MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES

- AMEM 201 –
Lecture 3: Casting Technology

DR. SOTIRIS L. OMIROU

Manufacturing Processes - classification -

CASTING Casting A manufacturing process that pours a liquid
material into a hollow mold until the material cools
into a solidified shape

FORMING Forming operations change the geometry of the

starting material without cutting it.
it.

Material removal or machining processes remove a

MATERIAL
part of the starting material using a tool to get the
REMOVAL
desired geometry

JOINING Combining processes join two materials or deposit

material onto the exterior surface of the starting
material
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 CASTING - Basics -

A material in a liquid or semisolid form is poured or forced

to flow into a die cavity and allowed to solidify, thus taking
the solid shape of the cavity

The process can be applied on metals and plastics

The term casting is commonly used for metals and the

term molding is used for plastics

Examples: door handles, locks, the outer casing or housing for

motors, pumps, etc., wheels of many cars. Casting is also heavily
heavily
used in the toy industry to make parts, e.g. toy cars, planes, etc.
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CASTING - Basics -

Advantages of casting:

(a) Casting can produce very complex geometry

parts with internal cavities.
cavities

(b) It can be used to make small (few hundred grams) to

very large size parts (thousands of kilograms)

(c) It is economical, with very little wastage: the extra

metal in each casting is re-
re-melted and re-
re-used

(d) Cast metal is isotropic. It has the same physical

and mechanical properties along any direction.
direction
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 CASTING - Basics -

SAND CASTING (animation)

Sand casting is a method involving pouring a molten metal into a

sand mold.

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 SAND CASTING (Description)

The typical mold for a sand casting is shown in the picture:

SAND CASTING (Description…)

The set of channels through which a molten metal flows to the mold
cavity is called gating system.
Typical gating system consists of a pouring cup and a sprue receiving
the poured melt, runner – a channel through which the melt is
supplied to the gates through which the molten metal enters the mold
cavity.

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 SAND CASTING (Description…)
A gating system may include a riser (feed head) – a cavity connected
to the gating system feeding the casting when it is shrinking.
Air within the mold cavity and gases formed when a molten metal
contacts the mold surface are removed through the vents.
The interior cavities of a casting are formed by a separate inserts called
cores. Cores are usually made of sand and baked.

SAND CASTING (Description…)

A mold frame (flask) consists of two parts: cope (the upper part) and
drag (the lower part).
A mold cavity is formed in the process of pattern molding, when the
pattern (commonly wooden) is embedded in sand in the flask forming
an impression of the casting.

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 SAND CASTING (Description…)
After the sand packing the pattern is removed from the flask and the
cores and the gating system are arranged.
Cores, runner and gates are arranged in the drag; pouring cap and
sprue are placed in the cope.
Then the two parts of the mold are assembled and poured.
After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired temperature, the
casting is removed from the mold by the process called shakeout.

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SAND CASTING
(Advantages/Disadvantages)

Advantages
Disadvantages
– Inexpensive mold – Labor intensive
– Complex geometry – Slower production rate
– All alloys – Rough surface finish
– Unlimited size – Loose tolerances
– Economical in low – Requires relatively thick
quantities walls (>3mm)

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 SAND CASTING
(Important considerations)

(a) How do we make the pattern?

Usually craftsmen will carve the part shape by hand and machines
to the exact size.

(b) Why is the pattern not exactly identical to the part shape?

- you only need to make the outer surfaces with the pattern; the
inner surfaces are made by the core

- you need to allow for the shrinkage of the casting after the metal
solidifies

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SAND CASTING
(Important considerations)
(c) Why the surfaces in the original part design are slightly
inclined?

In order to avoid damaging the surface of the mould when

removing the pattern and the wood-pieces for the vents, pouring
cup and sprue, risers etc., it is important to incline the vertical
surfaces of the part geometry. This (slight) inclination is called a
taper.

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 SAND CASTING (VIDEO)

http://www.designinsite.dk/htmsider/pb0211wmv.htm
or
Video of sand casting

CD (sand casting)

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SHELL-MOLD CASTING
(Description)

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 SHELL-MOLD CASTING
(Sequential Operations)

(a) A heated pattern is placed over a dump box

containing a sand and resin mixture.

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SHELL-MOLD CASTING
(Sequential Operations)

(b)The box is inverted and a shell partially cures around the

pattern

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 SHELL-MOLD CASTING
(Sequential Operations)

(c)The box is righted, the top is removed, and placed in an

oven to further cure the shell.

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SHELL-MOLD CASTING
(Sequential Operations)

(d) The shell is stripped from the pattern

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 SHELL-MOLD CASTING
(Sequential Operations)

(e)Matched shells are then joined and supported in a flask

ready for pouring.

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SHELL-
SHELL-MOLD CASTING

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 SHELL-MOLD CASTING
(Advantages/Disadvantages)

Advantages
Disadvantages
– Better accuracy – Limited part size
– Finish
– Higher production
rate

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EXPENDABLE-MOLD CASTING
(Description)

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 EXPENDABLE-MOLD CASTING
(Description)
The pattern used in this process is made from polystyrene
(this is the light, white packaging material which is used to pack
electronics inside the boxes). Polystyrene foam is 95% air bubbles,
and the material itself evaporates when the liquid metal is poured on it.

The pattern itself is made by molding – the polystyrene beads and

pentane are put inside an aluminum mold, and heated; it expands to
fill the mold, and takes the shape of the cavity.

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EXPENDABLE -MOLD CASTING

(Advantages/Disadvantages)

Advantages
Disadvantages
– Very cheap – Patterns have low strength
– Good surface finish
– Complex geometry
– Simple design process

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 INVESTMENT CASTING (Description)
Investment (lost wax) casting is
an ancient method of precision
casting complex near-net-shape
details.
The investment casting process
uses expendable patterns made
of investment casting wax

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INVESTMENT CASTING (Description)

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INVESTMENT CASTING (Description)

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INVESTMENT CASTING (Description)

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 INVESTMENT CASTING (Description)

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INVESTMENT CASTING
(Advantages/Disadvantages)

Advantages
Disadvantages
 Good dimensional  Long production cycle
accuracy  Mold is not reusable
 Relatively inexpensive
mold
 Rapid production rates
possible
 Complex shapes

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 INVESTMENT CASTING
(VIDEO)

Investment casting (RLS)

CD Video of investment casting

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PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

(Description)

Permanent mold casting is a casting process involving pouring a molten

metal by gravity into a steel (or cast iron) mold.

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 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING (Description)

3 Steps in permanent mold casting:

Step 1: mold is preheated and coated
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PERMANENT MOLD CASTING (Description)

Steps in permanent mold casting:

Step 2: cores (if used) are inserted and mold is
closed.
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 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING (Description)

Steps in permanent mold casting:

Step 3: molten metal is poured into the mold,
where it solidifies. 37

PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

(Description)

The permanent mold casting is similar to the sand casting process

In distinction from sand molds which are broken after each casting
a permanent mold may be used for pouring of at least one
thousand and up to 100,000 casting cycles.

Manufacturing metal mold is much more expensive than

manufacturing sand molds or investment casting process mold.
Minimum number of castings for profitable use of a permanent
mold is dependent on the complexity of its shape.

Ferrous and no-ferrous metals and alloys are cast by the

permanent mold casting process. 38

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 Casting: Aluminum piston
Permanent Mold Casting:

As cast After machining

Kalpakjian
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PERMANENT MOLD CASTING

(Advantages/Disadvantages)

Advantages
Disadvantages
 Better mechanical  Costly mold,
properties;
properties;  simpler shapes only
 Homogeneous grain
structure and chemical
composition;
 Low shrinkage and gas
porosity;
porosity;
 Good surface quality;
 Low dimensions
tolerances 40

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 DIE CASTING (Description)
Die casting is a permanent mold casting process in which the molten metal is
injected into the mold cavity at an increased pressure. The mold used in the die
casting process is called a die. The molten metal injection is carried out by a
machine called die casting machine.

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DIE CASTING (animation)

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 DIE CASTING (Description)

Pressure is maintained during solidification, then

mold is opened and part is removed

Use of high pressure to force metal into die

cavity is what distinguishes this from other
permanent mold processes

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DIE CASTING MACHINES

Designed to hold and accurately close two mold

halves and keep them closed while liquid metal
is forced into cavity

Two main types:

1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects

liquid metal under high pressure into the die

High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon

Applications limited to low melting-point metals
that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components

Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
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Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in hot-
hot-chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn,
molten metal flows into the chamber 46

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in hot-
hot-chamber casting:
(2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.
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Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber

from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity

High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step

Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys

Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its
use on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

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 Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in cold-chamber casting:

(1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is
poured into the chamber 49

Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in cold-chamber casting:

(2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.

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 DIE CASTING (Machinery)

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DIE CASTING
(Advantages/Disadvantages)

Advantages
Disadvantages
 Die casting is a highly  Expensive die
productive method of  Small parts
casting parts with low  Complex and large
dimensions tolerance machinery: expensive
and high surface
quality

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 DIE CASTING

CD Video
Hot & Cold Chamber Machines

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CENTRIFUGAL CASTING (Description)

Centrifugal casting is a method of casting parts having axial symmetry. The
method involves pouring molten metal into a cylindrical mold spinning about its
axis of symmetry. The mold is kept rotating till the metal has solidified.
As the mold material steels, Cast irons, Graphite may be used.
A centrifugal casting machine is schematically presented in the picture:

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 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING (Description)

Centrifugal casting is carried out as follows:

•The mold wall is coated by a refractory ceramic coating
•Starting rotation of the mold at a predetermined speed.
•Pouring a molten metal directly into the mold
•The mold is stopped after the casting has solidified.
•Extraction of the casting from the mold.

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CENTRIFUGAL CASTING (animation)

Horizontal centrifugal casting video

Vertical centrifugal casting video

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 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING (types)

Vertical centrifugal casting is more suitable for cylinders with

a ring geometry (diameter > length). 57

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING (types)

Horizontal centrifugal casting is more suitable for tube

geometries (diameter < length). 58

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 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
(Advantages/Disadvantages)

Advantages
Disadvantages
 Large cylindrical parts  Expensive
 Good quality  Limited shapes

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CENTRIFUGAL CASTING - Products

Centrifugal casting technology is widely used for manufacturing of
iron pipes, bushings, wheels, pulleys bi-metal steel-bronze bearings
and other parts possessing axial symmetry

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 VACUUM-CASTING (Description)
In this case, the material is sucked upwards into the mold by a
vacuum pump. The mold in an inverted position from the usual
casting process, is lowered into the flask with the molten metal.

(a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. 61

VACUUM-CASTING (Description)
One advantage of vacuum casting is that by releasing the
pressure a short time after the mold is filled, we can release the
un-solidified metal back into the flask. This allows us to create
hollow castings. Since most of the heat is conducted away
from the surface between the mold and the metal, therefore the
portion of the metal closest to the mold surface always solidifies
first; the solid front travels inwards into the cavity. Thus, if the
liquid is drained a very short time after the filling, then we get a
very thin walled hollow object, (see Figure):

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 Solidification Time
Total solidification time TTS is the time required for
casting to solidify after pouring.

TTS depends on size and shape of casting by
relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule
n
V 
TST = Cm  
 A
where,
TST = total solidification time;
V = volume of the casting;
A = surface area of casting;
n = exponent with typical value = 2;
Cm is mold constant. 63

Mold Constant in Chvorinov's Rule

Mold constant Cm depends on:
– Mold material
– Thermal properties of casting metal
– Pouring temperature relative to melting point

Value of Cm for a given casting operation can be based

on experimental data from previous operations carried
out using same mold material, metal, and pouring
temperature,
temperature, even though the shape of the part may be
quite different

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 CASTING DEFECTS - Definition

Casting Defects are discontinuities in castings that exhibit a

size, shape, orientation, or location that makes them
detrimental to the useful service life of the casting

Some casting defects are remedied by minor repair or

refurbishing techniques.

Other casting defects are cause for rejection of the casting

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CASTING DEFECTS
(Types and description )

1. Metallic projections
2. Cavities
3. Discontinuities
4. Defective Surfaces
5. Inclusions

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 CASTING DEFECTS 1. Metallic projections

Fins are excessive amounts of metal created by solidification into the

parting line of the mold. Fins are removed by grinding or sandblasting

Swells are excessive amounts of metal in the vicinity of gates or

beneath the sprue

Scabs are surface slivers caused by splashing and rapid solidification

of the metal when it is first poured and strikes the mold wall
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CASTING DEFECTS 2. Cavities

Blowholes and pinholes are holes formed by gas entrapped

during solidification

Shrinkage cavities are cavities that have a rougher shape

and sometimes penetrate deep into the casting. Shrinkage
cavities are caused by lack of proper feeding or non-progressive
solidification

Porosity is pockets of gas inside the metal caused by micro-

shrinkage, e.g. dendritic shrinkage during solidification.

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 CASTING DEFECTS 3. Discontinuities

A hot tear is a fracture formed during solidification because of

hindered contraction

A hot crack is a crack formed during cooling after solidification

because of internal stresses developed in the casting

Lack of fusion is a discontinuity caused when two streams of liquid

in the solidifying casting meet but fail to unite

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CASTING DEFECTS 4. Defective Surfaces

Casting surface irregularities that are caused by incipient freezing from

too low a casting temperature
Wrinkles, depressions and adhering sand particles

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 CASTING DEFECTS 5. Inclusions

Particles of foreign material in the metal matrix.

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Casting Process Application examples

Sand engine blocks, cylinder heads

Shell mold connecting rods, gear housings
Expendable pattern cylinder heads, brake components
Investment jewellery
Permanent mold gears, gear housings
Die precision gears, camera bodies, car
wheels
Centrifugal pipes, boilers

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