force.

Definition
Linear momentum (p) is the product of the mass and the velocity of the body moving in a
straight line.
Momentum is a vector quantity and its unit is kgms-1

Consider a mass m moving with velocity u. If the mass is acted on by a force F and its velocity
changes to v;
By Newton’s law of motion ( )
F=
F -
But a
F
( )
F= Where k is a constant

The unit of force is a newton

Definition
A Newton is a force which gives a body of mass 1kg an acceleration of 1ms—2
F= 1N, m = 1kg, a = 1ms-2
But F = kma
1 = Kx1x1
K=1

Note: F must be the resultant force

LAW III: To every action there is an equal but opposite reactions.

This law stresses that whenever two bodies interact with each other, the force exerted by
the first body on the second body is equal and opposite to the force exerted by the second
body on the first body

Example of 3rd law of motion

 A gun moves backwards on firing it.  A ball bounces on hitting the ground.

NB: Though action and reaction forces are equal and opposite in direction, they do not cancel
out because they act on different bodies.

54
4.1.0: IDENTIFICATION OF FORCES AND THE APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAWS
1. Consider a body of mass m placed on either a stationary platform or a platform moving at a
constant velocity
R R= normal reaction
Mg= gravitational pull [weight]
R = mg since (a=0) constant velocity
m

mg

2. A body of mass m placed on a platform moving vertical upward with an acceleration (a)
R Resultant acts upwards in the direction of the
a ms-2
acceleration.
Resultant force is –
By Newton’s second law R – mg = ma
m

mg

3. A body of mass m on a platform having a acceleration a vertically downwards.

R Resultant force downwards (mg - R)
a ms -2 From 2nd law mg - R = ma

mg

4. Mass m placed on a smooth inclined plane of angle of inclination

R

i nθ
mg S
θ mgCosθ
θ mg

NB:
 All objects placed on, or moving on an inclined plane experience a force down
the plane. [It doesn’t matter what direction the body is moving]
 If the plane is rough the body experiences a frictional force whose direction is opposite
to the direction of motion.

55
5. Connected bodies of masses m1 and m2 over smooth a pulley by a light string (M1 >M2)

Since m1 is greater than m2, it Pulls m2 Applying Newton’s 2nd law separately to
down each mass
T = tension in the string For m2 : M2g = M2a………………….(i)
a = common acceleration
For M1: M1g -T = M1a………………….(ii)
Adding (i) and (ii)

T T M1g-M2g = M1a + M2a

T T ( )
a a
m2 m1

m2gN m gN
1

Examples:
1. A car of mass 1000kg is accelerating at 2ms-2. What resultant force acts on the car? .
If the resistance to the motion is 1000N, what force is due to the engine?
Solution
a From 2nd law Resultant force is
F= ma 2000N
1000kg F
F = 1000x2
F = 2000N

a Apply Newton’s 2nd law

F1-1000 = ma
1000N 1000kg F1 F1-1000 = 1000x2
F1-1000 = 2000
F1 = 3000N
The resistance force should act in Force due to the engine is 3000N
opposite direction to the force due to
the engine

2. A car moves along a level road at a constant velocity of 22m/s. If its engine is exerting a
forward force of 2000N, what resistance is the car experiencing
Solution
2000-R1 = ma
a=0ms-2 But a = 0 since it moves with constant velocity
R1 2000 – R1 = 0
2000N R1 = 2000N

Applying Newton’s 2nd law

3. Two blocks A and B connected as shown below on a horizontal friction less floor and pulled
to the right with an acceleration of 2ms-2 by a force P, if m1 = 50kg and m2 = 10kg. what are
the values of T and P

56
 A T B
T m1
m2 P

Solution P-T=100 P-T=100

Since the acceleration For m2: T=m2 a P-20=100
act to the right then T=10x2 P=120N
For m1: P-T=m1a…….[1] T=20N
P-T=50x2 But into equation (1)

4. A Lorry of 3 tones pulls 2 trailers each of mass 2 tones along a horizontal road, if the lorry is
accelerating at 0.8ms-2, calculate
a) Net force acting on the whole combination
b) The tension in the coupling between the lorry and 1st trailer.
c) The tension in the coupling between the 1st and 2nd trailer.
Solution
0.8ms-2

T2 T2 T1 T1 F
2tones 2tones 3tones

Let F be the net force acting on the combination

For the lorry: F T1 T1 1600=1600
F T1=2400………..[1] T1=3200N
For the 1st trailer: T1 T2 Put into [1]
T1 T2=1600………….[2] F T1=2400
For the 2ND trailer: T2 F 3200=2400
T2=1600N F=5600N
Put into [2]: T1 T2=1600 F=5600N,T1=3200N T2=1600N

Exercise 10
1. A box of 50kg is pulled up from a ship with an acceleration of 1ms-2 by a vertical rope
attached to it.
i. Find the tension on the rope.
ii. What is the tension in the rope when the box moves up with a uniform velocity of
1ms-1 (g=9.8ms-2) An [540N, 490N]

2. A lift moves up and down with an acceleration of 2ms-2. In each case, calculate the reaction
of the floor on a man of mass 50kg standing in the lift. (take g = 9.8ms-s) An[590N, 390N]

Motion on inclined planes

Example
1. A body of mass 5kg is pulled up a smooth plane inclined at 300 to the horizontal by a force of
40N acting parallel to the plane. Find
a) Acceleration of the body
b) Force exerted on the body by the plane
Solution

57
 R –
1.5.475 =5a
40
-2 a = 3.095m/s2
a ms a≈ 3.1 m/s2
5 kg
0 Acceleration ≈3.1 m/s2
i n3
5gS 30o b) Force exerted on the body by the
30o 5gCos30
plane is the normal reaction
5gN
Since its moving up the plane, the resultant R = 42.4N
is upwards.
a) Resolving parallel to the plane
–

2. A lorry of mass 3 tones travelling at 90km/hr starts to climb an incline of 1 in 5. Assuming

the tractive pull between its tyres and the road remains constant and that its velocity
reduces to 54km/h in a distance of 500m. Find the tractive pull
Solution
U = 90km/h 25ms-1
V = 54km/h 15ms-1 –
S = 500m, Sin = = 11.540 – ………………..(i)
R
But
F
a ms
-2
g a = - 0.4m/s2
30 00 k
i nθ
put into (i)
gS
300
0
θ
θ
3000gCosθ
–

3000gN F = 4686N
The tractive force is 4686N
Let F be the tractive pull
Resolving along the plane

3. A train travelling uniformly at 72km/h begins an ascent on 1 in 75. The tractive force which
the engine exerts during the ascent is constant at 24.5kN, the resistance due to friction and
air is also constant at 14.7kN, given the mass of the whole train is 225 tones. Find the
distance a train moves up the plane before coming to rest.
Solution F–( +R1) = ma
R 24500–( +14700) = 22500a
F
a ms
-2
g
a = -0.087ms -2
mk its deceleration = 0.087ms-2
i nθ
mg
S R 1
θ
[ comes to rest]
mgCosθ
u = 72km/h = =20ms-1
θ

mgN
(- )
1 in 75 means sin = = 0.760 S = 2298.85m
resistance force: R1= 14.7kN
tractive force :F = 24.5kN

58
Exercise 11
1. The pull exerted by an engine is 1/80 of the weight of the whole train and the maximum
brake force which can be exerted is 1/30 of the weight of the train. Find the time in which
the train travels from the rest up a slope of 1 in 240 and 4800m along, if the brakes are
applied when the engine is switched off . An(379s).
2. The resistance to the motion of the train due to friction is equal to 1/160 of the weight of the
train, if the train is travelling on a level road at 72kmh-1 and comes to the foot of an incline of
1 in 150 and steam is then turned off, how far will the train go up the incline before it comes
to rest. An(1579.99m)
3. 12m length of the slope. If the truck starts from the bottom of the slope with a speed of
18km/h, how far up will it travel before coming to rest An(71.43m).
4.
22.5N

90N

40N
60o

Three forces act on a block as shown, the block is placed on a smooth plane inclined at 600
calculate;
a) Acceleration of the block up the plane
b) Gain in kinetic energy in 5s after moving from rest An(1.5ms-2, 140.625J)

4.1.1: MOTION OF CONNECTED PARTICLES

When two particles are connected by a light inextensible string passing over a smooth pully and
allowed to move freely, then as long as the string is tight, the following must be observed.
 Acceleration of one body in general direction of motion is equal to the acceleration of the
other
 The tension T in the string is constant.

Examples
1. Two particles of masses 5kg and 3kg are connected by a light inelastic string passing over a
smooth fixed pulley. Find;
(i) Acceleration of the particles
(ii) The tension in the string
(iii) The force on the pulley
Solution
For 5kg mass: 5g –T = ma
5g –T = 5a……………………(i)
For 3kg mass: T-3g = ma
T T T-3g = 3a …………………….(ii)
Adding (i) and (ii)
T T 2g = 8a
a a a=
3kg 5kg
a = 2.45ms-2
ii) T – 3g =3a
3gN T = 3x2.45 + 3x9.81
5gN
T = 36.78N
59
iii) Force on the pulley
R = 2T
R
R = 2x36.78
R = 73.56N
T T Force on the pulley is 73.56N

2. A mass of 9kg resting on a smooth horizontal table is connected by a light string passing
over a smooth pulley at the edge of the table, to the pulley is a 7kg mass hanging freely; find
(i) Common acceleration
(ii) The tension in the string
(iii) The force on the pulley in the system if its allowed to move freely.
Solution
R a= a = 4.292ms-2
ams-2
(ii) Tension : T = 9a
T T T = 9 x 4.292
9kg
T = 38.63N
T
-2
(iii) The force on the pulley
9gN T ams
T F
7kg
T
7gN
For 7kg mass: …………..(i) √
For 9kg mass: T = 9a……………………….(ii) √
Put (ii) into (i) F = 38.63√
Force on the pulley = 54.63N

3.
20kg

8kg 16kg
The figure shows a block of mass 20 kg resting on a smooth horizontal table. Its connected by
strings which pass over pulleys at the edges of the table to two loads of masses 8kg and 16kg
which hang vertically. Calculate;
(i) Acceleration of 16kg mass
(ii) Tension in each string
(iii) Reaction on each pulley
Solution

60
 T1 = 128.416N
ams-2
R
T2 – 8g = 8a
T2 = 8x1.784 + 8x9.81
T2 T2 T1 T1
20kg T2 = 92.752N
T2
ams-2 T2
T1 ams-2 iii) Reaction on each pulley
T1
20gN
8kg 16kg T1 R1

T1
8gN 16gN

For 16kg mass:16g –T1 = 16a……….[1] √

For 20kg mass:T1 –T2 =20a…………[2] 128.416 √
For 8kg mass:T2 - 8g =8a……………[3]
Adding 1 and 2 R2 T2
16g - T2=36a……….…[x]
And 3 and x T1
8g = 44a
√
a = 1.784ms-2
√
ii) Tension in each string
16g – T1 = 16a
T1 = 16x9.81 – 16x1.784

Exercise12
1. Two particles of masses 20g and 30g are connected to a fine string passing over a smooth
pulley, find;
(i) Common acceleration An[1.962ms-2]
(ii) The tension in the string An [0.235N]
(iii) The force on the pulley An [0.471N]

2. A mass of 5kg is placed on a smooth horizontal table and connected by a light string to a 3kg
mass passing over a smooth pulley at the edge of the table and hanging freely. If the system
is allowed to move, calculate;
a) The common acceleration of the masses An[3.68m/s2]
b) The tension in the string An[18.4N]
c) The force acting on the pulley An[26N]
3.
A

B C

The diagram shows a particle A of mass M = 2kg resting on a horizontal table. It is attached to
particles B of m =5kg and C of m= 3kg by light inextensible strings hanging over light smooth
pulleys. If the system is allowed to move from rest, find the common acceleration of the
particle and the tension in each string given that the surface of the table is rough and the
coefficient of friction between the particle and the surface of the table is ½
An[0.98ms-2, 32.37N, 44.15N]
[Hint: friction force = coefficient of friction x normal reaction]

61
 4.1.2: LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity of the body moving in a straight line
Momentum (p) = mass x velocity
Momentum is a vector quantity

IMPULSE
This is the product of the force and time for which the force acts on a body
i.e. Impulse (I) = Force(F) x time (t)
⃗ =⃗ t
The unit of impulse is Ns.
An impulse produces a change in momentum of a body. If a body of mass(m) has it velocity
changed from u to v by a force F acting on it in time t, then from Newton’s 2nd law.
F= I = mv-mu
Ft = mv-mu Impulse = change in momentum

Example
1. A body of mass 5kg is initially moving with a constant velocity of 2ms-1, when it experiences
a force of 10N is 2s, find
(i) The impulse given to the body by the force
(ii) The velocity of the body when the force stops acting
Solution 20 = 5v-5x2
5v = 30
Impulse = 20Ns v = 6m/s

2. A body of mass 50kg jumps onto the ground from a height of 2m. Calculate the force which
acts on him when he lands
(i) As he bends his knees and stops within 0.2 seconds
(ii) As he keeps his legs straight and stops within a shorter period of time of 0.05s
Solution
i) Using F
- ii) ii) F
( - ) ( - )
√ F F
V 6.3ms-1 F 1573N F 6300N

3. A ball of mass 0.25kg moving in a straight line with a speed of 2ms-1 strikes a vertical wall at
an angle of 450 to the normal. The wall gives it an impulse I in the direction of the normal
and the ball rebounds at an angle of 600 to the normal. Calculate the magnitude of the
impulse and the speed with which the ball rebounds.
Solution

before Impulse I =mv-mu

2m/s
o
I 45
60o V ( ) V ( √
)
v
after
62
 √ √ √
U ( ) U (√ *
√
√ √
=

(√ *
√
0.25( ) V m/s
√
√ √
I= - Since vertical component is 0
√
√ √
( ) I= -
√ √ √
I=2.23Ns
Since I is perpendicular to the wall then
the vertical component is zero

4.1.3: WHY LONG JUMPER BEND KNEES

The force F exerted on a long jumper on coming to rest is F=
Since the change in momentum is constant. Therefore the knees are bent so as to increase
the time taken to come to rest which reduces the rate of change of momentum, therefore the
force on the jumpers legs is reduced thus less pain on the legs.

Question: Explain why, when catching a fast moving ball, the hands are drawn backwards while
ball is being brought to rest.

Question: Explain why a long jumper must land on sand

4.1.4: LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

It states that for a system of colliding bodies, their total momentum remains constant in a
given direction provided no external force acts on them.

Suppose a body A of mass m, and velocity U1, collides with another body B of mass m2 and
velocity U2 moving in the same direction

Before collision After collision

A B A B
m1 u1 m2 u2 m1 v1 v2
m 2

By principle of conservation of momentum

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Total momentum Total momentum
before collision after collision

4.1.5: Proof of the law of conservation of momentum using Newton’s law

Let two bodies A and B with masses m1 and m2 moving with initial velocities u1 and u2 and let
their velocities after collision be v1and v2 respectively for time t with (v1<v2)
By Newton’s law: ( ) ( )
( )
Force on :
( )
Force on :
By Newton’s 3rd law: Hence constant
63
 4.1.6: COLLISIONS
In an isolated system, momentum is always conserved but this is not always true of the kinetic
energy of the colliding bodies.
In many collisions, some of the kinetic energy is converted into other forms of energy such as
heat, light and sound.

Types of collisions
1. Elastic collisions
It is also perfectly elastic collision. This is a type of collision in which all kinetic energy is
conserved. collision between molecules, electrons.

2. Inelastic collision
This is a type of collision in which the kinetic energy is not conserved.

3. Completely inelastic collision

This is a type of collision in which the bodies stick together after impact and move with a
common velocity. a bullet embedded in a target

4. Explosive collision (super elastic)

This is one where there is an increase in K.E.

Summary
Elastic collision Inelastic collision Perfectly inelastic
 Linear momentum is  Linear momentum is  Linear momentum is
conserved conserved conserved
 Kinetic energy is  Kinetic energy is not  Kinetic energy is not
conserved conserved conserved
 Bodies separate  Bodies separate  Bodies stick
after collision after collision together and move
 Coefficient of  Coefficient of with a common
restitution restitution is less velocity
(elasticity)=1 (e=1) than 1 (e<1)  e=0

4.1.7: Mathematic treatment of elastic collision

Consider an object of mass m, moving to the right with velocity u1. If the object makes a head-on
elastic collision with another body of mass m2 moving with a velocity u2 in the same
direction. Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of the two bodies after collision.
[1] [ ]
Before collision After collision ( ) ( )
A B A B ( ) ( )
u1 m 2 u2 v1 m v2
m1 m1 2 ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
By conservation of momentum

m1(u1 v1) m2(v2 u2)-------------------[1] ( ) ( )

For elastic collision k.e is conserved
½ ½ ½ ½ ( )
m1(u12 v12) m2(v22 u22) ---------------[2]
from equation 1 and 2 then
64
 Example
1. A particle P of mass , travelling with a speed makes a head-on collision with a
stationary particle Q of mass . If the collision is elastic and the speeds of P and Q after
impact are v1 and v2 respectively. Show that for β
(i) = (ii) =
Solution
( ) ( )
A B A B
u2
( )
m1 u1 m2 m1 v1 v2
m2
( ) ---------------------------[2]
Before impact After impact
equating [1] and [2]
( )=[ ( )]
By law of conservation of momentum ( ) ( )( )
---------------------[x] ( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )

Therefore (1 ) ( 1)
( )----------------------------- [1] =
for elastic collision k.e is conserved
½ ½ ½ ½

ii) From = ----------------------- [xx] ( * ( )

from equation[1] ( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )

put into (xx)

( ) ( )
( ) =

4.1.8: Mathematical treatment of perfectly inelastic collision

Suppose a body of mass m, moving with velocity u1 to the right makes a perfectly inelastic
collision with a body of mass m2 moving with velocity u2 in the same direction
Before impact After impact
k.ei =
m 1 u m 1 u 2 V
m m
Total kinetic energy after collision
2 1 2

By law of conservation k.ef ( )

( ) Loss in k.e= k.ei – k.ef
( )
Total kinetic energy before collision

Numerical examples
1. Ball P, Q and R of masses , and lie on a smooth horizontal surface in a straight line.
The balls are initially at rest. Ball P is projected with a velocity towards Q and makes an
elastic collision with Q. if Q makes a perfectly in elastic collision with R, show that R moves
with a velocity.

65
 ( )( )
Solution
Elastic collision of P and Q: ……(3)
Conservation of momentum:
In elastic collision of Q and R:
( )
…….(1)
( )
Conservation of kinetic energy:
…..(2)
Putting [1] into [2 ( )( )
( )

2. A 0.2kg block moves to the right at a speed of 1ms-1 and meets a 0.4kg block moving to the
left with a speed of 0.8ms-1. Find the find velocity of each block if the collision is elastic.
Solution

A B A B
0.2kg u1 u2 0.4kg 0.2kg v1 v2
0.4kg
Before impact After impact

By law of conservation But from [1] v1=-0.6-2v2 put into (2)

=2.28
( ) ( ) +( 0.6-2v2)2 2.28
because its moving to left +2.4 -1.92 0
0.4m/s , 0.8m/s
---------------------- [1] v2=0.4m/s is correct since m2 is in front it
for elastic collision K.E is conserved supposed to move faster
+ + Therefore from (1)
( ) v1 v2=
v1
v1=-1.4m/s
2.28 -----------------------[2]

3. A truck of mass 1 tonne travelling at 4m/s collides with a truck of mass 2 tonnes moving at
3m/s in the same direction. If the collision is perfectly inelastic, calculate;
(i) Common velocity
(ii) Kinetic energy converted to other forms during collision
Solution
Before impact After impact
1000kg uA uB 1000kg 2000kg V
2000kg

By law of conservation of momentum V = ms-1

( )
( )+( ) = (1000 + 2000)v Common velocity is ms-1
10000 = 3000v ii) Initial K.e = +

66
 = ½ x 1000x 42 + 1/2x2000x32 = 16666.67J
k.e.i = 17000J Kinetic energy converted = k.ei – k.ef
Final k.ef = ( ) = 17000 – 16666.67
= 333.33Joules
= ½(1000 + 2000)( )2

4. Two particles of masses 0.2kg and 0.4kg are approaching each other with velocities 4ms-1
and 3ms-1 respectively. On collision, the first particle reverses, its direction and moves with
a velocity of 2.5ms-1. find the;
(i) velocity of the second particle after collision
(ii) percentage loss in kinetic energy
Solution
A B A B
0.2kg uA uB 0.4kg vA 0.2kg vB
0.4kg
Before impact After impact

By law of conservation of momentum Final K.ef = +

0.4 +
-0.4 + 0.5 = 0.4 =0.6475J
= 0.25m/s Loss in kinetic energy = k.ei – k.e.f
The velocity of the second particle is = 3.4 - 0.6375
0.25m/s in opposite direction = 2.7625J
% loss in k.e.
ii) Initial k.e i = +
= ½ (0.2x4 +0.4x[-3] )
2 2
% loss in k.e. 81.25%
= 3.4J

5. A bullet of mass is fired from a rifle of mass with a muzzle velocity

of 100km/h. Find the recoil velocity of the rifle.
Solution
= =27.78m/s 8
=0.14m/s

6. A bullet of mass 20g is fired into a block of wood of mass 400g lying on a smooth horizontal
surface. If the bullet and the wood move together with the speed of 20m/s. Calculate
(i) The speed with which the bullet hits the wood
(ii) The kinetic energy lost
Solution
20m/s ( ) ( )
uB =0m/s ( )
uA=?
MA MB MA MB
Before collision After collision The original velocity of the bullet was
420m/s
By the principle of conservation of Initial K.e = +
momentum
( ) =
=1764J
67
Final K.ef = ( ) Loss in kinetic energy = k.ei – k.e.f
= 1764 - 84
= (0.02 + 0.04) ( )2 = 1680J
= 84J

Exercise13
1. A 2kg object moving with a velocity of 8m/s collides with a 3kg object moving with a
velocity 6ms-1 along the same direction. If the collision is completely inelastic, calculate the
decrease in kinetic energy collision. An [2.4J]

2. Two bodies A and B of mass 2kg and 4kg moving with velocities of 8m/s and 5m/s
respectively collide and move on in the same direction. Object A’s new velocity is 6m/s.
(i) Find the velocity of B after collision
(ii) Calculate the percentage loss in kinetic energy. An(6m/s, 5.26%)

3. A particle of mass 2kg moving with speed 10ms-1 collides with a stationary particle of mass
7kg. Immediately after impact the particles move with the same speeds but in opposite
directions. Find the loss in kinetic energy during collision. An(28J)

4. A 2kg object moving with a velocity of 6ms-1 collides with a stationary object of mass 1kg. If
the collision is perfectly elastic, calculate the velocity of each object after collision.
An[2ms-1, 8ms-1]

4.1.9: BALLISTIC PENDULUM

Light string
θ
L
Lcosθ
L L (M+m)

block h=L(1-cosθ)
bullet v After impact
m M
Before impact

Resolving along the vertical gives

But

( )
The device illustrates the laws of conservation of momentum and mechanical energy

a) During impact
 Mechanical energy is not conserved because of friction and other non conservative forces
 Linear momentum is conserved in the horizontal direction along which there is no external
force
If is the velocity of combined mass just after collision
( )
( ) …………………………………….(i)
The block was initially at rest.

b) Swing after impact

68
 Mechanical energy is conserved. The conserved gravitational force causes conversion of
to
 Momentum is not conserved because an external resultant force (pull of the earth / weight)
acts on the bullet-block system.
From (i)
( )
( ) ( )
√ ( ) ………(2)
……………………..(x) θ is the angle of swing
But ( )

Factors on which angle of swing depends

 The speed of the bullet
 The length of the string
NB; the angle can be obtained from
( ) 1-
( *
( ) OR ( )
√ ( )
cos-1 ( )
2gL (1-cosθ)
(1-cosθ)
Examples
1. A bullet of mass 50g is fired horizontally into a block of wood of mass 8kg which is
suspended by a string of length 2.5m. after collision the block swing upwards through an
angle 300. Calculate the velocity of the bullet assuming that it gets embedded in the block
just after collision.
Solution

Light string
30
2.5m
2.5cos30
2.5m 2.5m (M+m)

block h=2.5(1-cos30)
bullet v After impact
50g 8kg
Before impact

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
Before impact (law of conservation of
momentum)
( ) is the velocity of bullet block system
( * But

After impact (By conservation of The velocity of the bullet is 412.804ms-1

mechanical energy)

69
2. A steel ball of mass m is attached to an inelastic string of length 0.6m. The string is fixed to a
point P so that the steel ball and the string can move in a vertical plane through P. The string
is held out at an angle of 600 to the vertical and then released. At Q vertically below P, the
wall makes a perfectly inelastic collision with the lump of plasticine of mass 2m so that the
two bodies move together after collision
P

60o
0.6m Composite mass
(m+2m)

m
H
h
2m
A Q B

Calculate
(i) The velocity of the composite just after collision
(ii) The position of the composite mass with respect to point Q when the mass first
comes to rest.
(iii) The composite mass now oscillates about the point Q, state two possible reasons
why the composite mass finally comes to rest.
Solution
( ) i) ( )
( )
Vc 0.81ms-1
The velocity of the composite just after
Applying the law of conservation of collision is 0.81ms-1
energy at A
ii) Principle of mechanical energy at B
mgh
gH but =(m+2m)
√
√ H=

The velocity of mass m just

before collision is 2.43m/s
iii) -Frictional force
Applying law of conservation of -Air resistance
momentum at Q where collision
occurs

Exercise 14
1. A bullet of mass 40g is fired horizontally into freely suspended block of wood of mass 1.96kg
attached at the end of an inelastic string of length 1.8m. given that the bullet gets embedded
in the block and the string is deflected through an angle of 600 to the vertical . Find:
(i) The initial velocity of the bullet An[210m/s]
(ii) The maximum velocity of the block An[42m/s]

2. A bullet of mass 20g travelling horizontally at 100ms-1 embedded itself in the centre of a
block of wood of mass 1kg which is suspended by a light vertical string 1m in length.
Calculate the maximum inclination of the string to the vertical . An(36.10)
70
 UNEB 2013 No 3(a)
(i) State the law of conservation of linear momentum (01mark)
(ii) A body explodes and produces two fragments of masses and . If the velocities of the
fragments are and respectively, show that the ratio of kinetic energies of the fragments
is

Where is the kinectic energy of m and is the kinectic energy of M (04marks)

UNEB 2011 NO.2

(a) State Newton’s laws of motion (04marks)
(b) Use Newton’s laws of motion to show that when two bodies collide their momentum is
conserved (04marks)
(c) Two balls P and Q travelling in the same line in opposite directions with speeds of 6ms-1 and
15ms-1 respectively make a perfect inelastic collision. If the masses of P and Q are 8kg and
5kg respectively, find the
(i) The velocity of P (04marks)
(ii) Change in kinetic energy An[v=2.08ms ,278.38J]
-1 (04marks)
(d) (i) what is an impulse of a force (01marks)
(ii)Explain why a long jumper should normally land on sand. (04marks)

UNEB 2010 NO.1

a) i) State the law of conservation of linear momentum (01mark)
ii)Use Newton’s laws to derive the a(i) (04marks)
b) Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collision (01mark)
c) An object X of mass M, moving with a velocity 10ms-1 collides with a stationary object Y of
equal mass. After collision X moves with speed U at an angle of 300 to its initial direction
while Y moves with a speed of Y at an angle of 900 to the new direction.
(i) Calculate the speeds U and Y (05marks)
(ii) Determine whether the collision is elastic or not. (03marks)
Solution
u
m
X Y
m 10m/s
m 30o
60o
Before impact
After impact

m
v

i. Resolving the momentum along the

horizontal √
v
√ √ …………..[2]
10m=mu +mv Put into [1]
√ √ √
√ [1]
Resolving the momentum along the 5ms-1
vertical √
5√
71
 u=8.66ms-1 m(5)2+ m(5√ )2
ii. Total K.E before collision
50mJ
K.e mx102 Since kinetic energy is conserved then the
Total K.e after collision collision is elastic

UNEB 2009 NO.1

a) i) Define the term impulse (01mark)
ii) State Newton’s laws of motion (03marks)
b) A bullet of mass 10g travelling horizontally at a speed of 100ms-1 strikes a block of wood of
mass 900g suspended by a light vertical string and is embedded in the block which
subsequently swings freely. Find the;
(i) Vertical height through which the block rises (04marks)
(ii) Kinetic energy lost by the bullet (03marks)
[Hint k.e. lost ]
Where is velocity of combined system.
–is mass of the bullet
is initial velocity of the bullet An(6.2x10-2m , 49.99J)

UNEB 2008 NO 4
a) State
(i) Newton’s laws of motion (03 marks)
(ii) The principle of conservation of momentum (01 mark)
b) A body A of mass M1 moves with velocity U1 and collides head on elasticity with another
body B of mass M2 which is at rest. If the velocities of A and B are V1 and V2 respectively and
given that x= Show that;
i) (04 marks)
ii) (03 marks)
c) Distinguish between conservative and non conservative forces (02 marks)
d) A bullet of mass 40g is fired from a gun at 200ms-1 and hits a block of wood of mass 2kg
which is suspended by a light vertical string 2m long. If the bullet gets embedded in the
wooden block
(i) Calculate the maximum angle the string makes with the vertical (06 marks)
(ii) State factors on which the angle of swing depends An (53.4 ) 0 (01 mark)

UNEB 2006 No 2(c)

(i) State the work - energy theorem (01 mark)
(ii) A bullet of mass 0.1kg moving horizontally with a speed of 420ms strikes a block of mass
-1

2.0kg at rest on a smooth table becomes embedded in it. Find the kinetic energy lost if they
move together. An[8400J] (04 marks)

UNEB 2005
C i) Define linear momentum (01 mark)
i) State the law of conservation of linear momentum (01 mark)
ii) Show that the law in c(ii) above follows Newton’s law of motion (03 marks)
iii) Explain why, when catching a fast moving ball, hands are drawn back while the ball is being
brought to rest. (02 marks)

72
d). A car of mass 1000kg travelling at uniform velocity of 20ms-1, collides perfectly inelastically
with a stationary car of mass 1500kg, calculate the loss in kinetic energy of the car as a
result of collision An[1.68x105J) (04
marks)

UNEB 2001 No 1
c)State the conditions under which the following will be conserved in a collision between two
bodies.
i) Linear momentum [01mark]
ii) Kinetic energy [01mark]
d] Two pendula of equal length L have bobs A and B of masses 3m and m respectively the
pendulum are lung with bobs in contact as shown.

A
B

The bob A is displaced such hat the string makes an angle θ with the vertical and released. If A
makes a perfectly inelastic collision with B, find the height to which B rises
[08marks]
Solution
i) Linear momentum is conserved if there is no external resultant acting on the colliding
bodies.
ii) Total kinetic energy is conserved if the collision is perfectly elastic i.e the bodies separate
after collision
d]
At Q: Momentum is conserved
( )
L Where Vc is the velocity of the
combination
A
A
P B R
h
B H 3√ ( )
Q
√ ( )---------------------
[2]
At P: ( )
At R
by conservation of energy
mechanical energy is conserved
( ) ( )
Where v is the velocity with which A is
H
released
( √ ( ))
H
H ( )
( )
( ) H
( ) ( )
B rises
√ ( ) -------------------------
[1]
73
UNEB 2000 N0 1
a) i)State Newton’s laws of motion [03marks]
ii) Define impulse and derive its relation to linear momentum of the body on which it acts
[03marks]
c) A ball of mass 0.5kg is allowed to drop from rest from a point at a distance of 5.0m above the
horizontal concrete floor. When the ball first hits the floor, it rebounds to a height of 3.0m.
i) What is the speed of the ball just after the first collision with the floor [04marks]
ii) if the collision last 0.01s, find the average force which the floor exerts on the ball
[05marks]
Solution ii) Force
c)
A k.e on hitting floor =p.e at height of 5m
mgh= ½ mu2
5m B √
3m
√
9.9ms-1
i) By law of conservation of energy Since velocity is a vector quantity
k.e after collision p.e at height of 3m 7.67 since it rebounds (moves in
opposite direction )

√ ( ) ( )
F
Where v is the velocity with which it F 878.5N
rebounds from the floor .

UNEB 1997 N0 2
a) Define the terms momentum [01marks]
b) A bullet of mass 300g travelling at a speed of 8ms-1 hits a body of mass 450g moving in the
same direction as the bullet at 15ms-1. The bullet and body move together after collision.
Find the loss in kinetic energy [06marks]
c) i) State the work energy theorem [01mark]
ii)A ball of mass 500g travelling at a speed of 10ms-1 at 600 to the horizontal strikes a vertical
wall and rebounds with the same speed at 1200 from the original direction. If the ball is in
contact with the wall for 8x10-3, calculate the average force exerted by the ball.
Ans[625N] [06marks]

74
4.2.0: SOLID FRICTION
Friction is the force that opposes relative motion of two surfaces in contact.
4.2.1: Types of friction
There are two types of friction i.e. static friction and kinetic friction.

1. Static friction
It’s a force that opposes the tendency of a body to slide over another.
Note:
Limiting friction is the maximum frictional force between two surfaces in contact when
relative motion is just starting.

2. Kinetic/sliding/dynamic friction
It’s the force that opposes relative motion before two surfaces which are already in motion.

4.2.2: Laws of friction

1st law : Frictional forces between two surfaces in contact oppose their relative motion.
2nd law : Frictional forces are independent of the area of contact of the surfaces provided that
normal reaction is constant.
3rd law : The limiting frictional force is directly proportional to the normal but independent of
relative velocity of surfaces.

4.2.3: Molecular explanation for occurrence of friction

 Actual area of contact of two surfaces is very small, hence the pressure at points of
contact is very high. Projections merge to produce welding and the force which
opposes motion is obtained. This explains law 1
 The area of contact is small and the actual area of contact is the same. This explains
law 2
 Increasing weight increases the pressure at the welds and hence a greater limiting
frictional force . This explains law 3

4.2.4: MEASUREMENT OF COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION

Method I
R  tilt the plane gently, until it just
begins to slide.
FL= µ sR  Measure and record the angle of tilt θ
i nθ
mg S Coefficient of static friction
θ mgCosθ
θ mg Where θ is the angle of friction

 Place a block on a horizontal plane.

Method 2
Block of R
wood
T T

FL T
mg T

Rough
surface Scale pan

75
 The mass m of the wooden block is determined and placed on a horizontal plane surface.
 A string is attached to the block and passed over a smooth pulley carrying a scale pan at the
other end.
 Small masse are added to the scale pan one at a time, till the block just slides
 The mass M of the scale pan and the masses added is obtained.
 Coefficient of static friction

4.2.5: Measurement of coefficient of kinetic friction

Block of R
wood
T T

F T
mg T

Rough
surface Scale pan
 The mass m of the wooden block is determined and placed on a horizontal plane surface.
 A string is attached to the block and passed over a smooth pulley carrying a scale pan at the
other end.
 Small masse are added to the scale pan one at a time, till the block moves with a uniform speed
 The mass M of the scale pan and the masses added is obtained.
 Coefficient of kinetic friction

EXAMPLES
1. A truck of mass 10 tones moving at 10ms-1 draws into a stationary truck of mass 4 tones. They
stick together and skid to a stop a long a horizontal surface. Calculate the distance through
which the trucks skid, if the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.25.
Solution

Before After
10x103kg 10m/s 4x103kg 14x103kg V

By law of conservation of momentum ( )

m1u1+m2u2=(m1+m2)v
104x10+( 4x103x0) =[104+4x103]v Frictional force is the only resultant forces,
100000 = 14000v therefore from Newton’s 2nd law of motion
V 7.143ms-1 34335= (m1+m2)a
When they skid to a s top, they experience a 34335=(104+4x103)a
friction force a 2.453ms-2
R The trucks come to a stop then
am/s2
2.453ms-2(a deceleration)
V To get the distance the trucks come to rest
u 7.143ms-1 0m/s, 2.453ms-2
F (m1+m2)g V =u +2as
2 2

02=7.1432x2x-2.453s
( )
S =10.4m
( )
76
 2. A car of mass 1000kg moving along a straight road with a speed of 72kmh-1 is brought to rest
by a speedy application of brakes in a distance of 50m. Find the coefficient of kinetic friction
between the tyres and the road.
Solution
u= =20m/s R = 9810N
F= 9810 --------- [1]
R am/s2 ----------------- [2] Frictional force 4000N
To get the distance the car F=9810
20m/s
1000kg comes to rest 4000 9810
u=20m/s , v=0m/s, s=50m 0.41
F
1000gN V2=u2+2as Coefficient of friction =0.41
But 0=202
1000x9.81 4ms-2

3. Two blocks of masses m1=3kg and m2=2kg are in contact on a horizontal table. A constant
horizontal force F=5N is applied to the block of mass m1 in the direction shown
F
m1 m2

There is a constant frictional force of 2N between the table and the block of mass m2 but no
frictional force between the table and the block of mass m1. Find:
i) The acceleration of the two blocks
ii) The force of contact between the blocks
Solution
am/s2 Adding 1 and 2
5N m1 m2 6ms-2
T T
but from 2
2N

By Newton’s 2nd law

For block m1,
---------- [1] Acceleration of two blocks =0.6ms-2
For block m2 : Force of contact=3.2N
----------- [2]

4. A block of wood of mass 150g rests on an inclined plane. If the coefficient of static friction
between the surface of contact is 0.3. find;
a) The greatest angle to which the plane may be tilted without the block slipping
b) The force parallel to the plane necessary to prevent slipping when the angle of the
plane to the horizontal is 300.
Solution
a)
R For the block not to slip then it experiences
limiting friction
F L= µ sR For limiting friction tanθ
i nθ
mg S θ=16.70
θ mgCosθ
θ mg

77
b)
R Newton’s 2nd law
P ( ) no motion
F=µR but
in30
mg S P+0.3 9.81cos30
30 30 mgCos30
mg
P ( )
Let P be the force parallel to the plane to
prevent slipping
resultant force ( )

5. A car of mass 500kg moves from rest with the engine switched off down a road which is inclined
at an angle 490 to the horizontal
a) Calculate the normal reaction
b) If the coefficient of friction between the tyres and surface of the road is 0.32. Find the
acceleration of the car
Solution
a) Resolving vertically R=mgcos49
R R
2
R=3217.97N
am/s b) Resultant force
9 F= µR By 2nd law
i n4
mg S
49 49 mgCos49
mg 5.34ms-2

6. A car of mass 1000kg climbs a truck which is inclined at 300 to the horizontal. The speed of the
car at the bottom of the incline is 36kmh-1. If the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.3 and engine
exerts a force of 4000N how far up the incline does the car move in 5s?
Solution
R N
( )
s2 4 000 ( )=
am/
ms-2
in30
mg S
F 30 mgCos30
30 mg

u=36kmh-1, u= =10ms-2
Resultant force ( )
Where F= R
by Newton’s 2nd law

Exercise15
1. A particle of weight 4.9N resting on a rough inclined plane of angle equal to tan-1(5/12) is acted
upon by a horizontal force of 8N. If the particle is on the point of moving up the plane, find
coefficient of friction between the particle and the plane. An (μ = 0.72)

2. A box of mass 2kg rests on a rough inclined plane of angle 250. The coefficient of friction
between the box and the plane is 0.4.Find the least force applied parallel to the plane which
would move the box up the plane. An[15.39N]

78
3. A particle of mass 0.5kg is released from rest and slides down a rough plane inclined at 300 to
the horizontal. It takes 6 seconds to go 3 meter.
i. Find the coefficient of friction between the particle and the plane
ii. What minimum horizontal force is needed to prevent the particle from moving?
An[0.56, 0.086N]

4. A parcel of mass 2kg is placed on a rough plane inclined at 450 to the horizontal, the coefficient
of friction between the parcel and the plane is 0.25. Find the force that must be applied to the
plane so that the parcel is just.
i. Prevented from sliding down the plane
ii. On the point of moving up the plane. An[10.39N, 17.32N]

79
CHAPTER 5: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
5.1.0: Work
5.1.1: Work done by a constant force
Work is said to be done when energy is transferred from one system to another

Case 1
When a block of mass m rests on a smooth horizontal

m F m F
x
When a constant force F acts on the block and displaces it by x, then the work done by F is given by

Definition
Work is defined as the product of force and distance moved in the direction of the force

Case II
If the force does not act in the direction in which motion occurs but at an angle to the it as shown
below

F F
m θ m θ
x
( )
Definition
Work done is also defined as the product of the component of the force in the direction of motion
and displacement in that direction

Note
1. Work done either can be positive or negative. If it is positive, then the force acts in the same
direction of the displacement but negative if it acts oppositely.
The work done by friction when it opposes one body sliding over it is negative.
2. Work and energy are scalar quantities and their S.I unit is Joules

Definition
A joule is the work done when a force of 1N causes a displacement of 1m in the direction of motion

Dimension of work

[ ] [ ][ ]
= ML L
[W] =

Examples
1. A block of mass 5kg is released from rest on a smooth plane inclined at an angle of 300 to the
horizontal and slides through 10m. Find the work done by the gravitation force.
Solution

80
 R

in30 Note we use mgsin30 since it’s the

mg S
30 mgCos30 gravitational force along the direction of
30 mg
motion.
Work done by gravitational force

2. A rough surface is inclined at ta ( ) to the horizontal. A body of mass 5kg lies on the
surface and is pulled at a uniform speed a distance of 75cm up the surface by a force acting
along a line of greatest slope. The coefficient of friction between the body and the surface is .

Find;
a) Work done against gravity b) Work done against friction

Solution
θ = ta ( ) θ=16.30

R
2 P W=14.71J
am/s

i n1 6 .
3 b) Work done against gravity
mg S W=
F 16.3mgCos16.3
16.3 mg W=
W=10.35J
a) Work done against friction
But

5.2.0 : ENERGY
This is the ability to do work.
When an interchange of energy occurs between two bodies, we can take the work done as
measuring the quantity of energy transferred between them.

5.2.1: KINETIC ENERGY

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion.

Formulae of kinetic energy

Consider a body of mass m accelerated from rest by a constant force, F so that in a
distance, s it gains velocity, v
Then but ( )
by law of conservation of energy
resultant force
F
work done
s

81
 5.2.2: WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
The work energy theorem is the relation between work and energy.
Consider a body of mass m accelerated from u by a constant force F so that in a distance s it gains
velocity v
( )
----------------------- [1]
( )
resultant W=
( )

But work done

This is the work-energy theorem.

It states that:
The work done by the resultant external force on a body is equal to the change in the kinetic
energy of the body.

Question: Explain why it is easier to walk on a straight road than an inclined road up hill.

Examples
1. A car mass 1000kg moving at 50ms-1 skid to rest under a constant retardation. Calculate the
magnitude of the work done by the force of friction given that the car.
a) Comes to a halt in 4s b) Skids through 150m
Solution
a) Using Alternatively
Using work-energy theorem
/s2
Frictional force Work done
W
Frictional force =12500N Work done Work done

b) Alternatively
Using work energy theorem

W=
Frictional force
W W 1.25x106J

2. A force FN is used to drag a body of mass 2kg up a rough plane of angle 300 and whose
coefficient of friction is 0.25 at a steady speed. If the force drags the body through a distance of
5m. Calculate the amount of work done by the force F
Solution FR mgcos30
R FR 0.25x9.81x2cos30
am/s
2 P Using Newton’s 2nd law of motion
30
( FR)
mgSin ( )
30 FR 30 mgCos30
mg a=0(steady speed)
FR R but R=mgcos30 ( )
82
 F=14.06N W
W
Work done FxS

5.2.3: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy is the energy that a body has due to its position in a gravitational field.
Consider a body of mass m on the surface of the earth moved up a height h by a greater Force F.
Work done
work done
F But work done =P.E gained at maximum
h height
mg

Note
When a body is moving vertically upwards, it losses K.E but gains P.E and when moving
downwards, it losses P.E and gains K.E

5.2.4: PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

Mechanical energy includes kinetic energy, Gravitational potential energy and elastic potential
energy.
Definition
Elastic potential energy is energy possessed by a stretched or compressed elastic material eg
spring.
P.E (elastic)
Where k is the spring constant and e is the compression /extension

The principle of conservation of mechanical energy

States that in a mechanical system the total mechanical energy is a constant provided that the no
dissipative forces act on the system.

Examples of dissipative forces are;

Frictional force, air resistance, viscous drag

Examples of principle of conservation of M.E

i) A body thrown vertically upwards
Consider a body of mass m projected vertically upwards with speed u from a point on the
ground. Suppose that it has a velocity v at a point B at a height h above the ground provided no
dissipative forces act.
vm/s2
-------------------------- [2]
Put 2 into 1
B
Total mechanical energy at B
= ( )
h
um/s2

A
Since total mechanical energy at A is
At A equal to the total mechanical energy at B.
Total mechanical energy Hence a stone thrown vertically upwards
obeys the principles of conservation of
Total mechanical energy -----[1] mechanical energy.
By second equation of motion
83
ii) A body falling freely from a height above the ground
A
Total mechanical energy -- [1]
But Newton’s second law
( )---------------------------- [2]
h
B Total mechanical energy at B
H ( )

Suppose an object of mass m falls from a

point A at a height h above the ground Since the total mechanical energy at A=total
At A: mechanical energy at B than the mechanical
Total mechanical energy energy of a freely falling object is conserved
provided there is no dissipative force.
At B :

5.2.5: CONSERVATIVE AND NON CONSERVATIVE FORCES

1. A conservative force is one where the work done in moving around a closed path in the field
of force is zero.

Examples of conservative forces

 Gravitational force
 Electrostatics force
 Magnetic force

2. A non-conservative force is one where the work done moving around a closed path in the
field of force is not zero.

Examples of non- conservative force

 Frictional force
 Air resistance
 Viscous drag

Differences between conservative forces and non- conservative forces

Conservative forces Non-conservative forces

Work done around a closed path is zero Work done around a closed path is not zero

Work done to move a body from one point to Work done to move a body from one point to
another is independent on the path taken another is dependent on the path taken

Mechanical energy is conserved Mechanical energy is not conserved

84
 5.3.0: POWER
It’s the rate of doing work.
Its units are watts(W) or joule per second [Js-1]
Power =
P
P

Dimensions of power
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[P]
[P]

Numerical examples
1. A 5kg mass is released from rest at the top of a smooth inclined plane. The angle of elevation of
the incline is 300. What is the speed of the mass when it passes a point 20m down the incline.
Solution
R
2
am/s
Alternatively
Loss in gain in
in30
mg S
30 30 mgCos30
mg

√
From Newton’s 2nd law

2. A body of mass 6kg initially moving with speed 12ms-1 experiences a constant retarding force
of 10N for 3s. find the kinetic energy of the body at the end of this time .
Solution

-10 is a retarding force

Final kinetic energy

But

3. A ball of mass of 0.1kg is thrown vertically up wards with an initial speed of 20m-1. Calculate
i) the time taken to return to the thrower
ii) the maximum height
iii) the kinetic and potential energy of the ball half way up.
Solution

i) Using Time to return to the

thrower
T
This is the time to
iii)
maximum height ii) max height (v=om/s)

85
 A
–-------- (1)
20.4 B (k.e+p.e) But

10.2
C

4. A train of mass 2x106kg moves at a constant speed of 72kmh-1 up a straight incline against a
frictional force of 1.28x104N. The incline is such that the train rises vertically one meter for
every 100m travelled along the incline. Calculates;
i) Rate of increase of potential energy of the train.
ii) The necessary power developed by the train.
Solution
R Rate of the potential
F energy change
/s2 ( )
am 4x106Js-1
inθ
mg S
FR θ mgCosθ
θ
Alternatively
mg
( )
i) (a=0) since it moves with
constant speed
06Js-1
ii) We need to get the driving force (engine force)of the train.
P driving force x velocity
By Newton’s 2nd law Power
( ) =2.09x105x
constant speed
Power 4.18x106W
( 1.28 10)

5. The maximum power developed by the engine of a car of mass 200kg is 44kW. When the car is
travelling at 20kmh-1 up an incline of 1 in 8 it will accelerate at 2ms-2 . At what rate will it
accelerate when travelling down an incline of 1 in 16 at 60kmh-1. If in both cases the engine is
developing the maximum power and the resistance to motor is the same.
Solution
Case I : up the plane
By 2nd law of newton
R
( )
F
2 ( )
/s
am
i nθ
mg S Retarding force=7275N
θ FR mgCosθ
θ
mg Case II : down the plane
But Sin =
Power

86
 R
By newtons 2nd law
2
/s
am
FR
i nθ
mg S
F1 θ θ mgCosθ
mg
But Sin ms-2
Power

6. A bullet travelling at 150ms-1 will penetrate 8cm into a fixed block of wood before coming to
rest. Find the velocity of the bullet when it has penetrated 4cm of the block.
Solution
Loss in k.e energy work done against
resistance
ms-2
Using
( )
-1

PUMP RAISING AND EJECTING WATER.

Consider a pump which is used to raise water from a source and then eject it at a given speed. The total
work done is sum of potential energy in raising the water and kinetic energy given to the water. The
work done per second gives the rate (power) at which the pump is working.

Example
A pump draws 3.6 of water of density 1000 from a well 5m below the ground in every
minute, and issues it at ground level r a pipe of cross-sectional area 40c . Find
(i) The speed with which water leaves the pipe
(ii) The rate at which the pump is working
(iii) If the pump is only 80% efficient, find the rate at which it must work
(iv) Find the power wasted

Solution
i)

ii) Mass per second =volume per second =

( ) ( *

87
 ( ) ( *

iii) Efficiency

80%

iv) Power wasted power output – power input

Power wasted

EXERCISE16
1. A bullet of mass 50g travelling hormonally at 500ms-1 strikes as stationary block of wood and
after travelling 10cm, it emerges from the block travelling at 100ms-1. Calculate the average
resistance of the block to the motion of the bullet. An[60000N]

2. A point A is vertically below the point B. A particle of mass 0.1kg is protected from A vertically
up wards with a speed 21ms-1 and passes through point B with speed 7ms-1. Find the distance
from A to B An[20m]

3. The friction resistance to the motion of a car of mass 100kg is 30VN where V is the speed in
ms1. Find the steady speed at which the car a scends a hill of inclination sin-1( ). If the power
exerted by the engine is 12.8kW. An[V=10m/s]

4. A load of 3Mg is being hauled by a rope up a slope which rises 1 in 140. There is a retardation
force due to friction of 20gN per Mg at a certain instant when the speed is 16kmh-1 and the
acceleration is 0.6ms-2. Find the pull in the rope and the power exerted at the instant.
An[2598N, 11.55kW]

5. A car of mass 2 tones moves from rest down. A road of inclination sin-1 ( ) to the horizontal.
Given that the engine develops a power of 64.8kW when it is travelling at a speed of 54kmh-1
and the resistance to motion is 500N, find the acceleration.
An[2.4m/s2]

6. A car is driven at a uniform speed of 48kmh-1 up a smooth incline of 1 in 8. If the total mass of
the car is 800kg and the resistance are neglected calculate the power at which the car is
working. An[1.31x104W]

7. A train whose mass is 250Mg run up an incline of 1 in 200 at a uniform rate of 32km/h. The
resistance due to friction is equal to the weight of 3Mg. at what power is the engine working?.
An[370.2kW]

8. A train of mass 1x105kg acquires a uniform speed of 48kmh-1from rest in 400m. Assuming that
the frictional resistance of 300gN. Find the tension in the coupling between the engine and the
train. And the maximum power at which the engine is working during 400m run, the mass of
the engine may be neglected. An[25162N, 335.5kW]

88
9. A car of mass 2000kg travelling at 10ms-1 on a horizontal surface is brought to rest in a distance
of 12.5m by the action of its brakes. Calculate the average retarding force. What power must the
engine develop in order to take the vehicle up an incline of 1 in 10 at a constant speed of 10ms-1
if the frictional resistance is equal to 2000N. An[8000N, 21600N]

10. A water pump must work at a constant rate of 900W and draws 0.3 of water from a deep
well and issue it through a nozzle situated 10m above the level from which the water was
drawn after every minute. If thee pump is 75 efficient, find;
i) Velocity with which the water is ejected
ii) The cross-sectional area of the nozzle
An (8.6m )

UNEB 2014 No3

(a) Define work and energy (02marks)
(b) Explain whether a person carrying a bucket of water does any work on the bucket while
walking on a level road (03marks)
(c) A pump discharges water through a nozzle of diameter 4.5 cm with a speed of 62 into a
tank 16 m above the intake.
(i) Calculate the work done per second by the pump in raising the water if the pump is
ideal (04marks)
(ii) Find the power wasted if the efficiency of the pump is 73% (02marks)
(iii) Account for the power lost in (c) (ii) (02marks)
An( , )
(d) (i) State the work-energy theorem (01mark)
(ii) Prove the work-energy theorem for a body moving with constant acceleration.
(e) Explain briefly what is meant by internal energy of a substance (03marks)

UNEB 2013 No1

(a) Using the molecular theory, explain the laws of friction between solid surface (06marks)
(b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how the coefficient of static friction for an interface
between a rectangular block of wood and a plane surface can be determined. (06marks)
(c) The diagram below shows three masses connected by inextensible strings which pass over
smooth pulleys. The coefficient of friction between the table and the 12.0 kg mass is 0.25

89
 300
12.0kg
table

9.4kg
6.7kg

If the system is released from rest, determine the

(i) Acceleration of the 12.0kg mass (05marks)
(ii) Tension in each string (03marks)
Solution
T2 √
a ms-2
300
T1
12.0kg T2 a ms-2 ( √ )
T1 table
( )
a ms-2

6.7kg …………….(x)
9.4kg ( √ )
6.7gN
9.4gN equating equation (2) and (x)
( )
( √ )
(i) F=ma
9.4kg mass: 9.4a
…………..(1)
Acceleration of 12kg mass is
For 6.7kg mass: 6.7a
(ii)
……………….(2)
Tension in each string
For 12kg mass:
( ) ………..(3)
But

Also
put into(3)
( [ ])=
Put equation(1)
9.4g-9.4a- os3 -0.25x12 + in30=12a

UNEB2010No3
(c) i) State the laws of solid friction [03marks]

90
ii) With the aid of a well labeled diagram describe an experiment to determine the co-efficient of
kinetic friction between the two surfaces. [05marks]
d) A body slides down a rough plane inclined at 300 to the horizontal. If the co-efficient of kinetic
friction between the body and the plane is 0.4. Find the velocity after it has travelled 6m along
the plane. An[4.25m/s] [05marks]

UNEB2008 No2
a) i) state the laws of friction between solid surfaces [03marks]
ii) Explain the origin of friction force between two solid surfaces it contact. [03marks]
iii) Describe an experiment to measure the co-efficient of kinetic friction between two solid
surfaces. [03marks]
b) i) A car of mass 1000kg moves a long a straight surface with a speed of 20ms-1. When brakes
are applied steadily, the car comes to rest after travelling 50m. Calculate the co-efficient of
friction between the surface and the types. An[ ] [04marks]
c) ii) State the energy changes which occur from the time the brakes are applied to the time the
car comes to rest. An[kinetic energy ] [02marks]
d) i)State two disadvantages of friction [01marks]
e) ii) Give one method of reducing friction between solid surfaces. [01mark]

UNEB2007No3
a) i)State the laws of solid friction [03marks]
ii) Using the molecular theory, explain the laws stated in a i). [03marks]
b) Describe an experiment to determine the co-efficient of static friction for an interface between
a rectangular block of wood and plane surface. [04marks]
c) i)State the different between conservative and non conservative forces, giving one example of
each.
ii) State the work-energy theory. [01marks]
iii) A block of mass 6.0 kg is protected with a velocity of 12ms-1 up a rough plane inclined at 450 to
the horizontal if it travels 5.0m up the plane. Find the frictional force. An[44.8N]
[04marks]

UNEB2006No2
a) i)Define force and power [02marks]
Force is anything that changes a body’s state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line.
91
ii)Explain why more energy is required to push a wheelbarrow uphill than on a level ground.
[03marks]
b)
A mass M is suspended from a spring balance as
shown above. Explain what happens to the
Spring balance reading on the spring balance when the set up is
raised slowly to a very high height above the
ground. [02marks]

c) i)State the work-energy theorem [01mark]

Solution
a)[ii] When pushing a wheelbarrow on a level ground, work is done only against the frictional
force. While when pushing up hill, work is done against the frictional force plus the component
of the weight of the wheelbarrow along the plane of the hill.

b)As the acceleration due to gravity reduces the weight of M decreases and it reading of the spring
balance reduces proportionately.

UNEB2005No1
c) i)What is meant by conservation of energy? [01mark]
ii)Explain how conservation of energy applies to an object falling from rest in a vacuum. [02marks]

UNEB2004 N01
a) State the laws of friction [04marks]
b) A block of mass 5.0kg resting on the floor is given horizontal velocity of 5ms-1 and comes to rest
in a distance of 7.0m. Find the co-efficient of kinetic friction between the block and the floor.
An[0.182] [04marks]
c) i)State the laws of conservation of linear momentum [01mark]
ii)What is perfectly inelastic collision? [01mark]
d) A car of mass 1500kg rolls from rest down a round inclined to the horizontal at an angle of 350,
through 50m. The car collides with another car of identical mass at the bottom of the incline. If
the two vehicles interlock on collision and the co-efficient of kinetic friction is 0.20, final the
common velocity of the vehicle. An[20.05m/s] [08marks]
[Hint loss of p.e at the top=gain in k.e at the bottom + work done against friction]
e) Discuss briefly the energy transformation which occur in(d) above. [01mark]
An[Potential energy ]

UNEB 2001 No1

a) i)State the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. [01mark]
ii)Show that a stone thrown vertically upwards obey, the principle in (c) throughout its upward
motion. [04marks]

92
CHAPTER 6: STATICS
Is a subject which deals with equilibrium of forces the forces which act on a bridge.
Coplanar forces
Those are forces acting on the same point (plane).

6.1.0: Conditions necessary for mechanical equilibrium

When forces act on a body then it will be in equilibrium when;
1. the algebraic sum of all forces on a body in any direction is zero
2. the algebraic sum of moments of all forces about any point is zero

Examples
1. A mass of 20kg is hang from the midpoint P of a wire as shown below. Calculate the tension in
the wire take g=9.8ms-1
20o 20o

20gN
Solution
20o 20o METHOD II using
T 70 70 T T 140o T components
110o 110o
T 70 70 T
20gN 20gN

Method I 20gN
lami’s theorem
(Apply to only three Resolving vertically
forces in equilibrium) T= Tsin70 +Tcos70 = 20gN
2Tcos70 = 20x9.81
T= 286.83N
T
T 286.83N

2. One end of a light in extensible string of length 75cm is fixed to a point on a vertical pole. A
particle of weight 12N is attached to the other end of the string. The particle is held 21cm away
from the pole by a horizontal force. Find the magnitude of the force and the tenion in the string
Solution
T

θ
106.3o
75cm F
T 163.7o
α
F
21cm

12N 12N

Sin =
Also F = 3.51N
= 73.70 Also
Using Lami’s theorem
T = 12.5N
93
 3. A sphere of weight 20N and radius 15cm rests against a smooth vertical wall. A sphere is
supported in its position by a string of length 10cm attached to a point on the sphere and to a
point on the wall as shown.
i) copy the diagram and show the forces
acting on the sphere

cm
ii) Calculate the reaction on the sphere

10
wall
due to the wall.
iii) Find the tension in the string
15cm

Solution

Using Lami’s theory

cm
10

wall T
cm

T R 126.87 53.13
15

R θ
90 90
15cm

20N
20N

4. A mass of 30Kg hangs vertically at the end of a light string. If the mass is pulled aside by a
horizontal force P so that the string makes an angle 300 with the vertical. Find the magnitude of
the force P and the tension in the string.
Solution
30o
T
120o
150o P
T= 339.83N
P = 169.91N
30gN

6.1.1: Types of equilibrium

1. Stable equilibrium.
This when a body returns to its equilibrium position after it has been slightly displaced

2. Unstable equilibrium.
This is when a body does not return to its equilibrium position and does not remain in the
displaced position after it has been slightly displaced

3. Neutral equilibrium.
This is when a body stays in the displaced position after it has been slightly displaced

94
6.2.0: Turning effect of forces
A force can produce a turning effect or moment about a pivot, this can be a clockwise or anti
clockwise turning effect.

6.2.1: Moment of a force

This is the product of a force and the perpendicular distance of its line of action from the pivot.
The unit of a moment is Nm and it’s a vector quantity.
Moment of a force Force x perpendicular distance of its line of action from pivot.

6.2.2: Principle `of moments

It states that when a body is in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a point is
equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point.

Examples
1. A hinged trapped door of mass 15kg and length 1m is to be opened by applying a force F at an
angle of 450 as shown below.
Hinge F
45o

mg

Calculate
i) The value of F
ii) The horizontal force on the hinge
Solution Anti clockwise moments = clockwise

F Fsin45
Hinge √
R 45o F 104.1N
0.5m Fcos45 The horizontal force is the horizontal normal
15gN reaction
Resolving horizontally:

Taking moments about the hinge

At equilibrium,

2. A uniform bean AB, 3m long and of mass 6kg is supported at A and at another point.
A load of 1 kg is suspended at B, loads 4kg and 5 kg at points 1m and 2m from A. If the pressure
on the support at A is 40N. Where is the other support?
Solution

95
 F1=40N F2
y
1.5m 1.5m B
A
1m 0.5m 0.5m

4gN
6gN 5gN 1gN
1m

Note.
Uniform beam implies its weight acts at the centre of gravity (mid-point)
Resolving vertically:

40 +F2 = 4x9.81 + 6x9.81+ 5x9.81 + 1x9.81 Y

Y
Taking moments about A at equilibrium
Clockwise moment = anti clockwise Y = 2.18m
moment The other support is 2.18 from A
4gNx1 +6gNx1.5 +5gNx2+1gNx3 = x y

6.2.3: Beams hinged against the wall

1. A Uniform beam AB, 3.0m long and of weight 6N is hinged at a wall at A and is held stationary
by a rope attached to B and joined to a point C on the wall, 4.0m vertically above A. Find the
tension T in the rope and the Reaction R of the hinge.
Solution
C
-------------------------------i
Rsinα Resolving horizontally:
T
4m R
Tsinθ
α Rcosα Tcosθ θ -----------------------------ii
A B
1.5m 1.5m i/ii
=
6N
tan
tan = 53.130 = 53.280
Taking moments about A at equilibrium Put into i
Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment Rsin = 3
Rsin53.28 =3
( ) R = 3.74N
The reaction at A is 3.74 at 53.280 to the
Resolving vertically: beam

2. A uniform beam AB of length 4m and weight 50N is freely hinged at A to a vertical wall and is
held horizontal in equilibrium by a string which has one end attached at B and the other end
attached to appoint C on the wall, 4m above A. find the magnitude of the reaction at A.
Solution

96
 C
……………………….(i)
T
Resolving horizontally:
Rsinα
4m R
Tsinθ
α Rcosα Tcosθ θ ……………………….(ii)
A B (i)/(ii)
2m 2m

50N
tan = = 450
tan = 45
Put into (ii)
Taking moments about A

R = 35.36N at 450 to the beam

Resolving vertically: =

3. A uniform beam AB of mass 20kg and length 2.4m is hinged at a point A in a vertical wall and is
maintained in a horizontal position by means of a chain attached to B and to point C in a wall
1.5m above. If the bar carries a load of 10kg at a point 1.8m from A. calculate.
i) The tension in the chain
ii) The magnitude and direction of the reaction between the bar and the wall
Solution
C Revolving vertically
R sin + Tsin = 20gN + 10gN
R sin + 323.87sin32.01 = 30gN
1.5m
Rsinα
R
T R sin = 122.63……………………(i)
Tsinθ Resolving horizontally; = Tcos
α Rcosα Tcosθ θ = 32.87cos32.01
A B
1.2m
= 274.63 ……………….(ii)
0.6m 0.6m (i)/(ii)
20N 10N =
tan = 0.446528055
tan = 32.01
= 24.10 Put in eqn (ii)
Taking moments about A R cos24.1 = 274.63
R = 300.85N
= Reaction at A is 300.85 at 24.10 to the
horizontal
Tension in the chain
(ii) Reaction at the wall

6.2.4: Ladder problems

1. A uniform rod AB of mass 10kg is smoothly hinged at B and rests in a vertical plane with the
end A against a smooth vertical wall. If the rod makes an angle of 400 with the wall, find the
reaction on the wall and the magnitude of the reaction at B
Solution
Note: If there are three coplanar forces acting on a rigid body which is equilibrium, then their line
of action meet at some specific point provided no force is parallel to each other.

97
 RB ( ) ………(i)
Resolving horizontally: RB ( + ) = RA
RA
A
RB ( ) ……………(ii)
40 L
(i)/(ii)
( )
L ( )
=

α + 67.24
θ B +50 67.24
17.240
10gN
Put into equation (i)
Let the length of the ladder be 2L RB ( ) …………(i)
+400+900 = 1800 RB ( )
= 500 RB = 106.38N
Taking moments about B Reaction at B is 106.38N at 67.240 to the
RA 2Lsin = 10gN horizontal.
RA 2Lsin50 =
RA = 41.16N
Resolving vertically; RB sin( + ) = 10gN

2. A uniform ladder which is 5m long and has a mass of 20kg leans with its upper end against a
smooth vertical wall and its lower end on a rough ground. The bottom of the ladder is 3m from
the wall. Calculate the functional force between the ladder and the ground and the coefficient of
friction
Solution
RB
B
Taking moments about A
2.5m RA
RB

2.5m RB 5sin53.13=20x9.81x2.5cos53.13

θ RB= 73.56N
F A
3m
20gN
Resolving horizontally: RB= F
= 53.130 F = 73.56N
Resolving vertically: RA = 20gN But F = xRA
RA= 20x9.81 73.56 =
RA = 196.2N = 0.37

98
 Exercise17
1. One end of a uniform plank of length 4m and weight 100N is hinged to the vertical wall. An
inelastic rope, tied to the other end of the plank is fixed at a point 4m above the hinge. Find
i. The tension in the rope’
ii. The reaction of the wall on the plank An(388.9N, 302.1N at 24.40 to horizontal)

2.
Cable of length 5m

A B

300N

The figure shows a uniform rod AB of weight 200N and length 4m, the beam is hinged to the wall at A.
i. Find the tension in the cable
ii. The horizontal and vertical components of the force exerted on the beam by the wall
iii. The reaction of the wall on the beam at point A
An(666.7N, 533.3N, 99.98N, 542.59 at 10.60 to the horizontal)

3. A uniform beam AB of length 2L rests with end A in contact with a rough horizontal ground. A

point C on the beam rests against a smooth support. AC is of length with C higher than A and AC

making an angle of 600 with the horizontal. If the beam is in limiting equilibrium, find the
coefficient of friction between the beam and the ground.

4. A uniform ladder of mass 25kg rests in equilibrium with its base on a rough horizontal floor and its
top against a smooth vertical wall. If the ladder makes an angle of 750 with the horizontal, find the
magnitude of the normal reaction and of the frictional force at the floor and state the minimum
possible value of the coefficient of friction between the ladder and the floor.

5. A ladder 12m long and weighing 200N is placed 600 to the horizontal with one end B leaning
against the smooth wall and the other end A on the ground. Find;
a) reaction at the wall An(57.7N)
b) reaction at the ground An(208.2N at 73.90 to the horizontal).

99
6.3.0: Couples
A couple is a pair of equal, parallel and opposite forces with different lines of action acting on
a body.
A true couple produces only a rotation but not a translation

Examples
 Forces in the driver’s hands applied to a steering wheel
 Forces in the handles of a bike
 Forces in the peddles of a bike
 Forces experienced by two sides of a suspended rectangular coil carrying current in a
magnetic field.

6.3.1: Moment of a couple (torque of a couple)

It is defined as the product of one of the forces and the far distance between the lines of action of
the forces
F Moment of a couple or torque of couple = F x d

d
F

6.3.2: Work done by a couple

Consider two opposite and equal forces acting tangentially on a wheel of radius r, suppose the
wheel rotates through an angle radians as shown below.
F Work done by each force
F
θ But

r θ 3600 = 2π
s
F Work done by each force
F Total work done by the couple

6.3.3: CENTRE OF MASS

This is a point where an applied force produces a linear acceleration but not an angular
acceleration (rotation)

6.3.4: CENTER OF GRAVITY

This point where the entire weight or resultant force of attraction of the body acts.

100
DETERMINATION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF AN IRREGULAR LAMINA
Procedures:
nail  Clamp a nail on the stand so that the pointed
end is free.
 Make holes at three points at the edge of the
Irregular object
card board and hung the card board on the nail
through one of the hole.
 Tie the thread on a mass to make a plumb line.
Tie the plumbline on the nail allow it to rest
Thread
freely with its thread tacking the card board
mass Retort stand  Trace the thread using a pencils I.
 Repeat the procedure when the plumbline is
suspended from the other holes.
 The point of intersection of the three lines is
the centre of gravity of the board

UNEB 2009 No 2
a) Define the following terms
i) Velocity (2marks)
ii) Moment of a force
c)(i) State the condition necessary for mechanical equilibrium t be attained.(2 marks)
ii)A uniform ladder of mass 40kg and length 5m, rest with its upper end against a smooth vertical
wall and with its lower end at 3m from the wall on a rough ground. Find the magnitude and
direction of the force exerted at the bottom of the ladder (06 marks)
An[418.7N at an angle of 69.4o to the horizontal]

UNEB 2006 No 2
c) State the condition for equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of coplanar forces. (2mk)
d) A 3m long ladder at an angle 600 to the horizontal against a smooth vertical wall on a rough
ground. The ladder weighs 5kg and its centre of gravity is one third from the bottom of the
ladder.
v) Draw a sketch diagram to show the forces acting on the ladder. (2mk)
vi) Find the reaction of the ground on the ladder. (4mk)
(Hint Reaction on the ladder =√ ) An(49.95N at 79.110 to the horizontal)

UNEB 2006 No1

e) Describe an experiment to determine the centre of gravity of a plane sheet of material having
an irregular shape. (4 marks)

UNEB 2005 No2

f) (i) Define centre of gravity (1 mark)
(ii) Describe an experiment to find the centre of gravity of a flat irregular piece of a card board.
(3 marks)

101
UNEB 2002 No2
d) (i)Define moment of a force (1 mark)
(ii) A wheel of radius 0.6m is pivoted at its centre. A tangential force of 4.0N acts on the wheel so
that the wheel rotates with uniform velocity find the work done by the force to turn the wheel
through 10 resolutions.
Solution =2 rx10
Work done =force x distances W=F x d
But distance= circumference x number of =4x2 rx0.6x10
revolutions W =150.79J

UNEB 2000 No3

b) State the conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of coplanar forces.(2mk)
d) A mass of 5.0kg is suspended from the end A of a uniform beam of mass 1.0kg and length 1.0m.
The end B of the beam is hinged in a wall. The beam is kept horizontal by a rope attached to A
and to a point C in the wall at a height 0.75m above B
i. Draw a diagram to show the forces on the beam (2 marks)
ii. Calculate the tension in the rope (4 marks)
iii. What is the reaction exerted by the hinge on the beam (5 marks)
An (89.8N, 72.01N, at 3.950 to the beam)

UNEB 1998 No1

d) (i)Explain the term unstable equilibrium (3mk)
(ii) An oil drum of diameter 75cm and mass 90kg rests against a stone as shown
Find the least horizontal force applied
stone through the centre of the drum, which
75cm
ground will cause the drum to roll up the stone
15cm of height 15cm. An(1177.2N)
(5 marks)

102
 CHAPTER 7: CIRCULAR MOTION
This is the motion of the body with a uniform speed around a circular path of fixed radius about a
center.
V
V C

O B
r
A V
w
Although the body moves round this circular path with a uniform speed, the direction of motion
changes as it moves from point A to B, C and so on around the path. Since the direction of motion
changes, then the velocity of the body changes as it moves round circular path. This change in
velocity results into an acceleration because acceleration is the rate of change in velocity.

Terms used in circular motion

Consider a body of mass m initially at point A moving with a constant speed in a circle of radius r to
point B in a time Δt, the radius sweeps out an angle Δ at the centre

r
r ▲θ
s

1. Angular velocity (ω)

This is the is the rate of change of the angle for a body moving in a circular path.
Mathematically ω
For large angles and big time intervals.
𝝎
Angular velocity is measured in radians per second (rads-1)

2. Linear speed (v)

If the distance of the arc AB is, s and the speed is constant then velocity.
Where =
But the equation
–units are ms-1
But
3 rads

Definition
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement for a body moving a round a circular path about a fixed
point or centre.

3. Period T
This is the time taken for the body to describe one complete are revolution
[ ]
T
T
But

103
 T
units seconds.
Period is independent of the radius and it’s constant.

4. Acceleration
Centripetal acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity of a body moving in a circular path
and is always directed towards the centre.

7.1.0: Derivation of
Question:
Show that the acceleration of a body moving round a circular path with speed is given by where
r is the radius of the path.
Solution
Consider a body of mass m moving around a circular path of radius r with uniform angular velocity
and speed V. If initially the body is at point A moving with velocity VA and after a small time internal t,
the body is at point B where its velocity is VB with the radius having moved an angle
VB

O
B
r ▲θ
▲θ VA
A

 Change in velocity parallel to OA sin

 Change in velocity perpendicular to OA cos
 If A is close to B so that for small angles and sin
Acceleration, a
but =𝝎

also v r𝝎

also 𝝎
.

Question
A volume of mass m is oscillated from a fixed point by a string of length r with a constant speed V.
Shows that the acceleration of the body is and directed towards the centre.

104
 N
0 ,the body does not
θ θ
Vsinθ put into equation (1)
r r accelerate
V horizontally. ay
( )
P Vcosθ θ Vcosθ Vertical component
θ
Q ay
for small angle sinθ
O -------------(1)
V ay=
Vsinθ
but time (t) =
Acceleration a t=
Horizontal component
where 360=2 rads

EXAMPLE
1. A particle moves along a circular path of radius 3.0m with an angular velocity of 20 rad s-1 calculate;
a) The linear speed of the particle c) Time for one revolution
b) Angular velocity in revolutions per second d) The centripetal acceleration
Solution
r=3m 𝝎=20 rads-1 𝝎 =2 f= T=0.31 second
a) Linear speed r𝝎 d) Acceleration a =
f=
20x3
60ms-1 f=3.18 revolutions per second a=
b) Angular velocity in c) Time for one revolution (T) a =1200m
revolutions per T=
second gives the
frequency T=

2. A body is fixed on the string and whirled in a circle of radius 10cm. If the period is 5s. find
i) The angular velocity iii) The acceleration of the body
ii) The speed of the body in the circle iv) The frequency
Solution
i) 𝝎 = 𝝎 =1.26rads-1 a = 0.169ms-2
ii) 𝝎r iv) f=
its whirled in a circle
(θ=360=2 )
𝝎= v=0.13ms-1
iii) a = 𝝎 2r f=0.2Hz
𝝎= a= (1.26) x0.1
2

EXERCISE 18
1. A particle of mass 0.2kg moves in a circular path with an angular velocity of 5 rads-1 under the
action of a centripetal force of 4N. What is the radius of the particle. An(0.8m).

2. What force is required to cause a body of mass 3g to move in a circle of radius 2m at a constant
rate of 4 revolutions per second. An(3.8N)

105
 7.1.1: CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
If a body is moving in a circle, it will experience an initial outward force called centrifugal force.
These forces always act away from the center and are perpendicular to the direction of motion.
In order for the body to continue moving in a circle without falling off, there must be an equal and
opposite force to the centrifugal force. This force which counter balances the centrifugal force is called
the centripetal force and always acts towards the center of the motion.

Definition
Centripetal force is a force which keeps a body moving in a circular path and is directed towards the
center of the circular path.
If the mass of the body is m then the centripetal force
ma
But a =

This is the expression for the centripetal force Or

Question
Explain why there must be a force acting on a particle which is moving with uniform speed in a
circular path. Write down an expression for its magnitude.
Solution
If a body is moving along circular path, there must be a force acting on it, for if there were not, it would
move in a straight line in accordance with Newton’s first law. Furthermore, since a body is moving
with a constant speed, this force cannot at any stage have a component in direction of motion of a
body. For it did, it would increase or decrease the speed of the body. The force on the body must
therefore be perpendicular to direction of motion and directed towards the center.

7.1.2: Examples of centripetal forces

1. A car moving around a circular truck: For a car negotiating a corner or moving on a circular
path, the frictional force between the wheels and the surface provides the necessary centripetal
force required to keep it on the track.

2. A car moving on banked track:

For a banked track, the centripetal force is provided by the frictional force and the horizontal
components of the normal reaction.

3. a) Tension on the string keeping a whirling body in a vertical circle.

The tension force in the string provides the necessary centripetal force
b) For the conical pendulum, the horizontal component of the tension in the string
provides the necessary centripetal force

4. Gravitational force on planets

For a planet orbiting round the sun or satellite revolving about the earth, the gravitational
force between the two bodies provides the necessary centripetal force required to keep the
satellite in the orbit.

5. Electrostatics force on the electrons

For electrons moving round the nucleus, the electrostatics force provides the necessary
centripetal force.

106
 7.1.3: Motion in a vertical cycle
Consider a body of mass m attached to a string of At point A: ------------------------(2)
length r and whirled in a vertical circle with a
constant speed V. If there is no air resistance to At point B: mg - ----------------(3)
the motion, then the net force towards the centre
At point C: --------------------------(4)
is the centripetal force.
D At point D: mg ------------------(5)
TD The maximum tension in the vertical circle is
mg experienced at B
A C
TA TC
Tmax +mg
TB The minimum tension is experienced on the
top of the circle at point D
B
mg mg Tmin – mg
mg

Note
If the speed of whirling is increased the string will most likely break at the bottom of the circle.
Motion is tangential to the circle and when string breaks the mass will fly in a parabolic path.

Question
Explain why a bucket full of water can be swung round a vertical circle without spilling.
Solution
Mv2
r

A
N

mg
B r D

The water will only stay in the bucket if mg < . Consider a bucket at the top of the circle, if the
weight, mg < , the normal reaction force N at the bottom of the bucket on the water provides the
rest of the force on the bucket required to maintain the water in the circular path and therefore the
water will not spill. However if the bucket is swung slowly then Mg and the un used part of
the weight causes the water to leave the bucket

Examples
1. An object of mass 3kg is whirled in a vertical circle of radius 2m with a constant sped of 12ms-1,
calculate the maximum and minimum tension in the string
Solution

107
 D T +mg
TD
A
mg T +3x9.81
C
TA TC T 245.43N
TB Minimum tension is at D
mg
B T
mg
mg

Maximum tension is at B T 186.57N

T – mg

2. A stone of mass 800g is attached to string of length 60cm which has a breaking tension of 20N.
The string is whirled in a vertical circle the axis of rotation at a height of 100cm from the
ground.
i) What is the angular velocity where the string is most likely to break?
ii) How long will it take before the stone hits the ground?
Solution
i) The string breaks when + mg ½ gt2
(below the point of projection)
( ) ½ x9.81t2
½ x9.81t2
s-1 t = 0.286s
But
𝝎= , 𝝎 = 5.03rads-1 iii) Horizontal range
ii)

60cm
3.02m/s
40cm

7.1.4: MOTION IN A HORIZONTAL CIRCLE [CONICAL PENDULUM]

Consider a body of mass , m tied to a string of length L whirled in a horizontal circle of radius r at a
constant speed V
A

T
L
Tcosθ
θ
O r
Tsinθ

mg

If the string is fixed at A and the centre O of the circle is directly below O, the horizontal components of
the tension provides the necessary centripetal force.
108
 but also
√ ----------- (4)
= ----------- (1) r
and v=r 𝝎 Also
= mg ------------ (2) put into equation (3) T=
(1) (2) (r 𝝎 )2
r gtanθ T=
√
⁄
But
√
⁄
--------- (3)
𝝎 2=

Example
1. A stone 0.5kg is tied to one end of a string 1.2m long and whirled in a horizontal circle of
diameter 1.2m. Calculate;
i) The length in the string
ii) The angular velocity
iii) The period of motion
Solution
A -------(1)
But θ= 300 √
θ
T put into: (1) Tcos30=0.5x9.81
1.2m T =5.60N =3.07rads-1
Tcosθ
θ
0.6m ii) Angular velocity iii)Period , T =
O
Tsinθ
√ T=
mg T = 2.05s

i) Resolving vertically

2. A body of mass 4kg is moving with a uniform speed 5ms-1 in a horizontal circle of radius 0.3m,
find:
i) The angle the string makes with the vertical
ii) The tension on the string
Solution
A
Resolving horizontally
θ ……….[1] θ=83.30
T
L Resolving vertically ii)Tension T
Tcosθ
θ
[2]
O 0.3m [1] [2]
Tsinθ

mg

3. The period of oscillation of a conical pendulum is 2s. If the string makes an angle of 600 with the
vertical at the point of suspension, Calculate;
109
 i) The length of the string
ii) The velocity of the mass
Solution 1.986m
A OR
√
θ
rgtan60 ---------- (2)
T
L Also T =
Tcosθ
T= L=
θ
O
r T 3.14rads-1 L=
( )
Tsinθ But v=r
V=3.14r L=1.986m
Put into equation (2)
mg V2=rgtan60
(3.14r)2=rgtan60 r
θ=600 sin60
r= xLsinθ
r sin600------------- (1)
put into equation (1) 1.986x
Also resolving vertically
r=Lsin60 5.4ms-1
Resolving horizontal = lsin60

4. Stone of mass 0.5kg is tied to one end of the string 1m long. The point of suspension of the
string is 2m above the ground. The stone is whirled in the horizontal circle with increasing
angular velocity. The string will break when the tension in it is 12.5N and the angle θ is to the
maximum (θmax)as shown in the figure below;
A
i) Calculate the angle θmax
θ max
ii) Calculate the angular velocity of the stone
when the string breaks
iii) How far from the point G on the ground will
2m the stone hit the ground
iv) What will be the speed of the stone when it
O

ω hits the ground

G Ground

Solution

110
 A

θmax

h T
Tcosθmax

2m
O Tsinθmax

ω y
0.5gN
G r x

i) Resolving vertically V Vx
Tcosθmax 0.5gN Vx θ
y
cosθmax Vy V Vy VR
x
θmax= 66.90
is constant
ii) Resolving horizontally Using y=utsinθ ½ gt2
ucosθt
Tsinθ below the
point of projection
Also sinθ
T 0.57x5xsin66.9
Horizontal distance
4.599ms-1
But
T m 𝝎2
12.5 0.5 𝝎 2
but
𝝎2 rads-1 0.57
𝝎 = 5rads-1 =√
Cosθmax = where

=√
VR=7.24ms-1
G=3.54m θ=tan-1
The speed as it hits the
ground is 7.24ms-1.

EXERCISE 19
1. A body of mass 20kg is whirled in a horizontal circle using an inelastic string which has a
breaking force of 400N. If the breaking speed is at 9ms-1. Calculate the angle which the string
makes with the horizontal at the point of breaking. An(θ=29.30).

2. A particle of mass 0.2kg is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length 50cm. The
particle moves in a horizontal circle with an angular velocity of 5.0rads-1 with the string
inclined at θ to the vertical. Find the value of θ. An(370)

3. A particle of mass 0.25kg is attached to one end of a light in extensible string of length 3.0m.
The particle moves in a horizontal circle and the string sweeps out the surface of a cone. The
111
 maximum tension that the string can sustain is 12N. Find the maximum angular velocity of the
particle. An[4rads-1].

4. A particle of mass 0.30kg moves with an angular velocity 0f 10rads-1 in a horizontal circle of
radius 20cm inside a smooth hemispherical bowl. Find the reaction of the bowl on the particle
and the radius of the bowl. An[6.7N, 22cm]

5. A child of mass 20kg sits on a stool tied to the end of an inextensible string 5m long, the other
end of the string being tied to a fixed point. The child is whirled in a horizontal circle of radius
3m with a child not touching ground.
i) Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the child
ii) Calculate the tension on the string
iii) Calculate the speed of the child as it moves around the circle. An[245.25N, 4.695ms-1]

7.1.5: MOTION OF A CAR ROUND A FLAT CIRCULAR TRACK [NEGOTIATING A BEND]

Consider a car of mass m moving round a circular horizontal arc of radius r with a speed v

A) Skidding of the car

Skidding is the failure of a vehicle to negotiate a curve as a result of having a centripetal force less than
the centrifugal force and the car goes off the track or moves away from the centre of the circle.
R1 R2
R1+ R2
(R1+R2) -------------------------- (3)
Put equation (1) into equation (3)
O r
Center F1 F2 mg
mg

Consider a car of mass m taking a flat curve g

of radius r at a speed v. F1 and F2 are the or rg
frictional forces due to the inner tyre and
The maximum speed with which no skidding
outer tyre respectively.
occurs is given by
R1 and R2 are the normal reactions due to
inner and outer tyres respectively. √
Resolving vertically :R1+R2 mg--------- (1) For no skidding
Resolving Horizontally: F1+F2 -----(2) 0r
The frictional forces F1 and F2 provide the
necessary centripetal force
But F1 R1 , F2 R2

Conditions for no skidding/side slips

For a car to go round a bend successfully without skidding then:
1- The speed should not exceed ( ) or [ √ ]
2- The radius of the bend should be made big
3- Coefficient of friction should be increased
4- Centre of gravity should be low

B) Overturning/toppling of a car
Consider a car of mass m moving around a horizontal (flat)circular bend of radius r at speed v. let the
height of the centre of gravity above the track be “h” and the distance between the wheels be “2a”.
112
 R1 R2 ( ) ----------------- (3)
Put equation 2 into equation 3
G

h
a a . ( )----------------------[4]
Equation 1 Equation 4
O r
Center F1 F2 .
mg =0, the car just about to overturn
Resolving vertically : R1+R2 mg----- (1)
Resolving Horizontally :F1+F2 -----(2) ( )--------------------------- (5)
Taking moments about G
Clockwise moments =anticlockwise moments

Note
is the reaction of the inner tyre
 When R1>0: The wheels in the inner side of the curve is in contact with the ground
 When R1=0: The wheels in the inner side of the curve are at the point of loosing contact with
the ground
 When R1<0: The inner wheels have lost contact with the ground and the vehicle has over
turned

For no toppling or no overturning

( ) 0
or

√
Ways prevent toppling/overturning
i) Reduce the speed when negotiating a corner ( )
ii) Increase radius of a corner (r > )
iii) The distance between the tyres should be made big (a > )
iv) Reduce distance from the ground to the centre of gravity (h) or C.O.G of the car should
be low (h )

EXAMPLE
1. A car of mass 1000kg goes round a bend of radius 100m at a speed of 50km/hr without
skidding. Determine the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road surface
Solution Resolving vertically : ----- (1)
R1 R2
Resolving Horizontally :
( ) -------------------------[2]
Put equation (1) and equation 2
O r
100m F1 F2 mg
mg

113
 =0.1965
( )

7.1.6: MOTION OF A CAR ON A BANKED TRACK

Definition
Banking a track is the raising of the outer part of the bend (corner) slightly above the inner part so as
to ensure that only the horizontal component of normal reaction contributes towards the centripetal
force.
Banking also enables the car to go round a bend at a higher speed for the same radius compared to a
flat track.

A) NO SIDE SLIPP [No frictional force]

Consider a car of mass m negotiating a banked track at a speed v and radius of the bend is r.
The car may be taken as aparticle on
the incline
R2
R1 R Rcosθ
Mv2
r θ
Rsinθ
θ
mg
r θ r θ
center center
mg

Resolving vertically : ------- (1) tan θ

Resolving horizontally : ----(2)
Equation2 θ is the angle of banking and v is the
designed speed of the banked track.

Examples
1. A racing car of mass 1000kg moves around a banked track at a constant speed of 108km/hr,
the radius of the track is 100m. Calculate the angle of banking and the total reaction at the
tyres.
Solution
θ Resolving vertically:

( )
θ= [ ] θ=42.50 R 13305N

Exercise 20
A road banked at 100 goes round a bend of radius 70m. At what speed can a car travel round the bend
without tending to side slip. An[11ms-1]

Question:
Explain why a car travels at a higher speed round a banked track without skidding unlike the flat
tracks of the same radius.
Solution

114
 R1 R2 Along a circular arc on a horizontal road the
frictional force provides the centripetal force
R
At a higher speed, the frictional force is not
O r
Center F1 F2 sufficient enough to provide the necessary
mg centripetal force and skidding would occur.

R2 0n a banked track the centripetal force is

R1 provided by both the horizontal component of
Mv2
r normal reaction R and component of the
frictional force.
F2
F1 For , therefore
r θ
center
mg This is enough to keep the car on the track
even at high speed.
B) FOR SKIDDING/SLIDE SLIPP
The frictional force must be there whose direction depends on the speed of the car.

i) MAXIMUM SPEED/GREATEST SPEED

If the car is moving at speed v, greater than the designed speed v, the force Rsinθ is enough to provide
the necessary centripetal force. The car will tend to slid outwards from the circular path, the frictional
force would therefore oppose their tendency up to the maximum value .
The car may be taken as aparticle on
the incline
R2
R1 R Rcosθ
Mv2
r θ
Rsinθ
F2 θ
F1 F mg
r θ r θ
center center
mg

Resolving vertically : ( )
=
R Rsin θ ( )
( )
R ) ------------ (1) g
( )
Resolving horizontally: sin θ ( )
+ R ( )
Or divide the right hand side by cosθ
R( + ) --------- (2) *(
( )
+
)
Divide equation 2 by 1

ii) MINIMUM SPEED/LEAST SPEED

If the speed v, is less than the designed speed v the component of the reaction produces an
acceleration greater than the centripetal acceleration ( ) which is required to keep the car on circular
path.

115
The car tends to slip down the banked track and this tendency is opposed by the frictional force acting
upwards.
The car may be taken as aparticle on
the incline
R2
R1 R Rcosθ
Mv2
r θ
Rsinθ
F2 θ
F1 F mg
r θ r θ
center center
mg

Resolving vertically : ( )
( )
(cos θ+ sin θ) ------------- (1) Divide the right hand side by cosθ
Resolving horizontally: = ( )
*( )
+
= ------------- (2)
Divide equation 2 by 1
Example
1. A car travels round a bend which is banked at 220. If the radius of the curve is 62.5m and the
coefficient of friction between the road surface and tyres of the car is 0.3, calculate the
maximum and minimum speed at which the car can negotiate the bend without skidding.
Solution
( ) ( )
*( )
+ *( )
+

[ ( *] [ ( *]
22.15ms-1 7.54ms-1

2. On a level race track, a car just goes round a bend of radius 80m at a speed of 20ms-1 without
skidding. At what angle must the track be banked so that a speed of 30ms-1 can just be reached
without skidding, the coefficient of friction being the same in both cases.
Solution
Case I: of a level track
R1 R 2
For no skidding Vmax √
Vmax √
202 =
O r
80m F1 F2
mg

Case II: on a banked track

116
 ( )
R2 302= *( )
+
R1
Mv2 ( )
r
( )

F2
1.1468-0.584868tan =
F1 tan
r θ
center
mg

( )
rg *( )
+

EXERCISE 21
1. A racing car of mass 2 tonnes is moving at a speed of 5ms-1 round a circular path. If the radius
of the track is 100m. calculate;
i) Angle of inclination of the track to the horizontal if the car does not tend to side slip
ii) The reaction to the wheel if it’s assumed to be normal to the track. An[1.5o, 19606.7N]

2. A car travels round a bend banked at an angle of 22.60. if the radius of curvature of the bend is
62.5m and the coefficient of friction between the tyres of the car and the road surface is 0.3.
Calculate the maximum and minimum speed at which the car negotiates the bend without
skidding. An [22.38ms-1, 7.96ms-1]

7.1.7: MOTION OF A CYCLIST ROUND A BEND

A cyclist must bend towards the centre while travelling round the bend to avoid toppling. When the
cyclist bends, the weight creates a couple which opposes the turning effect of the centrifugal forces.
Consider the total mass of the cyclist and his bike to be m round the circle of radius r at a speed v.

A) No skidding
------------------------------ (2)
Put 1 into 2

G
=
θ
h
R = mg Vis the max speed at which a cyclist negotiates
center
a bend of radius r without skidding
F a

For no skidding
Resolving vertically: R =mg ---------- (1) V2 rg
Resolving horizontal: F=

B) No toppling/over turning
The force G has a moment about the centre of gravity G(F.h) which tends to turn the rider out.

117
 But tan
F=
G
tan
θ
h
R = mg v is the speed at which a cyclist can negotiate a
corner without toppling
center F
a
For no toppling
Taking moment about G

Why it is necessary for a bicycle rider moving round a circular path to lean towards a
center of the path
When a rider moves round a circular path, the frictional force provides the centripetal force.
The frictional force has a moment about the centre of gravity of the rider, the rider therefore
tends to fall off from the centre of the path if this moment is not counter balanced. The rider
therefore leans toward the center of the path so that his reaction provides a moment about
the center of gravity , which counter balances the moment due to friction.

UNEB2014No1
(b) (i) Define angular velocity. (01mark)
(ii) satellite is revolving around the earth in a circular orbit at an altitude of where the
acceleration due to gravity is . Assuming that the earth is spherical, calculate the
period of the satellite. An[ ] (03marks)

UNEB2013No3
(b) Show that the centripetal acceleration of an object moving with constant speed, , in a circle of
radius, , is (04marks)
(c) A car of mass 1000kg moves round a banked track at a constant speed of 108km . Assuming
the total reaction at the wheels is normal to the track, and the radius of curvature of the track
is 100m, calculate the;
(i) Angle of inclination of the track to the horizontal. An[42.5 ] (04marks)
(ii) Reaction at the wheels An[13305N] (02marks)

UNEB 2012 No3

a) Explain what is meant by centripetal force (2mks)
b) i) Derive an expression for the centripetal force acting on a body of mass m moving in a
circular path of radius r (6mrk)
ii) A body moving in a circular path of radius 0.5m makes 40 revolutions per second. Find the
centripetal force if the mass is 1kg (3mk)
c) Explain the following;
i) a mass attached to a string rotating at a constant speed in a horizontal circle will fly off at a
tangent if the string break (02mk)
ii) a cosmonaut in a satellite which is in a free circular orbit around the earth experiences the
sensation of weightlessness even though there is influence of gravitation field of the earth.
118
 Solution
b) ii
f=40revs-1 r=50m m=1kg F=m 𝝎 2r
𝝎 =2 F=1(251.43)2x50
𝝎 x x40 F= 3.161x
𝝎 =251.43rads-1
c)i) When a mass is whirled in a horizontal circle, the horizontal component of the tension ( )
provides the necessary centripetal force which keeps the body moving in a circle without falling off.
When the string breaks, the only force acting in the centrifugal force which acts away from the centre
and perpendicular to the direction of motion and therefore the mass will fly off at a tangent.

UNEB 2011 No1

a) Define the following terms
i) Uniform acceleration (1mk)
ii) Angular velocity (1mk)
b) i) what is meant by banking of a track
(ii) Derive an expression for the angle of banking for a car of mass, m moving at a speed, v
around banked track of radius r. (4mk)
c) A bob of mass, m tied to an inelastic thread of length L and whirled with a constant speed in a
vertical circle
i) With the aid of a sketch diagram, explain the variation of tension in the string along the circle
(5mk)
ii) If the string breaks at one point along the circle state the most likely position and explain the
subsequent motion of the bob. [2mk]

UNEB 2007 No1

d) Explain why the maximum speed of a car on a banked road is higher than that on an unbanked
road.
e) A small bob of mass 0.20kg is suspended by an inextensible string of length 0.8m. The bob is
then rotated in a horizontal circle of radius 0.4m. find the
i) linear speed of the bob (3mk)
ii) tension in the string (2mk)

UNEB 2005 No4

a) i) Define angular velocity (1mk)
ii) Derive an expression for the force F on a particle of mass m, moving with angular velocity in a
circle of radius r.
b) A stone of mass 0.5kg is attached to a string of length 0.5m which will break if the tension in it
exceeds 20N. The stone is whirled in a vertical circle, the axis of rotation being at a vertical
height of 1m above he ground. The angular speed is gradually increased until the string breaks.
i) In what position is the string most likely to break? Explain.
ii) At what angular speed will the string break An [7.78rads-1, 1.24m]
iii) Find the position where the stone hits the ground when the string breaks
c) Explain briefly the action of a centrifuge
Solution
Action of a centrifuge

119
 Axis of rotation at the open end A. this sets up a pressure
gradient along the tube. This pressure gradient
A B creates a large centripetal force that causes
matter of small density to move inwards while
that of higher density to move away from the
A centrifuge is used to separate substances of
centre when rotation stops, the tube is placed
different densities e.g. milk and fat by whirling
in a vertical position and the less dense
in a horizontal circle at a high speed.
substance comes to the top which are then
The mixture placed in a tube and the tube is
separated from the mixture.
rotated in a horizontal circle. The liquid
pressure at the closed end B is more than that

UNEB 2004 No2

a) Define the term angular velocity (1mk)
b) A car of mass m, travels round a circular track of radius, r with a velocity v.
i) Sketch a diagram to show the forces acting on the car (2mks)
ii) Show that the car does not overturn if v <2 , where a is the distance between the
wheel, h is the height of the C.O.G above the ground and g is the acceleration due to
gravity (5mk)
c) A pendulum of mass 0.2kg is attached to one end of an inelastic string of length 1.2m. the bob
moves in a horizontal circle with the string inclined at 300 to the vertical . Calculate;
i) The tension in the string (2mk)
ii) The period of the motion An[2.27N, 2.04s] (4mk)

UNEB 2003 No2

a) Define the following terms
i) Angular velocity (1mk)
ii) Centripetal acceleration (1mk)
b) i) Explain why a racing car travels faster on a banked track than one which is flat of the same
radius of curvature. (4mk)
ii) Derive an expression for the speed with which a car can negotiate a bend on a banked track
without skidding (3mk)

UNEB 2002 No1

d) The period of oscillation of a conical pendulum is 2.0s. if the string makes an angel 600 to the
vertical at the point of suspension, calculate the
i) Vertical height of the point of suspension above the circle (3mk)
ii) Length of the string (1mk)
iii) Velocity of the mass attached to the string (3mk)
An[0.995m, 1.99m, 5.41ms-1]
UNEB 2002 No2
b i) Derive an expression for the speed of a body moving uniformly in a circular path (3mk)
ii) Explain why a force is necessary to maintain a body moving with a constant speed in a circular
path.
c) A small mass attached to a string suspended from a fixed point moves in a circular path at a
constant speed in a horizontal plane.
i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the mass (1mk)
ii) Derive an equation showing how the angle of inclination of the string depend on the
speed of the mass and the radius of the circular path (3mk).

120
 CHAPTER 8: GRAVITATION
Gravitation deals with motion of planets in a gravitational field. This motion is governed by laws
among which are Kepler’s laws of gravitation and Newton’s laws of gravitation.

8.1.0: KEPLER’S LAWS OF GRAVITATION

Law I: Planets describe elliptical orbit with the sun at one focus
Law II: The imaginary line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals
Law III: The squares of the periods of revolution of a planet about the sun is directly proportional
to the cube of the mean distance from the sun to the planet. ieT2αr3

8.1.1: NEWTON’S LAWS OF GRAVITATION

It states that: the force of attraction between two bodies in the universe is directly proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
i.e. F m1m2 -------------------------------- (1)
F ---------------------------------------- (2)
Combining 1 and 2
F
F
G is the gravitational constant
G =6.67x10-11Nm2kg-2
This law is sometimes called the inverse square
law of gravitation.

8.1.2: DIMENSION OF G AND ITS UNITS

From F
G
[ ][ ]
[G] [ ][ ]

[G]
[G]

Units of G=kg-1m3s-2 or Nm2kg-2

8.1.3: VERIFICATION OF KEPLER’S 3RD LAW

Consider a planet of mass mp above the sun of ms. If the distance separating the planet and the sun
is r.
Planet
F
r
sun

The force which keeps the planet moving around the sun is represented by;

121
But
F= ( ) ---------------------------------(1)

From Newton’s law of gravitation

F ------------------------ (2)
For the planet moving round a sun, the centripetal force required to keep it in motion should be
provided by the gravitational force of attraction between the planet and the sun.
mpr

( )

Since is a constant

8.1.4: EXPERIMENTAL MEASURE OF G

 When A, B are brought near a, b respectively
because of the attraction between the masses,
C D two equal but opposite forces act on CD. The
two forces form a couple and CD is deflected
and the angle of deflection is. measured by a
B lamp and scale method by light reflected from
b CD.
 The distance d between a, A and b, B when the
A deflection is , is measured. Then masses m, M
a
of a and A respectively are measured
G= ̅̅̅̅
CD- highly polished bar
a, b -gold balls
A, B- lead spheres Where k is torsional constant

Note
 Then torque of couple on CD = x ̅̅̅̅
But torque of couple = k
k = x ̅̅̅̅
 The high sensitivity of the quarts fibres enables the small deflection to be big enough to be
measured accurately. The small size of the apparatus allowed it to be screened considerably
from air convention currents.
 The constant k can be determined by allowing CD to oscillate through small angle and then
observing its period of oscillation ‘T’ which was of the order of 3 minutes. If I is the known
moment of inertia of the system about the torsion wire
T=2 √

122
 8.1.5: MASS OF THE SUN
The mass of the sun can be estimated by considering the motion of the earth round the sun in an
orbit of radius 1.5x1011m.
Earth But
F mE
mS rSO
sun is radius of the orbit of the earth around the
sun
rso =1.5x1011m
G=6.67x10-11Nm-2kg-2
Centripetal force: F=mE rso ------------- (1) T=1yr 365days =365x24x60x60s
Force of attraction: F ---------- (2) rso = 1.5x1011m
( ) ( )
Force of attraction Centripetal force
( )
= mE rso 2.0

8.1.6: MASS OF THE EARTH

The mass of the earth can be estimated by considerably the motion of the moon round the earth in
an orbit of radius 4x m

Moon
F mm rEo is the radius of the orbit of the moon
mE rEO
Earth about the earth.
rEo = 4x108m
T=I month =30days =30x24x60x60
Centripetal force: F=mm ------------ (1) G=6.67x10-11
( ) ( )
Force of attraction: F ---------- (2)
( )
Force of attraction Centripetal force =5.6x1024
= mm 6.0x1024kg

But

8.1.8: RELATION BETWEEN G AND g

Consider a body of mass m placed on the earth’s surface of radius rE where the acceleration due to
gravity is
Body If the body is on the earth’s surface then it
F m experiences a gravitational pull
mE rE F=mg ---------------------------------------- (2)
Earth Equating equation 1 and 2
= mg

Force of attraction F -------- (1) Where is the radius of earth where

=6.4x106m

123
 Differences between G and g

G g
Units are m3kg-1s-2 or Nm2kg-2 Units are ms-2
Occurs due to forces of attraction between two bodies Acts on only one body
Does not vary with attitude Varies with attitude
8.1.9: VARIATION OF g OF A BODY DURING FREE FALL
1. Variation of g with height above the earth’s surface
---------------------- (1)
but --------------------- (2)
h

(1) ( )
rE

Since and g are constant,

An object of mass m placed at a height h, above
the surface of the earth where acceleration due  Therefore for a point above the earth
to gravity at that height is g1. surface g varies inversely as the square
At a height h the gravitational force of of the distance r from the centre of the
attraction between the object and the earth is earth.
equal to the weight of the object.

2. Variation of g with depth below the earth surface

---------------------------- (2)
Where is the effective mass of that part of
h

the earth which has a radius of r

P
Equation 2 divided by 1
r

Earth’s rE
center ⁄

Earth’s
surface
= ------------------------- (3)
Consider the earth to be a uniform sphere of
uniform density. Suppose a body at a point h For masses of uniform spheres are
meters from the surface of the earth measured proportional to the cube of their radii
towards the centre of the earth. i.e. and

When the object is on the surface of the earth .

=

= ------------------ (1)
for a point inside the earth
at p
124
 3. Graph of variation of acceleration of free fall from the centre of the earth
Surface of the earth

g
Inside the
Above the surface of
earth
the earth

0 rE r
For points above the earth, the gravitational force obeys the inverse square law while for points inside
the earth, g is proportional to the distance from the centre.

4. Variation of acceleration due to gravity with location on the surface of the earth
a) The earth is ellipsoidal with the equatorial radius being greater than the polar radius. At the
equator body is less attracted towards the earth than at the poles : g equatorial g polar
b) The earth rotates about its polar axis, so a body at the poles is practically stationary while
towards the equator experiences a centripetal force m 2r where r is the equatorial radius.
m r = mg polar mg equatorial
g equatorial g polar r

Examples
1. A body has a weight of 10N on the earth. What will its weight be on the moon if the ratio of the
moon’s mass to the earth’s mass is 1.2x10-2 and the ratio of the moon’s radius to that of the
earth is 0.27?
Solution
Consider the body on the But = 1.2x10-2 and
earth’s surface
=0.27 ------------ (2)

--------------- (1) ( *
⁄
Also on the moon’s surface
1.6148ms-2
but weight 10N
-------------- (2)
10= mx9.81
eqn2 eqn 1
But = 1.2x10-2 and
m=1.0194kg
⁄ w1 = mg1 =0.27
w1 =1.0194x1.614
w1 =1.646N ( *

Alternatively
----------- (1)

125
 2. The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of mars is about 0.4times the acceleration due to
gravity on the surface of the earth. How much wound a body weigh on the surface of mars if it
weighs 800N on the earth’s surface .
Solution Wm=0.4mg
Wm=mg 1 Wm=0.4x800 since mg=800N
But g1=0.4g Wm=320N
Wm=mx0.4g

8.2.0: MOTION OF SATELLITE

A satellite is a small body that moves in space round a planet
 There are two types of satellite
1- Natural satellites eg moon
2- Artificial satellites eg Canal France International (CFI)
Artificial satellites are man made called space crafts/ space stations placed in orbits about the
earth, moon or other planets for communication and scientific study purposes.
 Artificial satellites are grouped into
i) Passive satellites, for these satellites, they simply reflect signals of the same strength
from one point to another.
ii) Active satellites, these satellites are able to amplify and retransmit signal that they pick
from one point on the earth to another.
 Satellites are initially fired from the earth into space with the help of a rocket. When a rocket
reaches that particular height, a second phase of the launch is initiated where the satellite is
fired horizontally into the orbit to start its circular motion and the rest of the rocket burns in
space.

8.2.1: GEOSTATIONARY/SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT

These are communication satellites with orbital period of 24hrs and stays at the same point above the
earth surface provided it is above the equator and its moving in the same direction as the earth is
rotating.
Satellites of this type are used to relay television signals and telephone messages from one point on the
earth surface to another eg synchrom2, synchrom3 and the early bind.

8.2.2: HOW COMMUNICATION IS DONE USING A SATELLITE

S1

A
Parkig orbit
Earth
B S2

S3

 It is done by launching three or more geostationary communication satellites into space with
help of a rocket.
 Microwave signals are transmitted from a large steerable horn antennae A to the geostationary
satellites S1. satellite S1 has a number of aerials which receives them and amplify and
retransmit them to satellite S2, which in turn transmits then back to the earth and they are
received by steerable dish aerial in an earth station.

126
 8.2.3: PARKING ORBIT
It’s a path in space of a satellite which makes it appear to be in same position with respect to a point on
the earth.

Note:
For an object (satellite) in parking orbit;
 It has a period of 24hrs
 Angular velocity relative to that of the earth is zero
 Direction of the object in the orbit is the same as the direction of rotation of the earth orbit
about its axis.

8.2.4: PERIOD OF A SATELLITE

Consider a satellite of mass m moving in a circular orbit of radius h above the earth surface.

Satellite
h
rE

R OR
Where
But also

Attractive force=Centripetal force:

Example
1. Find the period of revolution of a satellite moving in a circular orbit round the earth at a height
of 3.6x106m above the earth’s surface.
Solution
Where
Satellite
But also
h

( )
( )
rE

rE is radius of earth =6.4X106m

mE is mass of earth =6x1024kg
Centripetal force
Attractive force ( ) ( )
( ,

but
T=9932.10555s
T=2.759Hrs

( )

127
2. An artificial satellite move round the earth in a circular orbit in the plane of the equator at
height 30,000km above the earth’s surface (mass of earth =6.0x1024kg, radius of the earth=
6.4x106m,)
i) Calculate its speed
ii) What is the time between successive appearances over a point on the equator
iii) What will be the additional distance of the satellite if it was to appear stationery
Solution
Satellite
h
rE

R T= 6.903x104s T=19.2h
(iii) From Kepler’s third law

h=30,000km =3x107m, rE= m ------------------------------------- (x)

G= Nm2kg-2 ME=6.0x1024kg R=RE+h
R=(6.4x106+3x107)m
R=36.4 x106m
19.22=k(36.4 x106)3----------------------(1)
If the satellite is stationery, then the
√ geostationary T1=24hrs
( )
( ) ( )
9.1025x10-5rads-1 ( ) ( ) -----------------------------(xx)
( ) ( ) -------------------------------(2)
Equation 2 equaiton 1
( )
( ) ( )
3.313x103ms-1
( ) ( )
(i) Its speed is 3.313x103ms-1
R1=42.2x106m
(ii) Time required is the period
R1=R+ extra distance
Extra distance = R1-R
= 106 106
=5.8x10 m
6

3. UNEB 2003 Qn 2(e)

A communication satellite orbits the earth in synchronous orbits. Calculate the height of
communication satellite above the earth.
Solution
Satellite
( )
h

G= Nm2kg-2
T=24hrs for synchronous orbits
rE

R
ME=5.97x1024kg

[ ]
( ,
* +
but R=4.22x107m
But R=RE R=6.4x106+h
h=4.22x107 6.4x106
h=3.58 x107m

128
 8.2.5: ENERGY OF A SATELLITE
1. Kinetic energy
Consider a satellite of mass m moving in an orbit of radius R around the earth at a constant speed v
Satellite

h
rE
Introducing ½ on both sides
R

Centripetal force F = ------------------- (1)

Force of attraction F = -------------- (2)
Equating 1 and 2

2. Potential energy
Consider a satellite of mass m brought from infinity into the region of earth’s gravitational force.

R O ▲x

X
From Newton’s law of gravitation
[ ]
F=
Work done * +
Total work done
* +

∫ ∫
But work done
[ ] ∫

Definition
Gravitational potential energy P.E is the work done in bringing a unit mass from infinity to that point.

3. Mechanical energy/total energy

Note:
i) Mechanical energy and kinetic energy only differ by the sign therefore their magnitude is the
same
129
ii) If the radius of the orbit of the satellite decreases, the gravitational potential energy of the
satellite becomes more negative implying that it has decreased.
 Decrease in radius however causes an increase in the kinetic energy, resulting in an increase in
the speed of the satellite in its new orbit.
 Decrease in orbital radius also results into the mechanical energy becoming more negative
hence it has decreased.

8.2.6: EFFECT OF FRICTION ON A SATELLITE

 If a satellite is located within the earth atmosphere as it moves in its orbit, the atmospheric
gasses offer frictional resistance to its motion. The satellite thus would be expected to do work
to overcome this resistance and is so doing, it falls to an orbit of lower radius.
 The decrease in the radius causes the total energy ( ) to decrease while the kinetic
energy of the satellite ( ) increases resulting into an increase in the speed of the satellite
in its new orbit. Because of the increase of the speed the satellite becomes hotter and it may
burnout.

Question
Explain why any opposition to the forward motion of a satellite may cause it to burn.

A graph of K.E with variation of A graph of P.E with variation of

distance from centre of the earth distance from centre of the earth
K.E P.E
K.Emax
0 RE R

0 RE R P.Emax

Examples
1. A satellite of mass 100kg is in a circular orbit at a height 3.59x107m above the earth surface
i) Calculate the kinetic energy, potential energy and the mechanical energy of the satellite
in this orbit
ii) State what happens when the mechanical energy of the satellite is reduced
Solution
i)
M.E=P.E +K.E
R=re+h R=re+h
9.4992 108 4.75 108
K.E. = ( ) ( ) M.E 4.75x108J
K.E. 10 J
8 P.E.=- 9.4992 x10 J8

P.E 108J
ii)
 Frictional force increases
 Satellite falls to orbit of small radius
 PE reduces
 K.E increases
 Satellite becomes hot and may burn

2. A 103 kg mass satellite is launched in a parking orbit about the earth

i) Calculate the height of the satellite above the surface of the earth

130
 ii) Calculate the mechanical energy of the satellite [
]
Solution

Satellite
[ ] ( )
( ,

h
* +

rE
R
But

but

But
( ) But ( )

M.E J
( )
T=24hrs for parking orbits ME=5.97x1024kg

EXERCISE 22
1. A satellite of mass 1000kg is launched on a circular orbit of radius 7.2x106m about the earth.
Calculate the mechanical energy of the satellite [ME=6x1024kg, ]
An [-2.78x1010J ]

2. An artificial satellite is launched at a height of 3.6x107mabove the earth’s surface

i) Determine the speed with which the satellite must be launched to maintain in the orbit.
An[3.08x103]ms-1
ii) Determine the period of the satellite. An[24hrs]

8.2.7: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL [U]

Gravitational potential at a point in the gravitational field is defined as the work done to move a one
kilogram mass (1kg) from infinity to that part. Ie

Consider a body of mass 1kg moved from infinity to appoint O where the distance from the centre of
the earth to O is R
From Newton’s law of gravitation
R ▲x F=
O

X Work done
Total work done
131
 ∫ ∫ * +

[ ] ∫ But work done

[ ]

* +

Generally On the earth surfaces

Note:
The amount of work done against the gravitational force of mas M to move the mass a distance
to position is given by

* +
Example

A body of mass 15kg is moved from the earth’s surface to a point 2.8x106m above the earth. If the
radius of the earth is 6.4x106m and its mass is 6.0x1024 kg calculate the work done in taking the body
to that point
Solution
( * ( )
work done in taking the body to that point
R=Re+h
W= 2.85x108J
( )
R=9.2x106

8.2.8: VELOCITY OF ESCAPE

This is the minimum vertical velocity with which a body is projected from the surface of the earth so
that it escapes from the earth’s gravitational pull.

Derivation of formulae
Suppose a rocket of mass is fired from the earth’s surface so that it just escapes from the gravitational
influence of the earth
K.E lost = P.E lost √
½ mVesc 2 Vesc =√
Vesc =11.2km/h
Vesc = √

Note

132
  Air molecules at stp have an average speed of about 0.5ms-1 which is much less than the escape
velocity and so the earth’s gravitational field is able to maintain an atmosphere of air around
the earth.
 Light gases like Neon, Argon, helium have mean thermal speed more than 3 time of air. This
means that their speeds are higher than the mean speeds of air and this explain why they are
rare in the earth atmosphere.
 The moon has no atmosphere because the gravitational field of the moon is not sufficiently
strong to prevent gases from escaping.

 For other planets escape velocity is given by Vesc = √

8.2.9: WEIGHTLESSNESS
s1

g1 mg1

orbit

earth

An astronaut in an orbiting space craft has a centripetal acceleration a=g1 where g1is the acceleration
due to gravity at the height of the orbit.
If S1 is the reaction of the surface of the space craft in contact with the astronaut then;
F=mg1-S1
ma= mg1-S1
but a=g1
mg1= mg1-S1
S1=0
The astronaut therefore has no acceleration relative to his space craft and hence experiences zero
reaction i.e. weightless.

Definition
Weightlessness is the condition of a body having zero reaction when a body moves with the
acceleration as acceleration due to the gravity.

UNEB 2013No4(a)

133
(i) State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion (03marks)
(ii) Estimate the mass of the sun, if the orbit of the earth around the sun is circular (04mks)

UNEB 2012 No3(c)

(ii) A cosmonaut in a satellite which is in a free circular orbit around the earth experience the
sensation of weightlessness even though there is influence of the gravitational field of the
earth Explain (03marks)

UNEB 2011 No1(d)

A body of mass 15kg is moved from the earth’s surface to a point 2.8x106m above the earth. If the
radius of the earth is 6.4x106m and its mass is 6.0x1024 kg calculate the work done in taking the
body to that point An 2.85x108J (06marks)

UNEB 2008 No3(c)

(i) with the aid of a diagram, describe an experiment to determine the universal gravitational
constant G. (06marks)
(ii) If the moon moves round the earth in a circular orbit of radius =4.0x108m and takes exactly
27.3 days to go round once calculate the value of acceleration due to gravity g at the earth’s surface.
(04marks)

but
( ) ( )
g=( ) ( )
g=11.09ms-2

UNEB 2007 No2

a) State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion (3mk)
b) i) A satellite moves in a circular orbit of radius R about a planet of mass m, with period T. show

that where G is the universal gravitational constant (04marks)

ii) The period of the moon round the earth is 27.3. if the distance of the moon from the earth is
3.88x108km. Calculate the acceleration due to gravity at the face of the earth.
An [g=9.72ms-2] (04marks)
iii) Explain why any resistance to forward motion of an artificial satellite results into an increase in
its speed. (04marks)
c) i) what is meant by weightlessness (02marks)
134
 ii) Why does acceleration due to gravity vary with location on the surface of the earth (03marks)

UNEB 2004 No2

d) Explain and sketch the variation of acceleration due to gravity with distance from the centre of
the earth. (06marks)

UNEB 2003 No2

c) Show how to estimate the mass of the sun if the period and orbital radius of one of its planets are
known.
d)The gravitational potential U at the surface of a planet of mass m and radius R is given by
where G is the gravitational constant. Derive an expression for the lowest velocity, v which

an object of mass m must have at the surface of the planet if it is the escape from the planet
(04marks)
e) Communication satellite orbits the earth in synchronous orbits. Calculate the height of a
communication satellite above the earth An [3.6x107m] (04marks)

UNEB 2000 No 4
a) State Keplers law’s of gravitation (03marks)
b) I)Show that the period of a satellite in a circular orbit of radius r about the earth is given by

T=( )

Where the symbols have usual meanings (05marks)

ii)Explain briefly how world wide, radius or television communication can be achieved with the
help of satellites (04marks)
c) A satellite of mass 100kg in a circular orbit at a height of 3.59x107m above the earth’s surface
(i) Find the mechanical energy (04marks)
(ii) Explain what would happened if the mechanical energy was decreased (04marks)

135
 CHAPTER 9: SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (S.H.M)
Definition
This is the periodic motion of a body whose acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement
from a fixed point (equilibrium position) and is directed towards the fixed point.

The negative signs means the acceleration and the displacement are always in opposite direction.

9.1.0: Characteristics of SHM

(1) It’s a periodic motion (to and fro motion )
(2) Mechanical energy is always conserved
(3) The acceleration is directed towards a fixed point
(4) Acceleration is directly proportional to its displacement

9.1.1: PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF S.H.M

 Pendulum clocks  Motor vehicle suspension springs
 Pistons in a petrol engine  Balance wheels of a watch
 Strings in music instruments

9.1.3: EQUATIONS OF S.H.M

B Consider a particle, p of mass, m, moving round
a circle of radius ,r, with uniform angular
O V=ωr velocity, . Let the particle be at point p, t
x θ r
seconds after starting motion from A such that
N P
A ω the angle subtended at the centre is ,θ

a) Displacement x
This is the distance of N from O measured away from O
The displacement is obtained from triangle ONP

But
------------------------------------------------------------- (1)

136
Note:
When the displacement is maximum i.e. when N is at A or at B, then this displacement is known
as amplitude.

Definition
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a body (a particle) from equilibrium position.

A GRAPH OF DISPLACEMENTAGAINST TIME

X(m)

O
t(s)

b) Velocity
B

Vsinθ
O V=ωr
θ
θ
N P Vcosθ
A

Velocity of N as a result of the velocity P moving round circle. This is equal to the vertical
component of velocity of p

But and
--------------------------------- (2)

Note:
The velocity of N is negative because as p moves from A to B, N moves upwards and when it
moves from B to A, N changes direction and moves downwards.

GRAPH OF VELOCITY AGAINST TIME

137
 V(m/s)

0
t(s)

c) Acceleration ̈ or a
The acceleration of N is as a result of the acceleration of p. This is equal to the vertical component
B aN

a=ω2r but and

acosθ
O
θ but fom equation 1
x θ a

N P asinθ
---------------------------------- (3)
A

ACCELERATION AGAINST TIME ACCELERATION AGAINST DISPLACEMENT

a(m/s2)
a(m/s2)

0
t(s) 0 X(m)

d) Period T
This is the time taken for one complete oscillation. .i.e. N moving from A to B and back to A.

but

--------------------------- (4)

e) Frequency f
This is the number of complete oscillation made in one second
138
 𝝎

f) Velocity in terms of displacement

Velocity of a body executing S.H.M can be expressed as a function of displacement x. this is obtained
from the acceleration
a= integrating both sides +C
a= = ∫ =- ∫
C=
but + C ………[1]
Put into [1]
Where C is a constant of
a= . +
integration
. -
When t = 0 v=0 and
- (amplitude) ( )

Velocity is maximum when x =0

AGRAPH OF VELOCITY AGAINST DISPLACEMENT

From
V(m/s)
ωr +

=1
-r r X(m)
This an ellipse
- ωr

Example
1. A particles moves in a straight line with S.H.M. Find the time of one complete oscillation when
i) The acceleration at a distance of 1.2m is 2.4ms-2
ii) The acceleration at a distance of 20cm is 3.2ms-2
Solution
i) From Negative is ignored 1.4rads-1
( )
But

139
 ( )
4rads-1

ii) 1.57second

2. A Particle moving with S.H.M has velocities of 4ms-1 and 3ms-1 at distances of 3m and 4m
respectively from equilibrium position. Find
i) amplitude ,
ii) period ,
iii) frequency
iv) velocity of the particle as it passes through equilibrium position
Solution
i) and Equation 1 divide by 2
Using ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( )------- (1) ( ) ( )

Also
( ) r=5m

( )------- (2) Amplitude =5m

ii) period put r=5m into one of the 1

equations But
( )
T=
( )
T=6.28 seconds

iii) frequency

f 0.16Hz

iv) velocity as it passes equilibrium position at equilibrium x=0

( )
( )
=25
/s

140
3. A body of mass 200g s executing S.H.M with amplitude of 20mm. The maximum force which acts
upon it is 0.064N. calculate
a) its maximum velocity
b) its period of oscillation
Solution
F= 0.064N 0.064=0.2
Mass m 200g 0.2kg 0.08ms-1
Amplitude r =20mm = b) T
0.02m 0.32 .02
T
a) =16
T=1.57 seconds
But 4rads-1

4. A body of mass 0.30kg executes S.H.M with a period of 2.5s and amplitude of 4x10-2m.
determine
i) Maximum velocity of the body
ii) The maximum acceleration of the body
Solution
M 0.3kg, T 2.5s, r m
vii) viii)

( *

( )

5. A particle moves with S.H.M in a straight line with amplitude 0.05m and period 12s. Find
a) speed as it passes equilibrium position
b) maximum acceleration of the particle
Solution
a) speed at equilibrium
=
( )
b)

( *

141
 9.2.0: TO SHOW A GIVEN MOTION IS SIMPLE HARMONIC
This requires to show that a particular motion has an acceleration of the form [ ] and find

the period (T )

Steps
i) Identify the forces acting on the body at equilibrium position
ii) Identify the forces acting on the body after displacement from the equilibrium position
iii) Obtain an expression for the restoring force after the displacement and equate this restoring
force to [ma] in accordance with Newton’s second law of motion.
iv) Compare the expression got with basic standard expression for S.H.M. if it’s comparable to
( ), then motion is simple harmonic.

Examples of S.H.M
9.2.1: SIMPLE PENDULUM
Consider a mass m suspended by a light inelastic string of length L from a fixed point B.
At equilibrium the bob lies in a vertical plane with the tension in the string being balanced by the
weight of the bob.
If the bob is given a small vertical displacement through an angel θ and released, we show that a bob
moves with simple harmonic motion
B If the displacement is small, then θ is very

θ
small such that the arc length is equal to x.
T L

θ
mgcosθ
mgsinθ mg

Resolving tangentially, gives the restoring

( )
force

Restoring force it is in the form and hence

By Newton’s 2nd law performs S.H.M with period

………………………..……..2

142
 √

√
But 𝝎

9.2.1: Determination of acceleration due to gravity (g) using a simple pendulum

 Starting with a measured length L of the pendulum, the pendulum is clamped between 2 wood

pieces from a retort stand.

 A bob is then given a small angular displacement from the vertical position and released.

 The time t for 20 oscillation is obtained, find period T and hence

 Repeat the procedure for different values of length of the string.

 A graph of T2 against L is then drawn and its slope S calculated.

Hence acceleration due to gravity is obtained from

Factors which affect the accuracy of g when using a simple pendulum.

1. The nature of the string. The string should be inelastic

2. Air resistance (dissipative force). In present of air the motion of a simple pendulum is highly

damped such that the oscillation dies out quickly that affecting the period.

3. The displacement of the bob from the equilibrium position should be small such that the

oscillation remain uniform.

4. The mass of the bob should be small to minimize the effect of dimension of the object.

5. In accuracies in the timing and measuring extensions.

Examples ;

A bob of a simple pendulum moves simple harmonically with amplitude 8.0cm and period 2.00s. its

mass is 0.50kg, the motion of the bob is un damped. Calculate maximum values of;
143
 a) The speed of the bob, and b) The kinetic energy of the bob.

Solution

a) m=0.5kg , r=8cm=0.08m, T=2s

b)

( )

MASS ON A SRING

a) A horizontal spring attached to a mass

Consider a spring lying on a smooth horizontal surface in which one end of the spring is fixed and

the other end attached to a particle of mass m

O Equilibrium position
m

When the mass is slightly pulled a small distance x and the released. The mass executes S.H.M
O Equilibrium position
m
x

F
The restoring force F is given by hooke’s law But
---------------------------------------- (1)
By Newton’s 2nd law
--------------------------------------- (2)

a= ( ) -------------------------------- (3) √
Where k is the spring constant
Equation (3) is in the form[ ], Also f =

therefore the body performs S.H.M

√

=> √

144
 Example : UNEB 2011 No 4C
A horizontal spring of force constant 200 Nm-1 is fixed at one end and a mass of 2kg attached to the
free end and resting on a smooth horizontal surface. The mass is pulled through a distance of 4.0cm
and released. Calculate the;
i) Angular speed
ii) Maximum velocity attained by the vibrating body, acceleration when the body is half
way towards the centre from its initial position.
Solution

i) From √ √ 0rads-1

ii)
0.4ms-1 Alternatively
Note: the small distance pulled and released
becomes the amplitude

where its half towards the centre

b) Oscillation of mass suspended on a helical spring

Consider a helical spring or elastic string suspended from a fixed point.
When a mass is attached to the spring, it stretches by length, e and comes to equilibrium positions 0.
When the mass is pulled down a small distance, x and released the motion will be simple harmonic.
i ii iii

T
L
T1

e e
O

mg X
B

mg
In position (ii) the mass is in equilibrium position In position (iii) after displacement through
The restoring fore is
And by hooke’s law But by hooke’s law ( )
-------------------------(1) Restoring force ( )
145
By Newton’s 2nd law ( )
But from equation 1 √

( )
Note:
From [1]

-------------------------------- [3]

Equation 3 is in the form and

√
therefore performs S.H.M

√ ----------------------------------- [4] √

But

9.2.2: Determination of acceleration due to gravity using a vertically loaded spring

 Clamp a spring with pointer vertically besides a meter rule, note and record the initial pointer
reading;
 Suspend a known mass on the spring and note and record the new reading P of the pointer on
the meter rule
 The extension e of the spring is obtained from e P0
 Give the mas a small vertical displacement and obtain the time t for 20 oscillations. Find the
period T and
 Repeat the procedure for different values of the masses.
 Plot a graph of T2 against e and find the slope, s of the graph

Hence acceleration due to gravity is determined from

Examples
1. A 100g mass is suspended vertically from a light helical spring and the extension in equilibrium
is found to be 10cm. The mass is now pulled down a further 0.5cm and it is released from rest.
i) Show that the subsequent motion is simple harmonic

146
 ii) Find the period of oscillation
iii) What is the maximum kinetic energy of the mass
Solution
But also

Therefore

√
From √

= ( )
√ √

2. A mass hangs from a light spring. The mss is pulled down 30mm from its equilibrium position
and then released from rest. The frequency of oscillation is 0.5Hz. calculate
a) The angular frequency, of the osculation
b) The magnitude of the acceleration at the instant it is released from rest
Solution
Distance pulled down ward and released
becomes the amplitude
b) When it is released from rest the
displacement is equals to amplitude and
a) Angular frequency the acceleration is maximum.

( )

Exercise:23
1. When a metal cylinder of mass 0.2kg is attached to the lower end of a light helical spring, the
upper end of which is fixed, the spring extends by 0.16m. the metal cylinder is then pulled
down a further 0.08m.
i) Find the force that must be exerted to keep it there. An [1.0N]
ii) The cylinder is then released. Find the period of vertical oscillation and the kinetic
energy the cylinder posses when it passes through its mean position. An[0.79s, 0.04J]

147
2. A mass of 0.2kg is attached to the lower end of a helical spring and produces extension of
5.0cm. The mass is now pulled down at a further distance and released. Calculate
a) the force constant of the spring
b) The period of the subsequent motion
c) The maximum value of the acceleration during the motion
An[39.24Nm-1, 0.45s, 3.924ms-2]

COMBINED SPRINGS
a) horizontal springs

9.2.3: TWO HORIZONTAL SPRINGS WITH A MASS BETWEEN THEM

Consider two springs with spring constants , and K2 attached to fixed points and mass attached
between them.
S1 S2
O
A B
K1 M K2

Show that when the mass is displaced horizontally towards one side the resultant motion is S.H.M
S1 S2
O
A B
K1 M K2
T1 T2

X F

Extension of Equation 3 in the form and

Compression of therefore it performs S.H.M
Restoring force ( )
( *
But by Hooke’s law

√( ) ------------------------------ (4)
( )
( ) --------------------------- (1) But
By Newton’s 2nd law
-------------------------------------- (2) √( *
( )

( ) ----------------------------- (3)

148
 Note: when the springs are identical
√( )

√( )
√( *

√( *

√( *

Example
1. A mass of 0.1kg is placed on a frictionless horizontal surface and connected to two identical
springs of negligible mass and a spring constant of 33.5Nm-1. The springs are then attacked to
fixed point p and Q on the surface as shown below.
0.3m 0.3m
O
P Q
0.1kg

The mass is given a small displacement along the line of the spring and released
i) Show that the system will execute S.H.M
ii) Calculate the period of oscillation
iii) If the amplitude of oscillation is 0.05m, calculate the maximum kinetic of the system.

Solution

ii) From √( )

√( *

iii) r=0.05m = ( )
0.084J

UNEB 1998 No 3
2. A body of mass 4kg rests on a smooth horizontal surface. Attached to the body are two pieces of
light elastic strings each of length of 1.2m and force constant 6.25Nm-1. The ends are fixed to two

149
 points A and B 3.0m apart as shown in the figure below. The body is then pulled through 0.1m
towards B and then released.
i) Show that the body executes S.H.M
ii) Find the period of oscillation of the body
iii) Calculate the speed of the body when it is 0.03m from the equilibrium position
Solution
A B
1.2m 1.2m

3.0m

ii) From √( )
( * ( )
√( *
( – )
T= 3.55s
iii) ( )
Amplitude

3. The figure below shows a mass of 200g resting on a smooth horizontal table, attached to two
springs A and B of force constants and respectively
A B

The block is pulled through a distance of 8cm to the right and then released.
(i) Show that the mass oscillates with simple harmonic motion and find the frequency of
oscillation if and
(ii) Find the new amplitude of oscillation when a mass of 120g is dropped vertically onto the
block as the block passes the equilibrium position. Assume that the mass sticks to the block

Solution
i) From √( ) ( )
and
√( *
⁄
( ) √( √(
) ) √

√( ) √( )
ii) By conservation of momentum:
( )

150
 ( )

√
( )

EXERCISE:24
A block of mass 0.1kg resting on a smooth horizontal surface and attached to two springs s1 and s2 of
force constant 60Nm-1 and 100N respectively. The block is pulled a distance of 4x10-2m to the right
and the released.
i) Show that the mass executes S.H.M and fixed the frequency of oscillation
ii) Find the new amplitude of oscillation when the block is added a mass of 0.06kg on top as the
block passes the equilibrium position. An (6.4 Hz, 0.032m)

b) Vertical springs
9.2.4: Vertically loaded springs in parallel
Consider two springs of force constants k1 and k2 suspended from the same rigid support side by side.
When a mass is attached to the mid point of a rod connected to the lower ends of the springs.
The system rests in equilibrium
When the mass is displaced a small distance vertically downwards and then released the system
execute S.H.M

i ii iii

T1 T2 T11 T12

e e
O

A
mg

mg

At equilibrium : ( ) e------------------------[1]

But by Hooked law and When the mass is displaced then:

151
 Restoring force ( )
√( ) ------------------------ (4)
But by Hooke’s law

( ) and ( ) T=

Restoring force [ ( ) ( )]
Period T= √( )
By Newton’s second law Restoring force

[ ( ) ( )] -- (2) √( *

But from equation 1 ( )

Note: From equation 1
( ) [ ( ) ( )]
( )

( )
( )

( ) ------------------------ (3) √

Equation 3 is in the form and

T= √( )
therefore performs S.H.M
√
( *

Examples

1. A mass of 0.5kg is suspended from the free ends of two springs of force constant 100Nm-1 and

50Nm-1 respectively as shown in the figure below.

i) The extension produced

50Nm-1
100Nm-1 ii) Tension in each string

iii) Energy stored in the string

0.5kg iv) Frequency of small oscillations when he

mass is given a small vertical displacement

Calculate ;

Solution

152
i) At equilibrium ( )e ii) Tension in each string

From Hooke’s law

Also

iii) Energy stored is always stored as elastic potential energy of the spring

0.0535+ 0.026
( ) 0.0535J

( ) 0.0267J

iv) Frequency Alternatively

√
√( *

( )√
( ) √( *

2. A light platform is supported by tow identical springs each having spring constants 20Nm-1 as

shown below.

Plat
form spring

a) Calculate the weight which must be placed on the centre of the platform in order to produce a
displacement of 3.0cm.
b) The weight remains on the platform and the platform is depressed a further 1.0cm and then
released
153
 i) What is the frequency of the oscillation
ii) What is the maximum acceleration of the platform
Solution
a) Compression ( )
At equilibrium

( )e

b) Amplitude r=1.0cm=0.01m

√
( )

( )√ ( *

9.2.5: Vertically loaded spring in series

Consider two springs of constants k1 and k2 suspended in series, mass m is then attached to the lower
end of the last spring such that at equilibrium each spring extends by e1 and e2 respectively.
i ii iii

T
L
T1

e e
O

mg X
B

mg
The springs are assumed to be light such After a small displacement, the restoring force
that they have the same tension
Let e be extension in the combination ( )
At equilibrium -------------------- [2]
----------------------------------- (1) but from equation[ 1]
Where k is the combined spring constant

for series connection

154
 ( ) ---------------------------------[3]

it is in the form ⁄
√ ------------------------- [4]

But
( )
√

⁄ ⁄
√

Note
The tension is the same in both springs

and k=
and
Also
but
√

T= √( )
( *
√
( *

( *

Example
UNEB 2004 No 3b

A mass of 1.0kg is hung from two springs S1 and S2 connected in series as shown
The force constant of the springs are 100Nm-1 and 200 Nm-1 respectively. Find
i) The extension produced in the combination
ii) The frequency of oscillation of the mass if it is pulled downwards and released

S1

S2

1kg

155
 Solution
m=1kg , k1=100Nm-1, k2=200 Nm-1 ii)
At equilibrium
⁄
but k √

⁄
( )⁄
√
⁄( )
f=1.299Hz

NB: For all S.H.M, the following assumptions hold

1- displacement from equilibrium position is small such that Hooke’s law is obeyed throughout
the motion
2- no dissipative forces act

9.2.6: S.H.M OF A FLOATING CYLINDER

Consider a uniform cylindrical rod of length L and cross sectional area A and density, ρ floating
vertically in a liquid of density, . When the rod is given a small downward displacement x and
released, the rod executes S.H.M.
weight of the liquid is displaced
mass of liquid displaced x g
y y
equilibrium volume of liquid displaced x density x g
u x
( ) g ----------------------------- [2]
U1
mg
On release, the restoring force on the rod is
mg
At equilibrium, up thrust of the liquid on the
( )
rod is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid
U weight of the liquid is displaced
U mass of liquid displaced x g ( *

U = volume of liquid displaced x density x g m is mass of cylinder volume of cylinder

---------------------------------------- [1] density of cylinder
When the rod is given a downward displaced x,
the new up thrust is U1
156
 ( *
T= √( )
( ) -------------------------- [3]

it is the form √

√ ---------------------------- [4]

Examples : UNEB 2000 No2b

1. A Uniform cylindrical rod of length 8cm, cross sectional area 0.02m2 and density 900kgm-3 floats
vertically in a liquid of density 1000kgm-3. The rod is depressed through a distance of 0.005m and
then released.
i) Show that the rod performs S.H.M (5mk)
ii) Find the frequency of the resultant oscillation (4mk)
iii) Find the velocity of the rod when it is at a distance of 0.004m above the equilibrium position
Solution
iii) ( )
ii) √
r=0.005m ,
( ) ( )
( )√
( * ( )

2. A wooden rod of uniform cross sectional area A floats with a height h immersed in a liquid of
density The rod is given a slight downward displacement and released. Show that the resulting

motion is S.H.M with a time period of 2 √

Solution
mass of liquid displaced x g
h
h
U = volume of liquid displaced x density x g
equilibrium

u x ------------------------------------ [1]
U1
mg When the rod is given a downward displaced x,
mg the new up thrust is U1
At equilibrium, upthrust of the liquid on the rod is
weight of the liquid is displaced
equal to the weight of the displaced fluid
mass of liquid displaced x g
U weight of the liquid is displaced
157
 volume of liquid displaced x density x
( *
g
( ) g ----------------------------- [2] ( ) -------------------------- [3]

On release, the restoring force on the rod is it is the form

( )
√ ---------------------------- [4]

( *

m is mass of cylinder volume of cylinder

T= √( )
density of cylinder

Example
A cylindrical test tube of thin wall and mass 1kg with a piece of lead of mass 1kg fixed at its inside
bottom floats vertically in the liquid.
When the test tube is slightly depressed and released it oscillates vertically with a period of one
second ( )
If some extra copper beads are put in the test tube, it floats vertically with a period of 1.5 seconds. Find
the mass of the copper beads in the test tube.
Solution
Also when a mass m is added
T= √( )
( ) =A
1= √( ) ( )=A -------------------- (2)
Equation 2 divided by equation 1
0.2485m ( )

( )
Also 1.5= √( )

0.5591m

at equilibrium U =weight of liquid displaced

A
A ----------------------------- (1)

158
 9.2.7: A LIQUID OSCILLATING IN A U-TUBE
Consider a column of liquid of density and total length l in a U-tube of uniform cross sectional area A.
Suppose the level of the liquid on the right side is depressed by blowing gently down that side, the
levels of liquid will oscillate for a short time about their respective or equilibrium positions O.
Blowing

x x
O
x

When the meniscus is at a distance, , from equilibrium position, a differential height of liquid of is
produced
Excess pressure on liquid from [ ]
Force on liquid =pressure x Area
Restoring force ----------------------------------[1]
Newton’s 2nd law :

( ) ---------------------------------------------------[2]

But mass of liquid in the tube =volume of liquid x

( *

( ) ------------------------------------------ [3]

it is in the form

9.2.8:S.H.M IN A FRICTIONLESS AIR TIGHT PISTON

159
A volume v of air and pressure p is contained in a cylindrical vessel of cross section area A by
frictionless air tight piston of mass m.
Show that on slight forcing down the piston and then releasing it, the piston will exert S.H.M given by

Solution
( )( )
Area A

F1 mg Air For small displacement

At Equilibrium

------------------------------- [1]

X put into equation 2

F2 mg ( *
(P +dp) (V-Ax)

When the piston is given a slight downward

( )
displaced x, the volume decrease to
[ ] it is in the form

where
( )
On releasing, the restoring force √
( )
But by Bewton’s 2nd law √
[( ) ]
But
[ ]
from Equation 1 T= √( )
[ ]
--------------------------- [2]
If the displacement x is small, the compression √
will be almost isothermal obeying Boyle’s law.
[ ]

Example

160
A piston in a car engine performs S.H.M. The piston has a mass of 0.50kg and its amplitude of
vibration is 45mm. the revolution counter in the car reads 750 revolutions per minute.
Calculate the maximum force on the piston.
Solution ( )
,
( *

277.583ms-2

But
2

9.3.0: ENERGY CHANGES IN S.H.M

- In S.H.M there’s always an energy exchange. At maximum displacement , all the energy is elastic
potential energy while at equilibrium point all the energy is kinetic energy

a) Kinetic energy
It’s the energy possessed by a body due to its motion
K.E = ½ mv2
K.E = ½ m ( )

i) The K.E is zero when the displacement x is equals to the amplitude

ii) K.E is maximum when the displacement x is zero
K. ½ m

9.3.1: A graph of K.E against displacement

K.E
K.Emax

-r r X(m)

b) Elastic potential energy

This is the energy possessed by a body due to the nature of its particle i.e. compressed or stretched.
161
Force is applied to make particles stretch or compress and therefore the force does work, which
work is stored in the body.

But Or

Total work done ∫ ∫ But F= m x

* +
∫ ∫

Elastic potential energy

Elastic potential energy =
:
i) Elastic potential energy is maximum when x is a maximum
ii) Elastic potential energy is zero when x=0 (equilibrium)

9.3.2: Graph of P.E against displacement

P.E

-r r X(m)

iii) Mechanical energy

This is the total energy possessed by a body due its motion and nature of its particles

½m ( )
M.E =

Note
Mechanical energy is constant

9.3.3: A graph of M.E against displacement

M.E
P.E

K.E

-r O r X(m)

162
9.4.0: MECHANICAL OSCILLATION
There are three types of oscillation i.e.
a) Free oscillation b) Damped oscillation c) Forced oscillation

a) Free oscillations
These are oscillations in which the amplitude remains constant and oscillating systems does not do
work against dissipative force such as air friction, and viscous drag. Eg a pendulum bob in a vacuum

Displacement- time graph

displacement

r r

time
r r

b) Damped oscillations
These are oscillations in which energy is lost and amplitude keeps on decreasing until it dies away
due to dissipative forces.

Types of damped oscillations

i) Under damped/slightly damped/lightly damped oscillations
Is when energy is lost and amplitude gradually decreases until oscillation dies away.

displacement

time

Examples
 Mass oscillating at the end of the spring oscillating in air
 Simple pendulum oscillating in air

163
 ii)Over damped/highly damped/heavily damped
Is when a system does not oscillate when displaced but takes a very long time to return to
equilibrium position.
Example
Displacement  A horizontal spring with a mass on a
rough surface

time

iii) Critically damped oscillations

Is when a system does not oscillate when displaced and returns to equilibrium position in a short time.
Example
Displacement  Shock absorber in a car

time

C) FORCED OSCILLATIONS
These are vibrations caused by an external force and the system oscillates at the same frequency as the
vibrating force.
Example
 Oscillation of a guitar string
 Oscillation of a building during an earthquake
 Oscillation of air column in a musical pipe

UNEB 2013 No4

(b) Explain Brownian motion (03marks)
(c) Explain the energy changes which occur when a pendulum is set into motion (03marks)
An[p.e to k.e to p.e]
(d) A simple pendulum of length 1 m has a bob of mass 100g. It is displaced from its mean
Position A to a position B so that the string makes an angle of 45 with the vertical. Calculate
the ;
(i) Maximum potential energy of the bob (03marks)
(ii) Velocity of the bob when the string makes angle of 30 with the vertical. [Neglect air resistance]
(04marks)
Solution

164
i)
( )
( ) ( )

√ ( )
ii) By law of conservation of energy
√ ( )

UNEB 2012 No 2
a) Define the following terms as applied to oscillating motion
i) Amplitude [1mk]
ii) Period [1mk]
b) State four characteristics of simple harmonic motion [2mk]
c) A mass m, is suspended from a rigid support by a string of length, l. the mass is pulled a side so
that the string makes an angle, θ with the vertical and then released.

i) Show that the mass executes simple harmonic motion with a period, √ [05mk]

ii) Explain why this mass comes to a stop [02mk]

d) A piston in a car engine performs simple harmonic motion of frequency 12.5Hz. If the mass of
the piston is 0.50kg and its amplitude of vibration is 45mm, find the maximum force on the
piston. An[139N] [03mk]
e) Describe an experiment to determine the acceleration due to gravity, g using a spiral spring of
known force constant [06mk]

UNEB 2011 No 2
a) i) what is meant by simple harmonic motion [1mk]
ii) State two practical examples of simple harmonic motion [1mk]
iii) Using graphical illustration distinguish between under damped and critically damped
oscillation [4mk]
b) i)describe an experiment to measure acceleration due to gravity using a spiral spring [6mk]
ii) State two limitations to the accuracy of the value it b (i) [02mk]

UNEB 2010 No 2
b) i) What is meant by a simple harmonic motion [1mk]
ii) Distinguish between damped and forced oscillations [2mk]
165
c) a cylinder of length , cross sectional area A and density, floats in a liquid of density, , the
cylinder is pushed down slightly and released.
i) Show that a performs simple harmonic oscillation [5mk]
ii) Derive the expression for the period of oscillation [2mk]

An( T= √( ) )

d) A spring of force constant 40Nm-1 is suspended vertically. A man of 0.1kg suspended from the
spring is pulled down a distance of 5mm and released. Find the,
i) Period of oscillation An[0.314s] [2mk]
ii) Maximum oscillation of the mass An[2ms-2] [2mk]
iii) Net force acting on the mass when it is 2mm below the centre of oscillation. An[0.08N] [2mk]

UNEB 2009 No 3
(a) What is meant by simple harmonic motion (01marks)
(b) A cylindrical vessel of cross-sectional area A, contains air of volume V, at a pressure P, trapped
by frictionless air tight piston of mass M,. The piston is pushed down and released.

(i) If the piston oscillates with s.h.m, show that the frequency is given by √

(06marks)
(ii) Show that the expression for, f in b(i) is dimensionally correct (02marks)
(c) Particle executing s.h.m vibrates in a straight line, given that the speeds of the particle are
4m and 2m when the particle is 3cm and 6cm respectively from equilibrium. calculate
the;
(i) amplitude of oscillation An(6.7x m) (03marks)
(ii) frequency of the particle An(10.68Hz) (03marks)
(d) Give two examples of oscillatory motions which execute s.h.m and state the assumptions made
in each case

UNEB 2008 No3

a) (i) Define simple harmonic motion [01marks]
(ii) A particle of mass m executes simple harmonic between two point A and B about equilibrium
position O. Sketch a graph of the restoring force acting on the particle as a function of distance
r and moved by the particle [02marks]
b)

166
 A B

Two springs A and B of spring constants KA and KB respectively are connected to a mass m as shown.
The surface on which the mass slides is frictionless.
(i) Show that when the mass is displaced slightly, it oscillates with simple harmonic motion of
frequency given by

√( ) [04marks]

(ii) If the two springs above are identical such that 5Nm-1 and mass m=50g, calculate the
period of oscillation An[0.44s] [03marks]

UNEB 2007 No 1
a) Define simple harmonic motion [01marks]
b) Sketch a graph of
i) velocity against displacement [03marks]
ii) acceleration against displacement for a body executing S.H.M
c) A glass U-tube containing a liquid is tilted slightly and then released
i) Show that the liquid oscillates with S.H.M [04marks]
ii) Explain why the oscillations ultimately come to rest [03marks]

UNEB 2007 No 4
b) i)What is meant by acceleration due to gravity [01mark]
ii)Describe how you would use a spiral string, a retort stand with a clamp, a pointer, seven 50g
masses, meter rule and a stop clock to determine the acceleration due to gravity [6mk]
iii) State any two sources of errors in the experiment in bii) above. [01mark]
iv)A body of mass 1kg moving with simple harmonic motion has speed of 5ms-1 and 3ms-1 when it
is at a distance of 0.1m and 0.2m respectively from the equilibrium point. Find the amplitude of
motion [04marsk]

167
 CHAPTER 10: ELASTICITY
If a force is applied to a material in such a way as to deform it (change its shape or size), then the
material is said to be stressed and there will be change in relative positions of the molecules within the
body and the material become strained. Stress which results in increase in length is called tensile
stress and one which results in decrease in length is called compressive stress.
Terms used
1. Elasticity: This is the ability of the material to regain its original shape and size when the
deforming load has been removed.
2. Elastic material: This is a material which regains its original shape and size when the
deforming load has been removed. E.g. Rubber band, spring.
3. Elastic deformation: This is when a material can recover its original length and shape when
the deforming load has been removed.
4. Elastic limit: This is the maximum load which a material can experience and still regain its
original size and shape once the load has been removed.
The elastic limit sometimes coincides with the limit of proportionality.
5. Proportional limit: This is the maximum load a material can experience for which the
extension created on it is directly proportional to the load applied.
6. Hooke’s law: it staes that; the extension of a wire or spring is proportional to the applied load
provided the proportional limit is not exceeded.
The law shows that when the molecules of a material are slightly displaced from their mean
positions, the restoring force is proportional to its displacement.
I.e. Fα e Where k is the constant of proportionality.
7. Yield point: this is a point at which there is a marked increase in extension when the stress or
load is increased beyond the elastic limit.
The internal structure of the material has changed and the crystal planes have effectively slid
across each other. At yield poirt the material begin to show plastic behavior.
Few materials exhibit yield point such as mild steel, brass and bronze.
8. Plastic deformation: this is when a material cannot recover its original shape and size when
the deforming load has been removed.
9. Breaking stress/ultimate tensile strength: it is the maximum stress which can be applied to
a material. Or it is the corresponding force per unit area of the narrowest cross section of the
wire.
10. Strength: this is the ability of a material to with stand an applied force before breaking.
Or it is the maximum force which can be applied to a material without it breaking.
168
 11. Stiffness: this is the ability of a material to resist changing its shape and size.
12. Ductility: it is the ability of the material to be permanently stretched. or it is the ability of the
material to be stretched appreciably beyond elastic limit. It can be drawn into different shapes
without breaking.
13. Brittleness: it is the ability of the material to break immediately it is stretched beyond to
elastic limit.
14. Toughness: this is the ability of material to resist crack growth e.g. rubber
15. Tensile stress: it is force acting per unit area of cross-section of a material.
Stress =

16. Tensile strain: it is the extension per unit original length of the material.
Strain =

Strain has no units because it is a ratio of two similar units

10.1.0: Experiment to study elastic properties of steel

B  Known weight, W is added to the free end of
P Q test wire Q and the corresponding extension e
is read form the vernier scale.
Spirit level
 The procedure is repeated for different

Micrometer scew weights. however, vernier readings are also

gauge
taken when the loads are removed. It ensures
W m that the elastic limit is not exceeded.
 Two long, thin identical steel wires are  Results are tabulated including values of
suspended besides each other from rigid tensile stress ( ) and tensile strain ( )
support B  The graph of tensile stress versus tensile strain
 The wire P is kept taut and free of kinks by is plotted as below.
weight A attached to its end
 The original length of test wire Q is Tensile stress
(Nm-2)
measured and recorded.
 The mean diameter d is determined and

cross-sectional area is found. O Tensile strain

169
 10.1.1: Stress-strain graphs
1. Ductile material e.g. copper, steel, iron
A ductile material is one which can be permanently stretched
A-Prportional limit
D
stress B
E B-Elastic limit
(Nm-2) A C
C-Yield ponit
D-Breaking stress
E-Breaking point
O S strain

Region OA: stress strain, all extensions are recovered when the load is removed. It is Hooke’s law
region and Young’s Modulus can be defined only in this region.
Region AB: Hooke’s law is not obeyed but extension is recovered when load is removed.
Region BC; Not all extensions are recovered when the load is removed
Region BC: Changes from elastic to plastic deformation
Point E: without any further increase in stress, the wire begins to under go physical changes, it thins
out at some point and finally breaks

2. Brittle materials e.g. glass, chalk, rocks and cast iron

These are materials that can not be permanently stretched. It breaks as soon as the elastic limit has
been reached
Brittle materials have only a small elastic region
and do not under go plastic deformation. This
stress
behavior in glass is due to the existence of cracks
in its surface. The high concentration of the
strain stress at the crack makes the glass break.
3. Rubber
Rubber stretches very easily without breaking
and has a greater range of elasticity. Rubber is
much less stiff than metals and therefore its
stress value of young’s modulus is very much smaller
than that of most metals. It does not undergo
plastic deformation. Un stretched rubber has
coiled molecules and when stretched they
strain unwind and become straight and much harder
170
 10.1.2: Stress-strain graph for glass, copper and rubber

copper
stress

glass
rubber

strain

10.1.3: Energy changes/physical process

1. Elastic deformation
Particles are slightly displaced from their equilibrium positions and work done by the force to displace
the particles is stored as elastic potential energy. When the stretching force is removed, the potential
energy of the particles changes to kinetic energy and moves them back to their equilibrium position.
2. Plastic deformation
It occurs when the material is stretched beyond the yield point. The crystal planes slide over each
other and movement of dislocations takes place. When the stress is removed, original shape and size
are not recovered due to energy loss in form of heat.
3. Work hardening
It is the process of increasing the resistance of a material to plastic deformation by plastically
deforming it repeatedly.
During repeated plastic deformation, the metal dislocations move through the material and they
entangle round each other and become immobile, it creates the resistance of the material to plastic
deformation.
This explains why it is easier to break a copper wire by flexing it to and fro.

4. Annealing
It is a process by which a material restores its ductility.
Procedure
The metal is heated to high temperature above its melting point and maintained in this temperature
for a period of time and relaxes the internal strains and hence the metal is re-crystallised and returns
to the ductile state.

10.2.0: Young’s modulus

It is also called the modulus of elasticity of a wire.
Young’s modulus is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain of a material
171
Young modulus
⁄

A is area, L is original length, e is extension

Dimensions of young’s modulus

[ ][ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]

( )( )
[E]=

[E]=

10.2.1: Determination of young’s modulus (Searle’s apparatus)

B

P Q

Spirit level

Micrometer scew
gauge

W m
 Two long, thin identical steel wires are suspended besides each other from rigid support B
 The wire P is kept taut and free of kinks by weight A attached to its end
 The original length of test wire Q is measured and recorded.

 The mean diameter d is determined and cross-sectional area is found.

 Known weight, W is added to the free end of test wire Q and the corresponding extension e is
read form the vernier scale.
 The procedure is repeated for different weights. however, vernier readings are also taken
when the loads are removed. It ensures that the elastic limit is not exceeded.
 A graph of weight W against extension e is plotted and its slope (s) obtained.
 Young’s modulus is obtained from

Note
 Two identical wires are used to avoid errors due expansion as a result of temperature changes
since they are affected equally.

172
  Wires are long as it is convenient, because a moderate load would produce a large tensile
stress.
 Wires are thin so that a measurable extension is produced even with a small load. Otherwise if
the wires were thick it requires a large load which would cause the support to yield.
 Micrometer/vernier readings are also taken when the load is removed to ensure that the elastic
limit is not exceeded.

10.2.2: Energy stored in a stretched material [strain energy]

Consider a material of an elastic constant k, stretched by a force, to extend by .
By Hooke’s law, the extension is directly proportional to the applied force provided the elastic limit is
not exceeded.
Work done =
Stretching force
F But
Work done =

The work done to stretch the material is stored

as elastic potential in the material
0
e extension Energy stored =
Work done = area under the graph
Or Energy stored =

By calculus [integration]
If F is the force which gives an extension from O to e and (from Hooke’s law)
Work done =∫ =* +
=∫
Work done

10.2.3: Energy stored per unit volume

Energy stored in the wire =

If a wire is of cross sectional area A and natural length L, the volume = AL

Energy per unit volume = ⁄

( )

Numerical examples

173
1. A metal bar has a circular cross section of diameter 20mm. If the maximum permissible tensile
stress is 8 107Nm-2, calculate the maximum force which the bar can withstand.
Solution
d = 20mm = 20x10-3m = Force = 2.513x104N
stress= * ( ) +
Force = stress x area =

2. Find the maximum load which may be placed on steel of diameter 1mm if the permitted strain must
not exceed and young’s modulus for steel is Nm-2
Solution
Young modulus But stress = * ( ) +
Stress = E x strain Force = stress x area
= = Force = 1.571 102N
Stress = Nm-2

3. An elastic string of cross-sectional area 4mm2 requires a force of 2.8N to increase its length by one
tenth. Find young’s modulus for the string if the original length of the string was 1m, find the energy
stored in the string when it is extended.
Solution
A= 4mm2= m2, Energy stored = ½ Fe

F = 2.8N,

L=1m, e e= 0.1 = 0.14J

E =7x106Nm-2

4. A rubber cord of a catapult has a cross-sectional area of 1.2m and original length 0.72m, and is
stretched to 0.84m to fire a small stone of mass 15g at a bird. Calculate the initial velocity of the
stone when it just leaves the catapult. Assume that Young’s modulus for rubber is
Solution

Stretching force,
Kinetic energy of stone

Energy stored in rubber

5. A mass of 11kg is suspended from the ceiling by an aluminum wire of length 2m and diameter
2mm, what is;

174
 a) The extension produced
b) The elastic energy stored in the wire (young’s modulus of aluminum is 7x1010Pa)
Solution

11kg

11gN But
, * ( ) + Energy stored ½ Te

Energy stored 5.29 J

6. A cylindrical copper wire and a cylindrical steel wire, each of length 1m and having equal diameter
are joined at one end to form a composite wire 2m long. This composite wire is subjected to a
tensile stress until its length becomes 2.002m. calculate the tensile stress applied to the wire
(young modulus of copper = Pa and Steel = Pa)
Solution
[Recall from S.H.M wire in series experience the same tension and weight]

--------------[1]
1m T Note the two wires will ( )
experiences same stress
( )
T
1m

But E
F Stress
Total extension,

7. One end of a copper wire is welded to a steel wire of length 1.5m and diameter 1mm while the
other end is fixed. The length of the copper wire is 0.8m while its diameter is 0.5mm. a bob 10kg is
suspended from the free end of a steel wire. Find
i) Extension which results
ii) Energy stored in the compound wire
(Young’s modulus for copper= Nm-2 and steel = Nm-2)
Solution

175
 Recall from S.H.M for series
wires
T=mg
copper T
But ( )

T =9.9924x10-4 m
steel

10kg =9.9924x10-4 3.997x10-3

10gN
( ) iii) Energy stored in composite
Fe
=3.997x10-3m
( )

= 5.10x10-2J

7.

steel Brass

A B
A light rigid bar is suspended horizontally from two vertical wires, one of steel and one of brass as
shown in the diagram. Each wire is 2.00m long. The diameter of the steel wire is 0.6mm and the length
of the bar AB is 0.2m. when a mass of 10kg is suspended from the centre of AB the bar remains
horizontal.
(i) What is the tension in each wire
(ii) Calculate the extension of the steel wire and the energy stored in it
(iii) Calculate the diameter of the brass wire
(iv) If the brass wires are replaced by another brass wire of diameter 1mm, where
should the mass be suspended so that AB would remain horizontal.[young’s
modulus for steel = 2x1011Pa and brass= 1x1011Pa].
Solution

176
 =
steel Brass
T T Energy stored in steel is
iii) For the bar AB to remain horizontal e1 = e2
A 0.1 0.1 B and
For brass :
10kg

m2
10gN
Assume that AB always remains horizontal
L1 = 2m, d1 =0.6x10-3m, E1 = 2x1011pa, e1 = ?,
L2 = 2m, d2 = ?, E2 = 1x1011pa, e2 = ? d
Taking moments about O:
(v) Brass: d=1mm
()
Also: ( ) ( )

= m2
Tension on each wire is
and
ii) for steel
Taking moments about O
( )

( ) y(2x1011x2.825x10-7) =(0.2-y)(1x1011x7.85x10-7)

e1 =
Energy stored in steel Mass should be placed 0.116m from the steel wire

8. The ends of a uniform wire of cross-sectional area 10-6m2 and negligible mass are attached to fixed
points A and B which are 1m apart in the same horizontal plane. The wire is initially straight and
outstretched. A mass of 0.5kg is attached to the mid point of the wire and hangs in equilibrium with
the mid point at a distance 10mm below AB. Calculate the value of young’s modulus for the wire
Solution
A= m2, AB = 1m, e = 1m, m = 0.5kg,
Mc = 10x10-3m

177
 A 0.5 M 0.5 B Extension = 1.0002 –

1X10-2
T T But
θ θ
C = 88.90
0.5kg
Resolving vertically

0.5gN
Using Pythagoras theorem
( )

But F = T (deforming force)

E= - -
Length ACB
E=

9. The ends of a uniform wire of length 2m are fixed to two points which are 2m apart in the same
horizontal line. When a 5kg mass is attached to the mid point of the wire, the equilibrium position is
7.5cm below the line AB. Given that the young’s modulus of the material of the wire is 2x1011pa.
find the;
i. Strain in the wire
ii. Stress in the wire
iii. Energy stored in the wire.
Solution
M = 5kg, AB = 2m, L = 2m, MC = 7.5x10-2m, Strain
E = 2x1011Pa
A 1m M 1m B Strain 3x10-3
Stress strain= 2x1011 x 3 x 10-3
7.5X10-2
T T Stress = 6 108Nm-2
θ θ
C Energy stored = ……………..(i)
5kg
But resolving vertically
5gN 2Tcosθ = 5g …………………….(ii)
CB2 = MB2 + MC2
Also =
CB2 = 12 +(7.5x10-2)2
= 85.70
CB = 1,003m
CB = AC = 1.003m
T = 327.92N
Stretched length ACB = 2 1.003
Energy stored = ½ x327.92 x 0.006
= 2.006
= 9.84 x 10-1J
Extension = 2.006 – 2 0.006m
178
Exercise: 25 [use g = 10ms-2]
1. A metal specimen has length of 0.5m. If the maximum permissible strain is not to exceed 10-3,
calculate its maximum extension An ( 5x10-4m)

2. A metal bar of length 50mm and square cross-sectional side 20mm is extended by 0.015mm
under a tensile load of 30kg, calculate
a. Stress
b. Strain in specimen
c. Value of young’s modulus for that metal. An[7.25x10-3Nm-2, 3x10-4, 24.5Nm-2]
3.
A B
0.6N 6Nm-1 3Nm-1

A spring A of force constant 6Nm-1 is connected in series with a spring B of force constant 3Nm-1 as
shown below. One end of the combination is securely anchored and a force of 0.6N is applied to
the other end
a. By how much does each spring extend
b. What is the force constant of the combination An[0.1 (A), 0.2m(B), 2Nm-1]

4. A copper wire and steel wire each of length 1.5 m and diameter 2mm are joined end to end to
form a composite wire. The composite wire is loaded until its length becomes 3.003m. if
young’s modulus of steel is , and that of copper is
(i) Find the strain in the copper and steel wires
(ii) Calculate the force applied
An[copper =0.0013, steel = , force= ]

5. A thin steel wire initially 1.5m long and of diameter 0.50mm is suspended from a rigid support,
calculate
i. The final extension
ii. Energy stored in a wire when a mass of 3kg is attached to the lower end. (young’s
modulus for steel = 2x1011Nm-2) An [1.1mm, 1.7x10-2J]

6. Two wires of steel and phosphor bronze each of diameter 0.40cm and length 3.0m are joined
end to end to form a composite wire of length 6.0m. calculate the tension in the wire needed to

179
 produce a total extension of 0.128cm in the composite wire. (Given that E of steel
and E of bronze= ) An[100.5N]

7. A copper wire LM is fused at one end M to an iron wire MN. The copper wire has length 0.9m
and cross section 0.9x10-6m2. The iron wire has length 1.4m and cross-section
1.3x10-6m2. The compound wire is stretched and its total length increases by 0.01m
M N
L

copper iron
Calculate;
a) The ratio of the extension of the two wires
b) The extension of each wire
c) The tension applied to the compound wire (young’s modulus for
copper = 1.3x1011Nm-2and 2.1x1011 pa) (Young’s modulus for steel = 2x1011Nm-2)
An (Cu:Fe 3:2, 0.6mm, 4.0mm,780N)

8. a) Define stress, strain and the young’s modulus

b) i) describe an experiment to determine the young’s modulus for a material in the form of a
wire
ii) Which measurement require particular care, from the point of view of accuracy and why
c) i) derive an expression for the potential energy stored in a stretched wire
ii) A steel wire of diameter 1mm and length 1.m is stretched by a force of 50N, calculate the
potential energy stored in the wire. ((young’s modulus for steel = 2x1011Nm-2)
An 1.2x10-2J
iii) The wire is further stretched to breaking where does the stored energy go

9. a) A heavy rigid bar is supported horizontally from a fixed support by two vertical wires A
and B of the same initial length and which experience the same extension. If the ratio of
the diameter of A and to that of B is 2 and the ratio of the young’s modulus of A to that of
B is 2, calculate the ratio of the tension in A to that in B. An (8:1)
b) if the distance between the wires is D, calculate the distance of wire A from the centre of

gravity of the bar. (An )

10. a) A rubber cord has a diameter of 5.0mm and on un stretched length of 1.0m. One end of the cord
is attached to a fixed support A. When a mass of 1.0kg is attached to the other end of the cord so as
180
 to hang vertically below A, the cord is observed to elongate by 100mm, calculate the young’s
modulus of rubber.
b) If the 1kg mass is now pulled down a further short distance and then released, what is
the period of the resulting oscillations? An [5.1x106Nm-2, 0.63s]

11. A uniform steel wire of density 7800kgm-3 weighs 26g and 250cm long, it lengthens by 1.2mm,
when stretched by a force of 80N, calculate;
a) The value of young’s modulus for steel
b) The energy stored in the wire
(Hint volume Al ) Ans (2.03x1011Nm-2, 0.048J)

10.2.4: FORCE ON A BAR DUE TO THERMAL EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION

When a bar is heated and then prevented from contracting as it cools, a force is exerted at the ends of a
bar.
Consider a metal of young’s modulus E, cross sectional Area A at a temperature θ20c fixed between two
rigid supports.

L2
When the bar is cooled to a temperature , the bar can not contract hence there will be forces on
the rigid support.
If α is the mean co-efficient of linear αθ=
expansion then ( )
But strain
Lθ is length of the bar at temperature θ0c
Lo is length of the bar at temperature 00c where θ =

( ) ………………….i From E = stress/strain

( ) …………………..ii Stress = E x strain

Subtracting
( ) F = AE α θ

Coefficient of linear expansion is defined as the fractional increase in length at0 for every
degree rise in temperature.

Examples UNEB 2012 No1c (ii)

1. Two identical steel bars A and B of radius 2.0mm are suspended from the ceiling. A mass of
2.0kg is attached to the free end of bar A, calculate the temperature to which B should be
raised so that the bars are again of equal length. (young’s modulus of steel = 1.0x1011Nm-2 and
linear expansitivity of steel )
181
 Solution
For steel bar A, , m = 2kg, Strain = ( )
,
Strain = 1.56x10-5
But E = Strain = but strain = α θ
Stress θ= θ = 1.3K

Strain = B should be raised by a temperature of 1.3K

2. A uniform metal bar of length 1m and diameter 2cm is fixed between two rigid supports at 250C. if
the temperature of the bar is raised to 750C, find
(i) The force exerted on the support.
(ii) Energy stored in the bar at 750C. (young’s modulus of metal = 2x1011Pa and coefficient of linear
expansion = K-1)
Solution
i) Θ1 = 250C, Θ2 = 750C, E = 2x1011Pa, ii) Energy stored = Fe
L = 1m,
but strain = α
d= 2x10-2m, α= K-1
and also strain =
Force = EA α
α
= ( )
e
( )
= ( ) Energy stored = F

F = 3.14x104N = ( )
= 7.85J
Exercise:26
1. A copper rod of length 0.8m and diameter 40mm is fixed between two rigid supports at a
temperature of 200C. the temperature of the rod is raised to 700C, calculate;
i. The force exerted on the rod at 700C
ii. Energy stored per unit volume at 700C
iii. Force exerted on the support if temperature was lowered to 450C
[E for copper = 1.2x1011Nm-2, α for copper between 200C to 700C is 1.7x10-5K-1]
Ans (1.28x105 N, 43.52J, 4.33x104Jm-3,, 6.4x104N)

2. Two identical cylindrical steel bars each of radius 3.00m and length 7m rest in a vertical position
with their lower end on a rigid horizontal surface. A mass of 4.0kg is placed on the top of one bar.

182
The temperature of the other bar is to be altered so that the two bars are once again of equal
length. Given that the coefficient of linear expansivity of steel is
(i) By how much should the temperature be altered
(ii) Find the energy store in the bar due to the temperature change. An[0.58K, ]

UNEB 2014 No2

(a) (i) What is meant by Young’s modulus (01mark)
(ii) State Hooke’s law (01mark)
(iii) Derive an expression for the energy released in a unit volume of a stretched wire in
terms of stress and strain (04marks)
(b) A steel wire of length 0.6 m and cross- sectional area is attached at B to a copper
wire BC of length 0.39 m and cross-sectional area . The combination is suspended
vertically from a fixed point at A and supports weight of 250 N at C. find the extension in each of
the wires, given that Young’s Modulus for steel is and that of copper is .
An[ ] (05 marks)
(c) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe an experiment to determine the Young’s Modulus of
steel wire (07marks)
(d) Explain the term plastic deformation in metals (02marks)

UNEB 2012 No1

a) State Hooke’s law (I mark)
b) A copper wire is stretched until it breaks
i. Sketch a stress-strain graph for the wire and explain what happens to the energy used
to stretch the wire at each stage. (4 marks)
ii. Derive the expression for the work done by a distance e (3 marks)
c) Define young’s modulus (1 mark)

UNEB 2010
a) i) describe the terms tensile stress and tensile strain as applied to a stretched wire. (2 marks)
b) ii) Distinguish between elastic limit and proportional limit (2 marks)
c) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe an experiment to investigate the relationship
between tensile stress and tensile strain of a steel wire (4 marks)
d) i) A load of 60N is applied to a steel wire of length 2.5m and cross sectional area of 0.22mm2. if
young’s modulus for steel is 210GPa, find the expansion produced. (3 marks)
183
 ii) If the temperature rise of 1k causes a fractional increase of 0.001%, find the change in the
length of a steel wire of length 2.5mm when the temperature increases by 4K. (3 marks)
Solution
F = 60N, L = 2.5m, A = 0.22mm2 = 0.22x10- e = 3.247 x 10-3m
6m2, E = 210Gpa or E = 210x109Pa ii) 1K gives 0.001%
Expansion required is the extension %extension =

0.001% =

e e = 2.5x10-4m
1K = 2.5x10-4m
4K = 2.5x10-4x4
4K = 1x10-3m

UNEB 2006 No 3
a) i) Define stress and strain (2 marks)
ii) Determine the dimensions of young’s modulus (3 marks)
b) Sketch a graph of stress versus strain for a ductile material and explain its features (6 marks)
c) A steel wire of cross-section area 1mm2 is cooled from a temperature of 600c to 150c, find the;
i. Strain (2marks)
ii. Force needed to prevent it from contracting young’s modulus = 2x1011Pa, coefficient of
linear expansion for steel = 1.1x10-5K-1 (3 marks)
d) Explain the energy changes which occur during plastic deformation (4 marks)
Ans (4.95x10-4, 99N)

UNEB 2005 No 2
a) Explain the terms
i. Ductility
ii. Stiffness
b) A copper wire and steel wire each of length 1.0m and diameter 1.0mm are joined and to end to
form a composite wire 2.0m long, find the strain in each wire when the composite stretches by
2x10-3m Young’s modulus for copper and steel are 1.2 x1011 and 2.0x1011Pa respectively
Ans (1.25x10-3, 7.5x10-4) (7 marks)

UNEB 2003 No 3(d)

184
i) define the terms longitudinal stress and young’s modulus of elasticity (2 marks)
ii) describe how to determine young’s modulus for a steel wire. (07 marks)

UNEB 2001 No2

a) Define the following terms
i. Stress ( 1 mark)
ii. Strain ( 1 mark)
c) State the necessary measurements in the determination of young’s modulus of a metal wire
(2 marks)
d) Explain why the following precautions are taken during an experiment to determine young’s
modulus of a metal wire.
i. Two long, thin wires of the same material are suspended from a common support
(2 marks)
ii. The readings of the Vanier are also taken when the loads are gradually removed
in steps (1 mark)

185
 CHAPTER 11: FLUID MECHANICS
Both liquids and gases are fluids because they ‘flow’ i.e. since their molecules are spaced and cause a
change in shape without change in volume.
Fluid mechanics involves fluids at rest (hydro statistics) and fluids in motion (hydro dynamics/fluid
flow)
11.1.0: Fluid flow
11.1.1: Viscosity
Definition
Viscosity is the frictional force between adjacent layers of a fluid moving at different velocities.
Fluid flow involves a shear. Fluids flow or move in form of layers, adjacent layers of a fluid are
displaced over each other to form a shear. The different layers move at different speeds and therefore
there will be a frictional force which opposes relative motion between the layers of the fluid. This
frictional force is called viscosity. The greater the viscosity, the less easily it is for the liquid to flow
and the stickier the liquid feels, the harder the liquid to flow.
Fluids stick to the solid surface so that when they flow the velocity must gradually decrease to zero as
the wall of the pipe or vessel in approached.
Stream lines
V4
Pipe V3
V2
V1
V=0

The arrows are known as stream lines and the length of the streamlines represents the magnitude of
the velocity.
Definition: A streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point is along the direction of the velocity of
the fluid particles at that point.

11.1.2: LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Laminar (steady/uniform) flow is the orderly flow of a liquid where lines of flow are parallel to the
axis of the tube or pipe and liquid particles at the same distance from the axis have the same velocity.
Laminar flow occurs at low velocities below the critical velocity.

V4
y V3
axis
y V2
V1
pipe

186
Turbulent flow is a disorderly flow where lines of flow are not parallel to the axis of the pipe and
liquid particles at the same distance from the axis have different velocities (speeds and direction).
Turbulent flow occurs at high velocities, above the critical velocity.

axis

pipe

11.1.3: EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Potassium per maganate solution

Reservoir
Tap T1 Glass tube

Fine stream of
A coloured solution

Tap T2

Narrow jet
 The apparatus is set up as above. With taps T1 andT2 closed, potassium per magnate solution is
poured into the reservoir and water poured into container A
 T2 is then slightly opened to allow water to flow out of the glass tube and T1 also opened
slightly. A fine stream coloured solution is seen flowing along side the water to the glass tube
and this illustrates laminar flow.
 Tap T2 is then widely opened to allow more water to flow from the glass tube, a stage is reached
when the coloured solution in the glass tube begins to spread out and fill the wall of the tube.
The critical velocity has been exceeded and turbulence has begun.

11.1.4: COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY ( )

V2

X F

F V1

Consider two parallel layers of a liquid moving with velocities V1 and V2 and separated by a distance x

with area of contact between the layers A

The slower lower layer exerts a tangential retarding force F on the faster upper layer the lower layer

its self-experiences an equal and opposite tangential force F due to the upper layer.

Velocity gradient between the layers

187
Definition

Velocity gradient is the change in velocity between two layers (points) per unit length of separation

of the points.

Frictional force F between adjacent layers depends on

Area of contact between the layers [F α A]

Velocity gradient between layers [F α velocity gradient]
Therefore

Definition
Coefficient of viscosity is the frictional force acting on a unit area of a fluid when it is in a region of
unit velocity gradient
OR
Coefficient of viscosity is the tangential stress which one layer of a fluid exerts on another layer in
contact with it when the velocity gradient between the layers is .
Dimensions of
= [ ]=
( *
[ ]
[ ]=[ ] [ ] [ ]
Units of = Nsm-2

11.1.5: Effects of temperature on viscosity

 In liquids, viscosity is due to intermolecular forces of attraction between layers moving at
different speeds. Increase in temperature reduces(weakens) intermolecular forces which
increases molecular separation and speed, consequently viscosity in liquids decreases rapidly
with increase in temperature
 In gases, viscosity is due to transfer of momentum . Molecules are further apart and have
negligible intermolecular forces , molecules move randomly colliding with one another and
continuously transferring momentum to the neighboring layers. Increasing the temperature of
the gas increases the average speed (increases K.E) of the gas molecules hence increasing the
transfer of momentum which results into increase in viscosity of the gas.

188
 Differences between viscosity and solid friction

Solid friction Viscosity

Independent of area of contact Depends on area of contact
Independent of relative velocity between Directly proportional to velocity gradient
layers in contact
Independent of temperature but dependent Depends on temperature
on normal reaction

11.1.6: Steady flow of a liquid through a pipe (poiseuille’s formula)

Poiseuille derived an expression for the volume of a liquid flowing out of a pipe per second. He
assumes that the flow was steady/laminar.
The volume of liquid flowing out of a pipe per unit time (V/t) dependents on;
i. The coefficient of viscosity of the liquid
ii. The radius of the pipe r
iii. The pressure gradient P/L causing the flow

( )

( ) ……………………….x
Put into equation 2
[ ] [ ]
[ ][ ] [ ] ( *
[] []
–
K is a dimensionless constant
( ) ( )
, ,
But from x
For M, ………………………1
( *
For L, …………………….2
For T, ……………………3
From equation 1:
By experiment K =

Put into equation 3: ( )–

- Poiseuille’s formula

189
a: Measurement of of a liquid by poiseuille’s formula

Capillary tube
Constant head h (Radius r )
device

Over flow pipe

Liquid flowing out

 The liquid under test flows steadily through the capillary tube from a constant head device and
the volume V of liquid which emerges in a known time t is collected in a beaked and measured.
 The radius r of the tube is measured using a travelling microscope and a meter rule is used to
measure its length L and height h of the liquid above the tube.
 The procedure is repeated by lowering or raising the overflow pipe to obtain several values of

( ) for each h.

 A graph of ( ) against h is plotted and its slope is determined from the straight part of laminar

flow.
But P = h𝝆g where 𝝆is the density of the
liquid
V/t
Turbulence starts ( )

Comparing with y = mx +c
h Slope S = ( )

Note:
 The experiment must be carried out at a constant temperature to avoid changes in
 Constant head apparatus is used to ensure that the rate of liquid flowing through the capillary
f ’ f d f f

190
  Great care is needed when measuring r because it appears in the calculation of as r4. This
makes the % error in due to an error in r four times the % error in r
 A capillary tube is used because r needs to be small so that h is large enough to be measured
accurately

11.2.0: STOKE’S LAW AND TERMINAL VELOCITY

11.2.1: Derivation of Stoke’s law
Stoke’s suggested that any particle moving through a fluid experiences a retarding force called viscous
drag due to the viscosity of the fluid. This force depends on the speed of the body V and acts in
opposite direction to its motion
Note:
Viscosity of a fluid is the frictional force opposing relative motion between adjacent layers while
viscous drag is the frictional force experienced by a body moving in a fluid due to its viscosity.
The viscous drag F on a spherical body depends
 On the radius (r) of the sphere
 Velocity V of the sphere
 Coefficient of viscosity
F
F ………..(x) –
[F] [ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
K is a dimensionless constant Put into eqn 2
( ) ( ) ( )

For M
………………..(1) From equation x
For L, F
F=k Vr
……………….(2) Experiment showed that K = 6π
For T, -Stoke’s law

11.2.2: TERMINAL VELOCITY

Consider a sphere of radius, falling from rest through a viscous fluid.
 The forces acting on the sphere are its weight downwards , up thrust upwards due to the
displaced fluid and the viscous drag, F upwards due to viscosity of the fluid.
191
 As the body accelerate downwards, its velocity increase and from π r so does the viscous
drag increase .When the body is completely immersed in the fluid, up thrust remains constant since
no more fluid is being displaced.
 A point is reached when . This implies that the net force acting on the body is zero
and body continues to move down with a maximum constant velocity called terminal velocity.
u F At the terminal velocity: ……(1)
6π r
ams-2
6π r = ( )

( )
=
mg
( )
If and re the densities of the fluid and =
sphere respectively, the;

Definition
Terminal velocity is the maximum constant velocity attained by a body falling through aviscous fluid.

A graph of velocity against time for an object falling in a fluid

velocity
Vt

acceleration

time

b: Measurement of liquid by Stoke’s law

The method is suitable for liquids of high viscosity such as glycerin and treacle

192
 Small ball bearing

A
Large measuring cylinder

B
Viscous fluid

 Densities of the ball bearing and liquid and respectively are obtained.
 Three reference marks A , B and C at equal distances are made on the sides of a tall transparent
tube filled with the liquid.
 The ball is allowed to fall centrally through the liquid. The times and taken for the ball to
fall from A to B and from B to C respectively are measured and noted .
When , terminal velocity is obtained from

………………….[ 1 ]

 The and diameter d and hence radius r of the ball bearing is measured using a micrometer
screw gauge.
Coefficient of viscosity is then calculated from Stoke’s using
( )
=
( )
……………………………….[ 2 ]

Note:
i) A measuring cylinder which is wide compared with the diameter of the ball bearing.
ii) Point C should be far away from the top of the tube so that the temperature remains constant.
iii) using a highly viscous liquid and a small ball bearing makes t large enough to be measured

Question
Describe how you can determine terminal velocity of a sphere falling in a viscous fluid.
An [The whole experiment of Stoke’s law is the answer but only end in equation 1]

Numerical examples
1. A spherical raindrop of radius 2.0x10-4m, falls vertically in air at 200c, if the densities of air and
water are 1.3kgm-3 and 1x103kgm-3 respectively and the viscosity of air at 200c is 1.8x10-5pa.
Find the terminal velocity of the drop
Solution

193
 U F 6π r
( )
=
am/s2

( ) ( )
=
mg
At terminal velocity : Mg = U + F = 4.84ms-1

2. A spherical oil drop of density 900kgm-3 and radius 2.5x10-6m has a charge of 1.6x10-19C. the
drop falls under gravity between two plates
i. Calculate the terminal velocity attained by the drop
ii. What electric field intensity must be applied between the plates in order to keep the
drop stationary (density air = 1kgm-3, coefficient of viscosity of air = 1.8x10-3Nm-2s-1)
Solution
U F 6π r
( )
am/s2
=

( ) ( )
=
mg

At terminal velocity: Mg = U + F
Since the sphere is moving down, the electric field must be applied upwards to keep it stationary and
there will be no vicious drag
U Fe EQ

( )

( ) ( )
mg
E=
When it is stationary Mg = U + Fe
E = 3.60x106Vm-1

3. Find the terminal velocity of an oil drop of radius 2.5x10-6m which falls through air. Neglecting
the density of air.(Viscosity of air = 1.8x10-5Nm-2, density of oil = 900kgm-3)
Solution
U F 6π r
( )
=
am/s2
But = 0kgm-3
( ) ( )
mg =

At terminal velocity: Mg = U + F

UNEB 2012 NO 4C

194
4. A metal ball of diameter 10mm is timed as it falls through oil at a steady speed, it takes 0.5s to fall
through a vertical distance of 0.03m. Assuming that density of the metal is 7500kgm-3 and that of
oil is 900kgm—3, find
i. The weight of the ball (2 marks)
ii. The up thrust on the ball
iii. The coefficient of viscosity of oil (03 marks
(Assume the viscous force = 6π r V0 where is the coefficient of viscosity, r is radius of the ball and
V0 is terminal velocity)
Solution
U F ( )

U = 0.037N
am/s2
iii) At terminal velocity Mg = U +F
0.31 = 0.037 + 6π r V0
mg
-
i) Weight = mg =
= but Vo =
= ( )

Weight = 0.31N =
-
-
ii) Up thrust U
= 2.414Nsm-2

Exercise:27
1. A small oil drop falls with terminal velocity of 4x10-4ms-1 through air. Calculate the radius of the
drop. What is the terminal velocity of oil drop if its radius is halved.
(viscosity of air = 1.8x10-5Nm-2s, density of oil = 900kgm-3, neglect density of air)
An [1.92x10-6m, 1.0x10-4ms-1]

2. A spherical rain drop of radius m falls vertically in air at 20 . If the densities of air and
water are 1.2 and 1000 respectively and that the coefficient of viscosity of air at
20 is s, calculate the terminal velocity of the drop. An[ 4.484 m ].

3. A metal sphere of radius 2.0x10-3m and mass 3.0x10-4kg falls under gravity, central down a wide
tube filled with a liquid at 350c, the density of the liquid is 700kgm-3, the sphere attains a terminal
velocity of magnitude 40x10-2ms-1. The tube is emptied and filled with another liquid at the same
temperature and of density 900kgm-3. When the metal sphere falls centrally down the tube, it is
195
 found to attain a terminal velocity of magnitude 25x10-2ms-1. Determine at 350C, the ratio of the
coefficient of viscosity of the second liquid to that of the first. [an 1.640]

4. In an experiment to determine the coefficient of viscosity of motor oil, the following

measurements were made
Mass of glass of sphere = 1.2x10-4kg
Diameter of sphere = 4.0x10-3,
Terminal velocity of sphere = 5.4x10-2ms-1
Density of oil = 860kgm-3
Calculate the coefficient of viscosity of the oil [an 0.45Nsm-2]

5. A metal sphere of radius 3.0x10-3m and mass 4.0x10-4kg falls under gravity, central down a wide
tube filled with a liquid at 25 , the density of the liquid is 800kgm-3, the sphere attains a terminal
velocity of magnitude . The tube is emptied and filled with another liquid at the same
temperature and of density 100kgm-3. When the metal sphere falls centrally down the tube, it is
found to attain a terminal velocity of magnitude . Determine at 250C, the ratio of the
coefficient of viscosity of the second liquid to that of the first. [An 2.09]

6. A steel sphere of diameter 3.0x10-3m falls through a cylinder containing a liquid x .When the
sphere has attained a terminal velocity, it takes 1.08 s to travel between two fixed marks on the
cylinder. When the experiment is repeated using another steel sphere of diameter 5.0x10-3m with
the cylinder containing liquid y, the time of fall between two fixed points is 4.8 s. if the density of
liquid x is , that of liquid y is and that of the steel ball is
, determine the ratio of the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid x to that of the
liquid y, if the temperature remains constant throughout. [An 0.77]

11.3.0: Equation of continuity

Consider a fluid undergoing steady flow and consider a section XY of a tube of flow with the fluid.
Let A1 and A2 be the cross-section areas of the tube of flow at X and Y respectively
and be the densities of the fluid at X and Y respectively
V1 and V2 be the velocities of the fluid particles at X and Y respectively.

196
 Y
X

V1 V2

A2
A1 Streamline bounding
the tube of flow
In a time interval ∆t the fluid at X will move forward a distance V1∆t. therefore, a volume A1V1∆t
will enter the tube at X. the mass of fluid entering at X in time ∆t will be there be
ρ1 A1V1∆t
Similarly the mass leaving at Y in the same time is ρ2 A2V2∆t
Since the mass entering at X is equal to mass leaving at Y
ρ1A1V1∆t = ρ2 A2V2∆t
For an incompressible fluid ρ1 = ρ2
………………………………..1

Equation 1 is an equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid

Definition
An incompressible fluid is a fluid in which changes in pressure produce no change in the density of
the fluid

11.3.1: WHY LIQUIDS FLOW FASTER IN CONSTRICTIONS

Volume flow per second is constant, so by the equation of continuity: A1V1 = A2V2
It implies that A2 α if then

Hence the velocity at the wider part is less than that at the constructed part

11.3.2: Bernoulli’s equation

It states that for an incompressible non viscous fluid undergoing steady flow, the pressure plus the
potential energy per unit volume plus kinetic energy per unit volume is constant at all points on a
stream line.

i.e. 𝝆 𝝆
P is the pressure with in the fluid g is the acceleration due to gravity
ρ is the density of the fluid h is height of the fluid (above reference line)
v is the velocity of the fluid

11.3.3: Derivation of Bernoulli’s equation

Consider a tube of flow with in a non-viscous incompressible fluid undergoing steady flow
197
 Let
ρ1 and ρ2 = pressure at X and Y
V1 and V2 = velocities at X and Y
A1 and A2 = area of cross section at X and Y
h1 and h2 = Average heights at X and Y

A2
▲Y
F2
A1 Y Y1
▲X V2 h2
F1 Reference line
X X1
h1 V1

Let X1 be close to X so that each of the parameters above has the same value at X1 and at X. Let Y1 be
close to Y with similar consequences
Since the fluid is incompressible, the density will be the same at all points. Let this be ρ.
Consider the section of fluid which is between X and Y moving to occupy the region between X1 and
Y1. The fluid moves in this direction because the force F1 is greater than the force F2. The force F
moves a distance and the fluid moves a distance against the force F2
Network done on the fluid is therefore given by
………………………………….1
Since the fluid is undergoing ste4ady flow, the mass of fluid that was originally between X and X1 is
equal to the mass which is now between Y and Y1. Let this mass be M, thus a mass M which
originally had velocityV1 and average height H1 has been replaced by an equal mass with velocity V2
and average height h2, therefore,
Gain in kinetic energy – ………………….2

Gain in potential energy …………………….3

Name of the work done on the fluid has been used to overcome internal friction since the fluid is
non-viscous and therefore by the principle of conservation of energy.
Work done= Gain in kinetic energy + Gain in potential energy
Work done –

F1 - F2 –

A1V1∆t - A2V2∆t –

But A1 (volume between X and X1) = 𝝆

And similarly volume between Y and Y1 (A2 )= 𝝆

198
 aconstant

Assumptions
 The flow is laminar
 The fluid is incompressible and non viscous
 The pressure and velocity are uniform at any cross section of the tube

Note
In accordance with equation of continuity, fluids speed up at constrictions and therefore there is a
decrease in pressure at constrictions. This effect is made use of in such devices are filter pumps,
Bunsen burners and carburetors

11.3.4: Application of Bernoulli’s principle

It follows from Bernoulli’s equation that whenever a flowing fluid speeds up, there is a
corresponding decrease in the pressure and for the potential energy of the fluids. If the flow is
horizontal, the whole of the velocity increase is accounted for by a decrease in pressure.

1. Aero foil lift

Region of high speed and low  An aero foil e.g. an air craft wing is shaped
pressure so that air flows faster along the top of the
wings than below the wings.
 By Bernoulli’s principle pressure below
becomes greater than that above the wings.
 This pressure difference produces the
Region of low speed and high pressure resultant force called lift upwards force. It is
this force which provides a force that lifts
the plane off the ground at take off

2. A spinning ball

199
 high air speed and therefore A ball such as a football, tennis or golf ball
low pressure that is projected to travel through air
experiences a sideways force which makes it
Direction of ball Spin curve in flight. This is because the spin drags
air around with the ball such that air moves
faster on one side of the ball than the other.
The pressure difference causes a resultant
low air speed and therefore high pressure force which makes the ball the curve as it
spins.
3. Sanction effect
This is experienced by a person standing close to the platform at the station when a fast moving train
passes. The fast moving air between the person and the train produces a decrease in pressure and the
excess pressure on the other side pushes the person towards the train

4. Filter pump
Water in This pump has a narrow cross section in the
middle so that the jet of water from the top
flows faster here. This reduces the pressure

Air from vessel around it and thus air flows in from the side of
a tube connected to a vessel. The air and water
are expelled together through the bottom of

To the drain the pump

5. Bunsen burner
The gas passes the narrow jet at high speed creating a low pressure region. Atmospheric pressure
then pushes air in through the hole and the mixture flows up the tube to burn at the top

6. Carburetor
The air passage through a carburetor is partially constructed at the point where petrol and air are
mixed. This increases the speed of air but lowers its pressure and permits more rapid evaporation
of the petrol.

Examples
1. Water flows along a horizontal pipe of cross section area 30cm2. The speed of water is 4ms-1
but this rises to 7.5m/s in constriction pipe. What is the area of this narrow part of the tube.
Solution
200
 From the equation of continuity
A1V1 = A2V2 Area of the narrow part is 16c

2. Water leaves the jet of a horizontal horse at 10m/s. If the velocity of the water with in the horse is
0.4m/s. Calculate the pressure P with in the horse (density of water 1000kgm-3) and atmospheric
pressure 105Nm-2
Solution
V1 = 0.4m/s, P1 = ?, 1000kg/m3, P1 + ½ ρ 2 = P2 + ½ ρ 2 for horizontal flow
V2 =10m/s, P = 105 P1 + ½ x1000x 2 = + ½ x1000 2

P + ½ ρv2 + = a constant P1 = 1.5x Pa

3. A fluid of density 1000 flows in a horizontal tube. If the pressure the entry of the tube is
and at the exit is , given that the velocity of the fluid at the entry is , calculate
the velocity of the liquid at the exit.
Solution
P + ½ ρv2 + = a constant
P1 + ½ ρ 2 = P2 + ½ ρ 2 for horizontal flow

4. An air craft design requires a dynamic lift of on each square meter of the wing when the
speed of the air craft through the air is 80 . Assuming that the air flows past the wing with
streamline line flow and that the flow past the lower surface is equal to the speed of the air craft,
what is required speed of the air over the upper surface of the wing if the density of the air is
.
Solution
P1 + ½ ρ 2 = P2 + ½ ρ 2 for horizontal flow f f , ( )
( ) [ ( )]
( )

5. Air flows over the upper surface of the wings of an aero plane at a speed of 81ms-1 and past the
lower surfaces of the wings at 57ms-1. Calculate the lift force on the aero plane if it has a total wing
area of 3.2m2. (density of air = 1.3kgm-3)
Solution
P1 + ½ ρ 2 = P2 + ½ ρ 2 for horizontal flow ( )
( ) f f , ( )
201
 [ ( )]

11.3.5: Measurement of fluid velocity

5. Venture meter
This is a device which introduces a constriction into a pipe carrying a fluid in order that the velocity
of the fluid can be measured by measuring the resulting drop in pressure.

Manometer to record P1
h1
A1 Manometer to record
h2 P2
A2

V1 V2

Consider the fluid to be non viscous, incompressible and of density ρ in a horizontal steady flow let the
pressure and velocity be P1 and V1 at the main pipe and P2 and V2 at the constricted pipe along the
same stream line
Applying Bernoulli’s equation
P1 + ½ ρ 2 = P2 + ½ ρ 2 ……………….(1) (horizontal flow)
If the cross sectional areas at main and constructed equation of continuity.
A1V1= A2V2

Put into equation 1

P1 + ½ ρ 2 = P2 + ½ ρ( )

*( * +

Thus by measuring pressures and and knowing ρ, A1, and A2 it is possible to find the velocity
of V1 of the fluid in the un constricted (main) section of the pipe.

Note: P1 h1g and P2 h2g

Examples
1.a)

P
a horizontal pipe of a diameter 36.0cm tapers to a diameter of 18.0cm at P. An ideal gas at a
pressure of 2x105Pa is moving along the wider part of the pipe at a speed of 30ms-1, the
202
 pressure of the gas at P is 1.8x105Pa. Assuming the temperature of the gas remain constant
calculate the speed of the gas at P.
b) For the gas in (a) recalculate the speed at P on the assumption that it can be treated as an
incompressible fluid, and use Bernoulli’s equation to calculate corresponding value for the
pressure at P. Assume that in the wider part of the pipe the gas speed is still 30.0ms-1, the
pressure is still 2.00x105 Pa and at this pressure the density of the gas is 2.60kgm-3.
Solution
a) P1=2x105Pa d1=36x10-2m, v1=30ms-1 b) For an incompressible fluid
P2=1.8x105Pa d2=18x10-2m v2=? ----------------- [2]
An ideal gas at constant temperature obeys P1=2x105Pa d1=36x10-2m v1=30ms-1
Boyle’s law. P2=? d2=18x10-2m, v2=?
----------------------------- [1]
volume and volume
( - ) ( - )
But L1 = speed V1 x t and L2= speed V2 x t 30
Put into equation 1 :

( - ) ( - ) Using Bernoulli’s equation

30
P1 + ½ ρ 2 = P2 + ½ ρ 2 for horizontal flow
2x105+ ½ x2.6x302 =P2+ ½ x2.6x1202
P2=1.825x105Pa

6. A venturimeter consists of a horizontal tube with a constriction tube which replaces part of the
piping system as shown below

h1=30cm
h2=10cm
V1

If the cross-section area of the main pipe is 5.8x10-3m2 and that of the constriction is 2.58x10-3m2. Find
the velocity V1 of the liquid in the main pipe
Solution
h1 = 30x10-2, h2 =10x10-2m, ρ1 =? ρ2 =?, P1 + ½ ρ 2 = P2 + ½ ρ 2 for horizontal flow
A1 = 5.81x10-3m3, A2 = 2.58x10-3m3
P1 h1ρg and P2 h2ρg
From equation of continuity
P + ½ ρv2 + = a constant
203
 A1V1 = A2V2 =
( )

( ) 2.943– 0.981 = 2.035612343V12

30x x9.81 + = 10x x9.81 V12 = 0.963837739

V1 = 0.982m/s

3. Pitot-static tubes
The Pitot - static tube is a device used to measure the velocity of a moving fluid. It consists of two
manometer tubes, the pitot tube and the static tube. The pitot tube has its opening facing the fluid flow,
the static tube has its opening at right angles to this

Static tube Pitot tube

h2
h1

V
X Y

The total pressure exerted by a flowing liquid has two components ie the static pressure and dynamic
pressure. Static tube measures the static pressure while pitot tube measures total pressure.
P + ½ ρv2 + = a constant
Static pressure= P + and Dynamic pressure =

D –
–

( – )
V √

 Static pressure
Static pressure at a point is the pressure that the fluid would have if it were at rest.

 Dynamic pressure
It is the pressure of a fluid due to its velocity

 Total pressure
It is the sum of the dynamic and static pressure.

204
 Example
1. The static pressure in a horizontal pipe line is 4.3x104Pa, the total pressure is 4.7x104Pa and the
area of cross-section is 20cm2. The fluid may be considered to be incompressible and non viscous
and has a density of 10kgm-3. Calculate
i. The flow velocity in the pipeline
ii. The volume flow rate in the pipeline
Solution 0.4 x 104 = x1
Static pressure =4.3x104Pa
V = 2.83m/s
Total pressure = 4.7x104Pa
ii) Volume flow rate =
A = 20 x 10-4m2, Ρ = 10kgm-3
Dynamic pressure total pressure–static pressure
Dynamic pressure =4.7x104 4.3x104 = 20x10-4x 2.83
Dynamic pressure =0.4 x 104Pa
Dynamic pressure =

2. Water flows steadily along a uniform flow tube of cross-sectional area 30 . The static pressure is
and the total pressure is . assuming that the density of water is
1000 , calculate the;
(i) Flow velocity
(ii) Volume flux
(iii) Mass of water passing through a section of the tube per second
Solution
( – ) 30
(i) V √
Volume flux = 0.012
( – ) (iii) Mass per second= volume per second x
V √

(ii) volume per second area velocity

Mass per second

3. A pitot – static tube fitted with a pressure gauge is used to measure the speed of a boat at sea.
Given that the speed of the boat does not exceed 10m/s and the density of sea water is 1050kgm-3,
calculate the maximum pressure on the gauge
Solution

205
Maximum pressure is the dynamic pressure =
Dynamic pressure = Dynamic pressure 5.25x104Pa

Exercise: 28
6. Water flows speedily along a horizontal tube of cross-sectional area 25cm2. The static pressure with
in the pipe is 1.3x105pa and the total pressure 1.4x105pa. Calculate the velocity of the water flow
and the mass of the water flow past a point in a tube per second. [an 4.47m/s, 11.175kg/s]

7. A lawn sprinkler has 20 holes each of cross sectional area 2x10-2cm2 and its connected to a horse
pipe of cross sectional area 2.4cm2, if the speed of the water in the horse pipe is 1.5m/s, estimate
the speed of the water as it emerges from the holes. [an9m/s]

8. Water flows speedily along a uniform flow tube of cross section 30cm2. The static pressure is
1.2x105Pa and the total pressure is 1.28x105Pa. Calculate the flow velocity and the mass of water
per second flowing past a section of the tube. (Density of water is 1000kg . )[an 4m/s, 12kg/s]

9. Air flows over the upper surface of the wings of an aero plane at a speed of 120ms-1 and past the
lower surfaces of the wings at 110ms-1. Calculate the lift force on the aero plane if it has a total wing
area of 20m2. (density of air ) [an= 2.97x104N]

206
 11.4.0: FLUIDS AT REST
11.4.1: DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY
Density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance.

S.I unit’s
Relative density
Definition
It is the ratio of the density of a substance to density of an equal volume of water at 40c
It is at 4 because water has maximum density of 1000kgm-3 at that temperature

⁄
⁄

It can also be defined as the ratio of the mass of a substance to mass of an equal volume of water
for W = mg ⁄ R.D =
⁄
It can also be defined as the ratio of weight of a substance to weight of an equal volume of water.
Note: Relative density has no units.

11.4.2: ARCHIMEDE’S PRINCIPLE

It states that when a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an up thrust equals
to the weight of the fluid displaced.
I.e. Up thrust = weight of fluid = apparent loss of weight of the object in a fluid.

Definition
Up thrust is the apparent loss of weight of an object immersed in a fluid
Or
It is the resultant upward force on the body due to the fluid.

207
11.4.3: Verification of Archimedes’ principle using a cylindrical rod
Consider a cylindrical rod of cross-sectional area A and height h immersed in a large quantity of a fluid
of density such that its top is at level Y, meters below the surface of the fluid while its bottom is
at level X shown below

P2A
ho

y (Pressure at this level P2)

x (Pressure at this level P1)

P1A

Volume of fluid displaced = volume of cylinder

= Ah
Mass of fluid displaced = Ah
Weight of fluid displaced = Ah g…………………………..(i)
The fluid exerts forces of 1A and 2A on the bottom and top faces of the cylinder.
The up thrust (resultant upward force due to the fluid is therefore given by
= 2A 1

(h ho) ho
= Ah g………………………………………….(ii)
From equation (i) and equation (ii), therefore;
= weight of fluid displaced

Question: Show that the weight of fluid displaced by an object is equal to up thrust on the object

11.4.4: Verification of Archimedes’ principle using a spring balance.

 Fill the displacement can with water till water flows through the spout and wait until the water
stops dripping.


Weigh a solid object in air using a spring balance and record its weight
 Place a beaker of known weight beneath the spout of the can.

208
 With the help of the spring balance, the solid object is carefully lowered into the water in the
displacement can and wait until water stops dripping when it is completely immersed, its
weight (apparent weight) is then read and recorded from the spring balance as .
 Re weigh the beaker and the displaced water and record the weight as ( )

Clamp

Spring balance

Displacement can

Object beaker
Displaced water
Results
Let the weight of the empty beaker be
Weight of water displaced = weight of (beaker +water) – weight of beaker
Weight of water displaced = ( ) …………………………..1
Apparent loss of weight of object = weight of object in air – weight of object in water
Apparent loss of weight of the object = -
If ( - )=( ( ) ), then Archimedes’s principle is verified

11.4.5: Application of Archimedes’ principle

It can be used to determine density and relative density of a solid and a liquid.

a) Determination of density and relative density of a solid

 Weigh the solid in air and its weight ( ) recorded using a spring balance.
 Immerse the solid wholly in water and record its apparent weight from balance ( )

Spring balance

Solid Solid water

 Up thrust in water = -

 Density of solid = RD of solid density of water

209
 Example
1. An object suspended from the spring balance is found to have a weight of 4.92N in air and
3.87N when immersed in water. Calculate the density of the material from which the object is
made of the density of water is 1000kgm-3
Solution
= 4.92, = 3.87N RD = 4.686
Density of substance = RD x of water
= 4.686 x 1000
= 4686kgm-3

Exercise : 29
1. A piece of glass weighs 0.5N in air and 0.30N in water. Find the density of the glass.
An[2500kgm-3]

2. A spherical stone has a mass of 1.546kg, if its radius is 20cm. find the density of the stone in
(i) (ii)
An [46.848 , 4.6848 ]

3. What is the mass of the sphere of diameter 20cm if its relative density is 14.1 An[59.22kg]

4. A glass block weighs 25N in air. When wholly immersed in water, the block weighs 15N.
calculate
i. The up thrust on the block
ii. The density of the glass in An[ 10N, 2500 ]

b) Density of a floating object (eg cork)

The same experiment as above except the solid and the sinker are fixed together so that both become
totally immersed in water.

c) Determination of density and relative density of a liquid

 Weigh a solid (sinker) in air and record its weight using a spring balance.
 Immerse the solid (sinker) wholly in water and record the apparent weight
 Wipe the surface of the solid (sinker) with a piece of dry cloth and immerse it wholly in
the liquid whose relative density is to be measured, read and record its apparent
weight in the liquid
210
 Water Liquid

Solid Solid Solid

Weight of water displaced (up thrust in water) = -

Weight of liquid displaced (up thrust in liquid) = -

Relative density =

Density of liquid = R.D of liquid x density of water

Example
1. A solid has a weight of 160N in air and 120N when wholly immersed in a liquid of relative density
0.8, determine the density of a solid
Solution

R.D of Liquid =

0.8 = R.D of solid= 3.2

Density of a solid = RD of solid of water
Weight of solid in water = = 50N
= 3.2 1000
Density of a solid = 3200

2. A piece of iron weighs 555N in air when completely immersed in water, it weighs 530N and weighs
535N when completely immersed in alcohol. Calculate the relative density of alcohol and the
density of alcohol.
Solution
555N 530N WL 535N Density of alcohol = R.D of alcohol of
- -
R.D of alcohol
- -
Density of alcohol
R.D of alcohol 0.8

3. A string supports a solid iron of mass 0.18kg totally immersed in a liquid of density 800 .
Calculate the tension in the string if the density of iron is 800
Solution
211
 Weight of iron Weight of the liquid displaced
Volume of iron Weight of the liquid displaced = 0.177N
At equilibrium ; mg = T+U
Mass of liquid displaced 2.25x1 8000

4. A specimen of an alloy of silver and gold whose densities are 10.5gc and 18.9c respectively,
weigh 3.2g in air and 33.13 g in water. Find the composition by mass of the alloy assuming that
there has been no volume change in the process of producing he alloy. Assume that the density of
water is 1 g c
Solution
…………………………..1 Volume of alloy

R.D of alloy 17 Volume of alloy

Density of alloy= R.D density of water 2.07 ………………….2

Density of alloy =17 g c
Solving 1 and 2 simultaneously
Volume of alloy

Exercise: 30
1. A block of mass 0.1kg is suspended from a spring balance when the block is immersed in water of
density 1000kgm-3, the spring balance reads 0.63N. When the block is immersed in a liquid of
unknown density the spring balance reads 0.7N, find
i) Density of the solid
ii) Density of the liquid An [2800kgm-3, 800kgm-3]

2. An alloy contains two metals X and Y of densities and respectively.

Calculate the density of the alloy if,
(i) The volume of X is twice that of Y
(ii) The mass of X is twice that of Y
An[ (i)= (ii)= ]

3. An alloy contains two metals A and B, has a volume of and a density of

. The densities of A and B are and respectively.
Calculate the mass of A and mass of B. An [ A= 1.6kg, B=1.2kg]
212
4. A piece of glass has a mass 62 kg in air. It has a mass of 32kg when completely immersed in water
and a mass of 6kg when completely immersed in an acid.
(a) The glass (b) The acid in
An[ (a)=1550 (b)= 1400 ]

5. A body of mass 0.1kg and relative density 2 is suspended by a thread and completely immersed in a
liquid of density 920kgm-3.
i) Find the tension in the thread. An[0.53N]
ii) If the thread breaks, what will be the initial acceleration? An [5.3ms-2]

6. A body of weight 0.52N in air weighs only 0.32N when totally immersed in water while its weight
when immersed in another liquid is 0.36N. What is the density of the second liquid if the density of
water is 1000kgm – 3?
7. The figure below shows a buoy B, of volume 40 litres and mass 10kg. It is held in position in sea
water of density 1.04g/cm3 by a light cable fixed to the bottom so that ¾ of the volume of the buoy
is below the surface of the sea water.

Sea water

(i) Name the three forces that keep the buoy in equilibrium and state the direction in which each
acts
(ii) Determine the tension in the cable Cable

8. A tank contains a liquid of density 1200kgm-3. A body of volume 5x10-3m3 and density 900kgm-3 is
totally immersed in the liquid and attached to by a thread to the bottom of the tank. Find the
tension in the thread. An [14.72N]

9. A block of metal weighs 50N in air and 25N in water

(a) Determine the density of the metal in
(b) Find the weight of the metal in paraffin whose relative density is 0.8
An[2000 , 30N]

213
 11.5.0: FLOATATION
A body floats in a liquid if its density is less than the density of the liquid.

11.5.1: Law of floatation

It states that a floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which its floating.

Experiment to verify the law of floatation

(Same as verification of Archimedes’ principle)

Note:
1. For a floating body
- The weight of floating body =weight of fluid displaced
- The weight of fluid =Up thrust
- The weight of floating body = Up thrust
- The mass of the floating body = the mass of the fluid displaced
- A floating body sinks deeper in liquids of less density than in liquids of higher densities.
2. Density of a floating body = fraction submersed x density of liquid
3. Volume of displaced liquid = fraction submerged x volume of floating body.

Example
1. A solid weighs 237.5g in air and 12.5g when totally immersed in a fluid of density 0.9g/cm3.
Calculate
a) Density of the solid.
b) The density of the liquid in which the solid would float with 1/5 of its volume exposed above
the liquid surface.
Solution
a) =237.5g WL =12.5g Density of solid =
Up thrust in liquid WL
=0.95g/cm3
Up thrust in liquid (mass of liquid displaced)
b) If of its volume is exposed, then of its
225g
volume is submerged.
Volume of liquid displaced
Volume of liquid = fraction x volume of the
Volume of liquid displaced =250cm3
solid submerged
Volume of solid =250cm3
= 200cm3
214
Mass of solid =237.5 of floating body = fraction submerged x liquid

Density of liquid = =1.19g/cm3 0.95 = x density of liquid

OR Density of liquid 1.19gcm-3

2. A solid of volume 10-4m3 floats in water of density 103kgm-3 with of its volume submerged

i) Find the mass of the solid

ii) If the solid floats in another liquid with of its volume submerged. What is the density

of the liquid?
Solution
a) V=10-4 1000kgm-3
Volume submerged

Volume of water displaced volume of solid = 10-4

-
mass of displaced water volume of water displaced density of water
By law of floatation, mass of water displaced is equals to the mass of the solid
Mass of solid =

b) Fraction submerged

Density of solid = 600kgm-3

Density of solid fraction submerged x density of liquid

600 density of liquid

Density of liquid 750kgm-3

Exercise: 31
1. A Ball with a volume of 32cm3 floats on water with exactly half of the ball below the surface. What is
the mass of the ball (density of water =1.0x103kgm-3) An [1kg]

2. An object floats in a liquid of density 1.2x103kgm-3 with one quarter of its volume above the liquid
surface. What is the density of the object. An[900kgm-3]

3. A solid weighs 237.g in air and 212.5g when totally immersed in a liquid of density0.9gc .
Calculate the;

215
 (i) Density of the solid
(ii) Density of a liquid in which the solid would float with ⁄ of tis volume exposed above

the liquid surface. An[9500 kg . 1190 kg ].

4. Object with a volume of 1.0x10-5m3 and density 4.0x10kgm-3 floats on water in a tank of cross
sectional area 1.0x10-3m2
a) By how much does the water level drop when the object is removed
b) Show that this decrease in water level reduces the force on the base of the tank by an equal
amount to the weight of the (density of water = 1.0x103kgm-3) An [4x103kgm-3]

5. A block of wood floats in water of density 1000 kg with ⁄ of its volume submerged . in oil it

has ⁄ of its volume submerged . find the densities of wood and oil

An[740.74 kg , 666.67 kg ].

6. A piece of metal of mass 2.60g and density 8.4 g cm-3 is attached to a block of wax of 1.0 g and
density 0.92 g cm-3. When the system is placed in a liquid, it floats with wax just submerged. Find
the density of the liquid. An [1.13x1 g cm-3]

11.5.2: RELATION BETWEEN DENSITIES AND VOLUME FOR AN OBJECT FLOATING IN TWO LIQUIDS
Consider an object which floats at the interface between two immiscible liquids of density and
with the objects having a density of 𝝆
u1 u2 the upthrust in liquid of density
Liquid of densityρ1
Weight of object Total upthrust

x x x x x
x x
x x
x x x
x x x Liquid of densityρ2 ( )
x mg x

volume submerged to liquid of density

e volume submerged to liquid of density
the upthrust in liquid of density

Note
When the object is replaced by a denser one, then the new object will sink much deeper and therefore
decreases and increases by the same magnitude.

216
EXAMPLE: UNEB 2006 Q.4 (iii)
A block of wood floats at an interface between water and oil with 0.25 of its volume submerged in the
oil. If the density of the wood is 7.3x102kgm-3 . Find the density of the oil.
Solution
u1 u2
Liquid of densityρ1

x x x x x
x x
x x x
x x x x x Liquid of densityρ2
x mg x ( )

0.75 0.25 80kgm-3

80kgm-3
730kgm-3 1000kgm-3 =?

Applications of law of floatation

1- Balloons 2- Ships 3- Submarines
 Balloons
A balloon filled with a light gas such as hydrogen gas rises up because the weight of the displaced air is
greater than the weight of the balloon plus its content. It’s the net upward force (up thrust) which
pushes the balloon upwards and the balloon continues rising until the up thrust acting on it becomes
equal to the weight of the balloon plus its content then it begins floating.
U
g g g g
U=Up thrust Mb=mass of balloon density of air
=weight of hydrogen ML=mass of load density of hydrogen
=weight of balloon =volume of air
=weight of load =volume of hydrogen

Note
Volume of air displaced = volume of balloon
=

EXAMPLES
1. A balloon has a capacity of 10m3 and is filled with hydrogen. The balloon’s fabric and the container
have a mass of 1.25kg. Calculate the maximum mass the balloon can lift .
[ 0.089kgm-3, air=1.29 kgm-3]
217
 Solution
=10m3 0.089, 1.29 kgm-3.
Mb=1.25 =10m3 =10m3
But up thrust weight of balloon + weight of hydrogen +load
U
g g g g
10x1.29g=1.25g+10x0.089+ g
10.76kg

2. A hot air balloon has a volume of 500m3. The balloon moves upwards at a constant speed in air of
density 1.2kgm-3 when the density of the hot air inside it is 0.80kgm-3.
a) What is the combined mass of the balloon and the air inside it.
b) What is the upward acceleration of the balloon when the temperature of the air inside it
has been increased so that its density is 0.7kgm-3.
Solution
=500m3 =500m3 =500m3 500x1.2x9.81= ( + )x9.81+500x0.8x9.81
1.2kgm-3 0.8kgm-3 ( + )=200kg

U= + + when 0.7kg/m3, =500

g= g+ g+ g = g

g =( + )g + g ( + )= ( + )

x1.2g=( + )g + xg + 1962N

500x1.2=( + + ) U= g

( + + ) u

Combined mass = 600kg

ams-2

b) =500m3 =500m3 =500m3

Wb+wl+wh
1.2kgm-3, 0.8kgm-3
U ( + + )
At equilibrium : U= + +
( )
g g g g

218
 11.6.0: PRESSURE
The pressure acting on a surface is defined as the force per unit area acting normally on the surface
P

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
The pressure in a fluid increased with depth, and all points at the same depth in the fluid are at the
same pressure.

11.6.1: RELATION OF PRESSURE P WITH DEPTH h

Consider a cylindrical region of cross sectional area A and height h in a fluid of density

Cross-setional area A weight (mg) and an upward force F due to

press p at the bottom of the cylinder.
The cylinder is in equilibrium and therefore
h
-------------------------[1]
But: and

F F F Ah g----------------------------- [4]
But P
The top of the cylinder is at the surface of the
fluid and the vertical forces acting on it are its

11.6.2: PRESSURE OF A GAS [U-TUBE MANOMETER]

This consists of a U-shaped tube containing a liquid. It is used to measure pressure.
The pressure to be measured (i.e. that of a gas) is applied to one arm of the manometer and the other
arm is open to the atmosphere.
H atmospheric pressure The gas pressure p is the same at the pressure
at y
To gas supply But pressure at y pressure at x

h Where
y x Or H=760mmHg
Or H=76cmHg
Liquid of density ρ

219
Note
The pressure recorded by the manometer (h g) is known as gauge pressure. The actual pressure
( ) is called absolute pressure.
Suppose the level of the liquid in open limb of the manometer is lower than the level of the other side
connected to a gas.
H atmospheric pressure

To gas supply

Pressure of gas

Examples
1. Calculate the pressure of the gas in the bulb [Atmospheric pressure = 1.01x105Pa] density of
mercury =1.30x104kgm-3 g=9.81ms-2] Given the figure below;
Tube open to Solution
atmosphere Pressure at C = pressure at B
A Pressure at C =
0.120m =1.01x105 ( )
Bulb containing gas
under pressure C B
Pressure of gas = 1.17x105Pa

mercury

2. Using the diagram below, calculate the pressure of the gas in the bulb. (atmospheric pressure
=760mmHg)
Pressure at B = pressure at A =760mmHg
H
Pressure at C = (H-h)
Pressure at C
Gas under
C
reduced
30mm Gas pressure
pressure B A

mercury

11.6.3: DENSITY OF A LIQUID [U-TUBE MANOMETER]

It uses two immiscible liquids

220
 = H hA g
Liquid B
Where is the density of liquid A

Liquid A Similarly at Y
H g
hB Where is the density of liquid B
hA Since x and y are at the same level

X Y
H g H g

The pressure at X is equal to atmospheric

pressure H plus the pressure exerted by the
height of liquid A i.e.

Example
Find the density of the liquid
Solution
Water
Liquid
20cm
800kgm-3
16cm

UNEB 2014Q.4
(a) Define coefficient of viscosity and state its units (02marks)
(b) Explain the origin of viscosity in air and account for the effect of temperature on it (05marks)
(c) Describe, stating the necessary precautions an experiment to measure the coefficient of viscosity of
a liquid using Stoke’s law (07marks)
(d) A steel ball bearing of diameter 8.0mm falls steadily through oil and covers a vertical height of
20.0cm in 0.56 s. if the density of the steel is 7800 and that of oil is 900 . Calculate:
(i) Up thrust on the ball An (03 marks)
(ii) Viscosity of oil An (03 marks)

UNEB 2013 Q.2

(a) Define terminal velocity. (01mark)
(b) Explain laminar flow and turbulent flow. (03marks)

221
(c) Describe an experiment to measure the coefficient of viscosity of water using Poiseulle’s formula.
(07marks)
(d) (i) State Bernoulli’s principle. (01marks)
(ii) Explain why a person standing near a railway line is sucked towards the railway
line when a fast moving train passes. (03marks)
(e) A horizontal pipe of cross-sectional area 0.4 , tapers to a cross-sectional area of 0.2 . The
pressure at the large section of the pipe is 8.0 x and the velocity of water through the
pipe is 1.2 m . If atmospheric pressure is 1.01 x find the pressure at the small section
of the pipe. An[9.884x ] (05marks)

UNEB 2012 Q 4
a) i) What is meant by the following terms steady flow and viscosity. (02marks)
ii) Explain the effect of increase in temperature on the viscosity of a liquid. (03marks)
b) i) Show that the pressure p exerted at a depth h below the free surface of a liquid of density
is given by (03marks)
ii) Define relative density (01mark)
iii) A U-tube whose ends are open to the atmosphere, contains water and oil as shown below.

h
10cm

Given that the density of oil is 800kgm-3, find the value of h. An [12.5cm]

UNEB 2011 Q 3
a) i) What is meant by viscosity. (01mark)
ii) Explain the effect of temperature on the viscosity of a liquid. (03marks)
b) Derive an expression for the terminal velocity of a sphere of radius a, falling in liquid of
viscosity η (4mks)
c) Explain why velocity of a liquid at a wide part of tube is less than that at a narrow part.
(2mks)

UNEB 2010 Q 3
a) Define viscosity of a fluid (01mark)

222
b) i) Derive an expression for the terminal velocity attained by a sphere of density , and radius
a, falling through a fluid of density and viscosity η (05marks)
ii) Explain the variation of the viscosity of a liquid with temperature. (02marks)

UNEB 2009 Q 4
a) i) State Archimedes principle ( 01mark )
ii) A tube of uniform cross sectional area of 4x10-3m2 and mass 0.2kg is separately floated vertical
in water of density 1000kgm-3 and in oil of density 800kgm-3. Calculate the difference in the
lengths immersed. An [1.25x10-2m] (04marks)

UNEB 2006 Q 4
a) i)State Archimedes principle (01mark)
ii) Describe an experiment to determine relative density of an irregular solid which floats in water.

UNEB 2005 Q 3
a) What is meant by the following terms
i) Velocity gradient (01mark)
ii) Coefficient of viscosity (01mark)
b) Derive an expression for the terminal velocity of a steel-ball bearing of radius r and density
falling through a liquid of density and coefficient of viscosity . (05marks)
d) Explain with the aid of a diagram why air flow cover the wings of an air craft at take-off causes
a lift. (03marks)

UNEB 2003 Q 3
a) State the law of floatation . (01mark)
b) With the aid of a diagram describe how to measure the relative density of a liquid using
Archimedes principle and the principle of moments. An [refer to Abbot Pg 133]
(06marks)
c) A cross sectional area of a ferry at its water line is 720m2. If sixteen cars of average mass
1100kg are placed on board, to what extra depth will the boat sink in the water. An[2.4x10-2m]
(04marks)
UNEB 2002 Q 3
a) i) Show that the weight of fluid displaced by an object is equal to the up thrust on the object.
(5mks)
223
 ii) A piece of metal of mass 2.60x10-3kg and density 8.4x103kgm-3 is attached to a block of wax of
mass 1.0x10-2 kg and density 9.2x102kgm-3. When the system is placed in a liquid, it floats with
wax just submerged. Find the density of liquid. (04marks)
b) Explain the
i) Terms laminar flow and turbulent flow (04marks)
ii) Effects of temperature on the viscosity of liquids and gases (03marks)
c) i) Distinguish between static pressure and dynamic pressure (02marks)
Solution
a) ii) By law of floatation, a floating body
displaces its own weight of liquid =
Mass of liquid displaced = (2.60x10-3+ 1.0x10-2)
=
= 1.26x10-2kg
of liquid =
Volume of liquid displaced =

UNEB 1998 Q 4
a) i) Distinguish between laminar and turbulent flow (02marks)
ii) What are the origins of viscosity in liquid (02marks)
iii) Explain the temperature dependence of viscosity of a liquid. (02marks)
b) i) State Bernoulli’s principle
ii) Account for the variation of pressure and velocity of a liquid flowing in a horizontal pipe of
varying diameter. (04marks)

224
 CHAPTER 12: SURFACE TENSION
The surface of a liquid behaves like an elastic skin in a state of tension.
It is responsible for the following observations;
1- A needle floating on an undisturbed water surface though made of material which is
denser than water
2- Some insects walk on water surface without sinking
3- Drops of water remaining suspended and becoming nearly spherical when falling from a
tap
4- Mercury gathering into small droplets when spilt

12.1.0: Molecular explanation for existence of surface tension

B

 Liquid molecules attract each other. In the bulk of the liquid the resultant force on any molecule
such as A is zero.
 A surface molecule such as B is subjected to intermolecular forces of attraction below therefore
potential energy of surface molecules exceeds that of the interior. Average separation of the
surface molecules is greater than that of molecules in the interior. At any point on a liquid
surface there is a net force away from that point and this makes the surface behave like an
elastic skin in a state of tension. This accounts for surface tension.

Definition
Surface tension coefficient of a liquid is defined as the force per unit length acting in the surface and
perpendicular to one side of an imaging line drawn in the surface.

F L

Units of are Nm-1

Dimensions of

[ ]
[ ]
[ ]

[ ]
Other units of are kgs-2

225
12.1.2: Factors affecting surface tension
i) Temperature
When the temperature of a liquid is increased, the liquid molecules gain kinetic energy and
the molecules become more free to move and rush to the surface. The number of molecules
in the surface increase, potential energy of the surface molecules is lowered and the
separation of molecules decreases leading to a reduction in the intermolecular attraction, this
reduces tension energy of molecules and hence surface energy tension is also reduced.
ii) Impurities
Impurities detergents and soap get between the molecules of the liquid reducing the
intermolecular forces between the liquids and hence reducing surface tension
iii) Nature of the liquid
Different liquids have different surface tension

12.1.3: SHAPES OF LIQUID SURFACE

The surface of a liquid must be at right angles to the resultant force acting on it otherwise there would
be component of this force parallel to the surface which would cause motion.
Normally a liquid surface is horizontal i.e. at right angles with the force of gravity but where it’s in
contact with the solid it’s usually curved.
The particular form that this curvature takes is determined by the strengths of what are called the
cohesive and adhesive forces.

Definition
Cohesive force is the attractive force exerted on a liquid molecules by the neighboring liquid
molecules.
Adhesive forces is the attractive force exerted on a liquid molecule by the molecules in the surface of
the solid.

Consider a liquid in a container with vertical sides

 If the adhesive force is large comparative with the cohesive force, the liquid tends to stick to the
wall and so has a concave meniscus (curves upwards).

e.g water and glass

Solid surface θ
liquid

226
 If the cohesive force is large compared with adhesive , the liquid surface pulls away from the wall
and the meniscus is convex(curves downwards )

e.g mercury and glass

θ
Solid surface liquid

12.14: ANGLE OF CONTACT θ

This is the angle between the solid surface and the tangent plane to the liquid surface at the point
where it touches the solid measured through the liquid.
From the diagrams above, the meniscus is concave when θ is less than 900 and is convex when θ is
greater than 900.
A liquid is said to wet a surface with which its angle of contact is less than 900.
The angle of contact of water and clean glass is zero, and that between mercury and clean glass is
13 . Thus water wets clean glass, mercury does not.
Addition of a detergent to a liquid lowers its surface tension and reduces the contact angle.

Measurement of angle of contact

Glass plate

θ θ
A Cute Obtuse
A clean glass plate is placed at varying angles to a liquid until the surface on one side of the plate
remains horizontal. The angle θ made between the horizontal surface and the plate is the angle of
contact.

12.3.0: CAPILLARITY
When a capillary tube is immersed in water and the plane vertical with one end of water. Water rises
to a height above the surface of water in the container. This is due to the fact that adhesive forces are
greater than the cohesive forces.
The narrower the tube, the greater is the height to which water rises.

227
 Water

If the capillary tube is dipped inside mercury liquid is depressed below the outside level. This is
because the cohesion of mercury is greater than the adhesion of mercury and glass.
The depression of the tube increases with decreases the diameter of the tube

Mercury

Definition
Capillarity: Is the rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube

12.3.1: Capillary rise

Around the boundary where the liquid surface meets the tube, surface tension forces exert a
downward pull on the tube since they not balanced by any other surface tension forces.
The tube therefore exerts an equal but upwards force on the liquid which forces it to rise. The liquid
stops rising when the weight of the raised column acting downwards equals to vertical component of
the upward force exerted by the tube in the liquid.

γ
γ cosθ
Capillary tube of internal
Weight W V g
radius r W Ah g
θ W r2h g ----------------- [2]
h
At equilibrium
Liquid of density ρ Weight = vertical component of surface tension
W F
Force acting upwards F = cos θ x L
r2h g r
But L 2 r
h
F cos θx2 r ------------[1]

228
 12.3.2: Capillary depression
Consider mercury inside a tube and the angle of contact θ
Equating

But P1 H(atmospheric)
h g

----------------------------- [1]

Also: P2 ------------------------- [2]

Example
1. A clean glass capillary tube of internal diameter 0.04cm is held with its lower end dipped in water
contained in a beaker and with 12cm of the tube above the surface of water.
i) To what height will water rise in the tube.
ii) What will happen if the tube is now depressed until only 4cm of its length is above the
surface.
( of water =7.0x10-2Nm-1, of water =1000kgm-3)
Solution

i) Using h =

But for a clean glass of water θ =0

h
( *

h 0.071m
ii) If only 4cm of the tube is left above the water surface, this length is less than h in part (i) above
so water must change its angle of contact so that it can fit the 4cm

h
-

-
( )

θ=55.90
water forms a new surface with an angle of contact 560
2. A U-tube is made with an internal diameter of one arm 2.0cm and the other 4mm and mercury is
poured in the two tubes. If the angle of contact of mercury with glass after exposure to air is 1600.
What will be the difference in level of surface in the tubes, take surface tension of mercury as
0.0472Nm-1
229
 Solution
r1=2x10-3m r2=1x10-2m 13600kgm-3(density of mercury)
=0.0472 θ=180-1600 θ=200(we subtracted to obtain a positive value of the )
Note: we only subtract for angles greater than 900

h1 3.32x10-4m Difference =h1- h2

=
h2 6.65x10-5m

Exercise: 32
1. A liquid of density 1000kg and surface tension , dipped in it is a capillary
tube with a bore radius of 0.5mm. If the angle of contact is 00 determine,
i) the height of the column of the liquid rise
ii) if the tube is pushed until its 2cm above the level of the liquid, explain in what
happen An[2.96x10-2m, 47.50]

2. The two vertical arms of manometer containing water, have different internal radii of 10-3m
and 2x10-3m respectively. Determine the difference in height of the two liquids levels when the
arms are open to the atmosphere. (surface tension and density of water are 1

and 103kgm-3 respectively) An[7.14x10-3m]

3. The end of a clean glass capillary tube having internal diameter 0.6mm is dipped into a beaker
containing water, which rises up the tube to a vertical height of 5.0cm above the water surface in
the beaker. Calculate the surface tension of water (Density of water =1000kg , g=10ms-2).
What would be the difference if the tube were not perfectly clean so that the water did not wet it,
but had an angle of contact of 300 with the tube surface.
An[7.5x10Nm-1, the water would rise to only 4.3cm]

4. A capillary tube which is clean is immersed in water of surface tension and water
rises 6.2cm in the capillary tube. What will be the difference in the mercury level, if the same
capillary tube is immersed in the mercury (surface tension of mercury = 0.84 N , angle of
contact between mercury and glass =1400, of mercury = , of water =1 kg 3)

An[h=4.2cm]

230
5. Mercury is poured into glass U-tube with vertical limbs of diameters 2.0mm and 12.0mm
respectively. If the angle of contact between mercury and the glass is 140 and the surface tension
of mercury is 0.52N , calculate the difference in the levels of mercury. (density of mercury is
) An( )

6. A U-tube with limbs of diameter 7mm and 4mmm contains water of surface tension ,
angle of contact and density 1000kg . Find the difference in the levels.

7. A glass U-tube is such that the diameter of one limb 4.0mm while that of the other is 8.0mm. the
tube is inverted vertically with the open ends below the surface of water in a beaker. Given that
surface tension of water is , angle of contact between water and glass is zero, and
that density of water is 1000kg . What is the difference between the heights to which water
rises in the two limbs.

8. Calculate the height to which the liquid rises in the capillary tube of diameter 0.4mm placed
vertically inside
(i) A liquid of density and surface tension and angle of
contact 3
(ii) Mercury of angle of contact 139 and surface tension 0.52N
An[0.032m, 0.0294m]

12.4.O: Measurement of of water by capillary tube method

Traveling microscope

P
Water

Beaker

 A clean capillary tube is dipped in water as shown and a wire p which is bent is tied along the
capillary tube with a rubber band.
 When the tube is dipped into water, the wire p is adjusted so that its top just touches the
surface of the water.
 A travelling microscope is focused on the water meniscus in the capillary tube and the reading
noted, say h1.

231
  The beaker is then removes and the travelling microscope is focused on the tip of the wire p
and scale reading h2 is noted.
 The height of the water rise h=/h1-h2/.
 The capillary tube is removed and its diameter and hence radius , r is determined by using a
travelling microscope. The surface tension can be obtained from ;

h=

= for clean glass of water θ=00

12.2.0: PRESSURE DIFFERENCE ACROSS A SPHERICAL INTERFACE

The pressure inside a soap bubble is greater than the pressure of the air outside the bubble. If this
were not so, the combined effect of the external pressure and the surface tension forces in the soap
film would cause the bubble to collapse, similarly the pressure inside an air bubble in a liquid exceeds
the pressure in the liquid and the pressure inside a mercury drop is greater than that outside it.

12.2.1: Pressure difference across an air bubble

Consider an air bubble of radius r which is spherical and formed in a liquid of surface tension

Liquid
P2 P1
P1
P2

P1 = External pressure on the bulb due to the liquid

P2 = internal pressure of air in the bubble
Considering half of the bubble. The remaining half experiences surface tension force due to the other
half and this force acts towards the right.

P1 P2 F=γL

For the bubble to maintain its shape the, internal pressure should be bigger than the external
pressure.
At equilibrium; Force due to P2 force due to P1 surface tension
232
 AP2 AP1+ L
r2P2 r2P1+2 r

r2(P2 P1) 2 r

OR Excess pressure

Note:
The pressure inside an air bubble is greater than that outside, otherwise the combined effect of the
external pressure and the surface tension forces in the air bubble to collapse.
The same case can be extended to a soap bubble.

Example
Calculate the pressure inside a spherical air bubble of diameter 0.1cm blown at depth of 20cm below
the surface of a liquid of density 1.26 and surface tension 0.064N .(height of mercury
barometer is 0.76m, and density of mercury is ).

Solution
H P1 101643Pa
Excess pressure of air bubble
P2 P1
h
P2 101643
P1 P2 P2 1.02x105Pa

P1
P1 1.26 9.81

12.2.2: Excess pressure (pressure difference) for a soap bubble

For a soap bubble of radius r, there are two surfaces of liquid in contact with air (the air inside the
bubble and air outside the bubble). Therefore the total length of surface in contact with air is 2L such
that surface tension force.
F=2L

P1 P2 F=2γL

At equilibrium : Inside force due to P2 external force due to P1 surface tension force
AP2 AP1 L

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 r2P2 r2P1 4 r

r2(P2 P1) 4 r

Excess pressure =

Example
A soap bubble has a diameter of 4mm. calculate the pressure inside it, if the atmospheric pressure is
N , and that the surface tension of soap solution is

Solution
P2
P2 P1 P2 1.0006x105Pa

12.1.1: FREE SURFACE ENERGY ( )

It is defined as the work done in creating a unit area of a new surface under isothermal conditions .
Units of are Jm-2 or Nm-1

Consider stretching a thin film of a liquid on a horizontal frame as shown below. Since the film has
both an upper and lower surface, the force F on AB due to surface tension is given by
F=2 L ------------------[1]
X
A A1

L
B B1

Liquid film Movable Rigid frame

wire
If AB is moved a distance x to A1B1, then work has to be done against this force
Work done = force x distance
----------------------------[2]
The increases in surface area is 2LX (upper and lower surface).
Therefore the work done per unit area increases the surface energy ( ) is given by;

free surface energy surface tension

Alternative definition of
Is the work done per unit area in increasing the surface area of a liquid under isothermal conditions.

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Example
1. Calculate the work done against surface tension force on blowing a soap bubble of diameter
15mm , if the surface tension of the soap solution is 3.0x10-2Nm-1.
Solution

Work done increase in surface area (2 4π )

3.0 2 4 ( )

Work done 4.241 1 J

Increases in surface area is multiplied by 2 for both the upper and lower surface of a soap
bubble.

2. Calculate the change in surface energy of a soap bubble when its radius decreases from 5cm to 1cm,
given that the surface tension of soap solution is
Solution

Work done increase in surface area (2 4π )

5cm bubble: Work done 2.0 2 4 ( ) 1.257 1 J

1cm bubble: Work done 2.0 2 4 ( ) 5.027 1 J

Change in surface energy =1.257 1

3. A liquid drop of diameter 0.5cm breaks up into 27 tiny droplets all of the same size. If the surface
tension of the liquid is 0.07N calculate the resulting change in energy.
Solution
Diameter of big drop, D= 0.5cm
Volume of big drop ( )

Volume of 27 tiny droplets

( )

Work done increase in surface area (4π )

Big drop: Work done 0.07 4 ( ) 5.5 1 J

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 27 drop lets: Work done 0.07 4 ( ) 1.637 1 J

Change in surface energy =1.637 1

4. Calculate the work done in breaking up a drop of water of radius 0.5cm in to tiny droplets of water
each of radius 1mm assuming isothermal conditions, given that surface tension of water is
N .
Solution
Radius of big drop, R= 0.5cm and Radius of n tiny droplets, r= 1mm
Volume of big drop ( )

Volume of n tiny droplets ( )

( ) ( )

Work done increase in surface area (4π )

Big drop: Work done 4 ( ) 2.2 1 J

125 drop lets: Work done 4 ( ) 1.1 1 J

Change in surface energy =1.1 1

EXERCISE: 33
1. A spherical drop of mercury of radius 2mm falls to the ground and breaks into 10smaller drops of
equal size. Calculate the amount of work that has to be done.
(Surface tension of mercury = 4.72 x 10-1 Nm-1) An[2.74x10-5J ]

Relationship between surface area and shape of a drop

The area of a liquid has the least number of molecules in it under surface tensional forces. Surface are
of a given volume of a liquid is there minimum when its is spherical and this explains why the
meniscus and small droplets of mercury and rain are spherical in shape.

Why small mercury droplets are spherical and larger one flatten out
A small drop takes on a spherical shape to minimize the surface energy which tends to be greater than
the gravitational potential energy. Therefore, the gravitational potential force cannot distort the
spherical shape due to the very small mass of tiny droplets.

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A large drop flattens out in order to minimize the gravitational potential energy, which tends to exceed
the surface energy. Due to its large weight, gravitational force distorts the spherical shape of large
drops. The shape of the drop must agree with the principle that the sum of gravitational potential
energy and surface energy must be a minimum

COMBINED BUBBLES
CASE 1
A soap bubble x of radius r1, and another bubble y of radius r2, are brought together so that the
combined bubble has a common interface of radius R. show that
R

Solution
Common interface P1 P2

P1 P2 ----------------------- [3]
Y
X
H P1 P1
P2 Excess pressure at the interface
P2
H
P1- P2 ------------------------------ [4]

Equating equation 3 and equation 4

Excess pressure on x
P1 H ------------------------------ [1]

Excess pressure on y
P2 H ------------------------------ [2]

Equation –equation 2 gives R

Example
1. A soap bubble x of radius 0.03m and another bubble y on radius,0.04m are brought together so
that the combined bubble has a common interface of radius r. calculate r
Solution
Using r –
0.12m

2. Two soaps bubble A and B of radii 6cm and 10cm respectively coalesce so that the combined
bubble has a common interface . calculate the radius of curvature of this common surface and
hence the pressure difference. Given that surface tension of soap is

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 Solution
Using r –
0.15m

pressure difference

CASE 2
Two bubbles of a soap solution of radii r1 and r2 of surface tension and pressure P coalence
under isothermal conditions to form one bubble. Find the expression for the radius of the bubble
formed.
Solution
Let R be the radius of the new bubble A2 be the surface area of bubble with radius r2
A1 be the surface area of bubble with radius r1 A be the surface area of bubble with radius R
Under isothermal conditions, work done in enlarging the surface area of a bubble is given by
2 A 2 A1+2 A2
2 4π 2 4π

Examples
1. Two soap bubbles have radii of 3cm and 4cm, the bubbles are in a vacuum and they combine to
form a single larger bubble. Calculate the radius of this bubble
Solution

√ √

2. Two soap bubbles of radii 2cm and 4cm respectively coalesce under isothermal conditions. If the
surface tension of the soap solution is
Solution

√ √( ) ( ) √

pressure difference
√

EXERCISE: 34

238
1. A soap bubble whose radius is 12mm becomes attracted to one of radius 20mm. Calculate the
radius of curvature of the common interface. An[30mm]

2. Two soap bubbles of radii 2.0cm and 4.0cm respectively coalesce under isothermal conditions.
If the surface tension of the soap solution is 2.5x10-2Nm-1. Calculate the excess pressure inside
the resulting soap bubble. An[2.36Pa]

UNEB 2009 Q.4

C) i)Define surface tension in terms of work (1mk)
ii)Use the molecular theory to account for the surface tension of liquid (4mk)
iii)Explain the effect of increasing temperature of a liquid on its surface tension (4mk)
iv) Calculate the excess pressure inside a soap bubble of diameter 3.0cm if the surface tension
of the soap solution is 2.5x10-2Nm-1. An[6.67Pa] (2mk)

UNEB 2008 Q.3

c) i) Define surface tension (01mark)
ii) Explain the origin of surface tension (03marks)
iii) Describe an experiment to measure the surface tension of a liquid by the capillary
method (06marks)

UNEB 2002 Q.4

a) Define the term surface tension in terms of surface energy
(01mark)
b) i) Calculate the work done against surface tension is blowing a soap bubble of diameter
15mm, if the
surface tension of the soap solution is 3.0x10-2Nm-1 An [4.24x10-5J] (03marks)
ii) A soap bubble of a radius r1 is attached to another bubble of radius r2. If r1 is less than r2. Show
that the radius of curvature of the common interface is (05marks)

UNEB 2001 Q.3

a) Define surface tension and derive its dimension (3mk)
b) Explain using the molecular theory the occurrence of surface tension (4mk)

239
c) Describe an experiment to measure surface tension of a liquid by the capillary tube method
(6mk)
d) i)Show that the excess pressure in a soap bubble is given by P =

ii) Calculate the total pressure within a bubble of air of radius 0.1mm in water, if the bubble is
formed 10cm below the water surface and surface tension of water is 7.27x10-2Nm-1.
[Atmospheric pressure =1.01x105Pa] An 1.03x105Pa
END

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