Problems Ted Eisenberg, Section Editor

*********************************************************
This section of the Journal offers readers an opportunity to exchange interesting mathematical
problems and solutions. Please send them to Ted Eisenberg, Department of Mathematics,
Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, Israel or fax to: 972-86-477-648. Questions concerning
proposals and/or solutions can be sent e-mail to <eisenbt@013.net>. Solutions to previously
stated problems can be seen at <http://www.ssma.org/publications>.

————————————————————–

Solutions to the problems stated in this issue should be posted before

October 15, 2018

5499: Proposed by Kenneth Korbin, New York, NY

Given a triangle with sides (21, 23, 40). The sum of these digits is
2 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 0 = 12. Find primitive pythagorean triples in which the sum of the
digits is 12 or less.

5500: Proposed by Moshe Stupel, “Shaanan” Academic College of Education and

Gordon Academic College of Education, and Avi Sigler, “Shaanan” Academic College of
Education, Haifa, Israel
3
Without the use of a calculator, show that: 8 sin 20◦ · sin 40◦ · sin 60◦ · sin 80◦ = .
2

5501: Proposed by D.M. Bătinetu-Giurgiu, Bucharest, Romania, Neculai Stanciu,

“George Emil Palade” School Buzău, Romania and Titu Zvonaru, Comănesti, Romania
Determine all real numbers a, b, x, y that simultaneously satisfy the following relations:


 (1) ax + by = 5



ax2 + by 2 = 9

(2)



(3) ax3 + by 3 = 17








ax4 + by 4 = 33.

(4)

5502: Proposed by Daniel Sitaru, “Theodor Costescu” National Economic College,

Drobeta Turnu-Severin, Mehedinti, Romania
Prove that if a, b, c > 0 and a + b + c = e then
e e e 2 2 2
eac · eba · ecb > ee · abe · bce · cae .
1 n
 
Here, e = lim 1+ 1
n→∞ n
5503: Proposed by José Luis Dı́az-Barrero, Barcelona Tech, Barcelona, Spain
Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be positive real numbers with n ≥ 2. Prove that
(am m m
1 a2 + a2 a3 + · · · + an a1 )
m 1
m m m m+1
≤ ,
(a1 + a2 + · · · an ) n
where m is a positive integer.

5504: Proposed by Ovidiu Furdui and Alina Sı̂ntămărian both at the Technical
University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Let n ≥ 0 be an integer. Calculate
1
xn
Z
 1  dx,
0 x
where bxc denotes the integer part of x.

Solutions

5481: Proposed by Kenneth Korbin, New York, NY

A triangle with integer area has integer length sides (3, x, x + 1). Find five possible
values of x with x > 4.

Solution 1 by Dionne Bailey, Elsie Campbell, Charles Diminnie, and Trey

Smith, Angelo State University, San Angelo, TX
For our approach, we will need to find positive integer solutions for the equation
m2 − 8k 2 = 9. (1)
One way to do so is to first solve the Pell Equation
X 2 − 8Y 2 = 1 (2)
and then set m = 3X and k = 3Y .
Following the usual process for solving (2), we note that the solution with the smallest
X value is X = 3, Y = 1. Then, all solutions (Xn , Yn ) of (2) can be found by setting
√  √ n
Xn + Yn 8 = 3 + 8
for all n ≥ 1. Then, as described above, we get solutions for (1) by setting mn = 3Xn
and kn = 3Yn . The first six solutions for (1) and (2) are listed in the following table:
n Xn Yn mn kn
1 3 1 9 3
2 17 6 51 18
3 99 35 297 105 (3)
4 577 204 1, 731 612
5 3, 363 1, 189 10, 089 3, 567
6 19, 601 6, 930 58, 803 20, 790

2
For the problem at hand, the semiperimeter s of our triangle is

3 + x + (x + 1)
s= =x+2
2
and Heron’s Formula for the area A yields
p
A = s (s − 3) (s − x) (s − x − 1)
p
= (x + 2) (x − 1) (2) (1)
p
= 2 (x2 + x − 2).

For A to be a positive integer, we must find a positive integer k for which

A2 = 2 x2 + x − 2 = 4k 2

or
x2 + x − 2 − 2k 2 = 0. (4)
By the Quadratic Formula, the positive solution of (4) is
p
−1 + 1 + 8 (k 2 + 1)
x=
√ 2
−1 + 8k 2 + 9
= .
2
For x to be a positive integer, we will need

8k 2 + 9 = m2

or
m2 − 8k 2 = 9
for some odd positive integer m. However, table (3) gives us six solutions to use. In each
case, √
−1 + 8k 2 + 9 m−1
x= = and A = 2k.
2 2
The solution m1 = 9 and k1 = 3 yields x = 4, which is ruled out in the statement of the
problem. The other five entries in the table provide five plausible values of x for which
A is a positive integer. These values are listed in our final table:

n mn kn x A
2 51 18 25 36
3 297 105 148 210
4 1, 731 612 865 1, 224
5 10, 089 3, 567 5, 044 7, 134
6 58, 803 20, 790 29, 401 41, 580

Solution 2 by Bruno Salgueiro Fanego, Viveiro, Spain

3
Let p and S be the semi perimeter and the area of such a triangle respectively. Then
2p = 3 + x + x + 1 = 2x + 4 and, by Heron’s formula
p √
S = p(p − 3)(p − x)(p − (x + 1)) = 2x2 + 2x − 4 must be an integer.
It can be easily verified that for each of the five values of x ∈ {25, 148, 865, 5044, 29401}
one obtains triangles that have areas of 36, 210, 1224, 7134, 41580, respectively.
   
x1 25
More generally, if = , then the recurrence given by
S1 36
        
xn+1 3 2 xn 1 xn+1
= + for any integer n ≥ 1, gives a pair
Sn+1 4 3 Sn 2 Sn+1
where xn+1 is the length of a triangle with integer length sides (3, xn+1 , xn+1 + 1)
and Sn+1 is the integer area of that triangle.

Solution 3 by Julio Cesar Mohnsam and Luiz Lemos Junior, both at IFSUL
Campus Pelotas-RS, Brazil
3+x+x+1
Let p be the semi-perimeter p = =x+2
2
The area
p by Heron is given by: p
A = p(p − 3)(p − x)(p − x − 1) = (x + 2)(x − 1)(2)(1)
Then (x + 2)(x − 1)(2) must be a square, that is, 2x2 + 2x − 4 = y 2 , follow that:

2x2 + 2x − y 2 − 4 = 0 (1)
Multiplying (1) by 8 we have:

16x2 + 16x − 8y 2 − 32 = 0 (2)

Adding 4 on both sides of (2) we have:

(4x + 2)2 − 8y 2 − 36 = 0 (3)

Now make X = 4x + 2 and Y = y, we have:

X 2 − 8Y 2 − 36 = 0 (4)
(4) is a diophantine equation of the form ax2 − by 2 + c = 0 in the case of c = −1 we have
the particular case of the equation of Pell x2 − Dy 2 = 1. If (a, b)|c, the equation has a
solution. Let’s solve (4) using the method Florentin Smarandache [1].
We consider the equation

aX 2 − bY 2 + c = 0 (5)
and

aα2 − bβ 2 = a (6)
We set the matrix A from (6) as follows:
b
 
α0 a β0
A=
β0 α0
where (α0 , β0 ) are initial solutions of (6).

4
Now let (X0 , Y0 ) are initial solutions of (5), then the general solutions of (5) are given by
the following recurrence relation:
   
Xn n X0
=A
Yn Y0

Thus, by solving (4) we have to first assemble matrix A from X 2 − 8Y 2 = 1, note that
this Pell equation has initial solution (3, 1), so we have:
 
3 8
A=
1 3
But (4) has initial solution (6, 0). So we have to:
      
X1 3 8 6 18
= =
Y1 1 3 0 6
Like 18 = X1 = 4x1 + 2 → x1 = 4 but we have to find x > 4.
Thus we calculate A2 , such that:
   2       
X2 3 8 6 17 48 6 102
= = =
Y2 1 3 0 6 17 0 36
As 102 = X2 = 4x2 + 2 → x2 = 25 and the lengths of the first triangle are (3, 25, 26). To
find the other values of x we will diagonalize the matrix A. We know that
An = P Dn P − 1.
 
−1 λ1 0
A = P DP = P P −1
0 λ2
√ √
Eigenvalues λ1 = 3+ 2√ 3 and λ2 = 3 −  3√ 
2
2 3 −2 3
Eigenvectors ~v1 = and ~v2 =
1 1
Therefore x = {25, 148, 565, 5044, 29401}
[1] Smarandache F. “Un metodo de resolucion de la ecuacion diofantica. Gazeta
Matematica, Serie 2, Vol. 1, Nr. 2, 1988. Madrid. p. 151-157.

Solution 4 by Brian D. Beasley, Presbyterian College, Clinton, SC

Given such a triangle, its semiperimeter is s = (3 + x + x + 1)/2 = x + 2. Then by
Heron’s formula, its area is
p p
∆ = ((x + 2)(x − 1)(2)(1) = 2(x2 + x − 2),
so we seek integers ∆ and x with x > 4 such that ∆2 = 2x2 + 2x − 4. This equation in
turn is equivalent to
 2
2x + 1 2
 
2 2 ∆
2∆ + 9 = (2x + 1) , or 2 +1= .
3 3
We let a = (2x + 1)/3 and b = ∆/3 in order to solve the Pellian equation 2b2 + 1 = a2 .
This equation has infinitely many integer solutions for a and b, which we may describe
with the sequences
a0 = 1, a1 = 3, and an+2 = 6an+1 − an for n ≥ 0;
b0 = 0, b1 = 2, and bn+2 = 6bn+1 − bn for n ≥ 0.

5
Thus there are infinitely many integers x which satisfy the requirements of the problem,
given by the terms xn (with n ≥ 2) of the sequence
x0 = 1, x1 = 4, and xn+2 = 6xn+1 − xn + 2 for n ≥ 0.
In particular, the next five values of x after 4 are 25, 148, 865, 5044, and 29401.

√
Addenda.√(i) We may also describe the above sequences by letting γ = 3 + 2 2 and
δ = 3 − 2 2. Then an = (γ n + δ n )/2 for each n ≥ 0, which implies that
xn = (3γ n + 3δ n − 2)/4.

(ii) We further note that the ratios an /bn for n ≥ 1 occur as every √
other term in the
sequence of converging to the continued fraction representation of 2.

Comments by Editor : Ioannis D. Sfikas of Athens Greece started his solution off
with some nomenclature and bit of history about the problem.
“A triangle whose sides and area are rational numbers is called a rational triangle. If the
rational triangle is right-angled, it is called a right-angled rational triangle or a rational
Pythagorean triangle or a numerical right triangle. If the sides of a rational triangle is of
integer length, it is called an integer triangle. If further these sides have no common
factor greater than unity, the triangle is called a primitive integer triangle. If the integer
triangle is right-angled, it is called a Pythagorean triangle. A Heronian triangle (named
after Heron of Alexandria) is an integer triangle with the additional property that its
area is also an integer. A Heronian triangle is called primitive Heronian triangle if sides
have no common factor greater than unity. In the 7th century, the Indian mathematician
Brahmagupta studied the special case of triangles with consecutive integer sides.”

Kenneth Korbin, the proposer of this problem √ stated that triangles sides with
lengths (3, x, x + 1) with x ≥ 4 have an area of 2x2 + 2x − 4, and are associated with
the sequences of (25, 148, 865, 5044, 29401, . . . , xN , . . .) that satisfies the recursion of
xN +1 = 6xN − xN −1 + 2.
David Stone and John Hawkins of Southern Georgia University asked in their
solution, why the values of x ≥ 4? Why not x > 0? They then stated that: If

x = 1, the triangle (3, 1, 2) is degenerate;

√
x = 2, the triangle (3, 2, 3) has area √8 and is not Heronian;
x = 3, the triangle (3, 3, 4) has area 20 and is not Heronian; and
x = 4, the right triangle (3, 5, 5) is too easy.

They then asked: What about those Heronian triangles of the form (3, x, x + 2), where x
is an integer. Applying Heron’s Formula they obtained that 16A2 = 20x2 + 40x − 25 and
stated that there are no integer solutions to this for x ≥ 1 because the left-and side is
even while the right hand side is odd.
They then looked at triangles of the form (3, x, x + 3) and stated that the only triangle
of this form is degenerate. Moreover, no triangle of the form (3, x, x + d) can exist for
d > 3.
They continued on with the following:
“Thus the problem poser selected the one form that does admit solutions. Still to be

6
investigated: finding the Heronian triangles of the form (4, x, x + 1), and those of the
form (4, x, x + 2), etc.”
Their solution ended with the statement: “There are no Heronian triangles of the form
(n, x, x + d) for positive integers n and d having opposite parity.”

Also solved by Hatef I. Arshagi, Guilford Technical Community College,

Jamestown, NC; Jeremiah Bartz, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks,
ND; Anthony Bevelacqua University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND; Ed
Gray, Highland Beach, FL; Paul M. Harms, North Newton, KS; Kee-Wai
Lau, Hong Kong, China; Carl Libis, Columbia Southern University, Orange
Beach, AL; David E. Manes, Oneonta, NY; Ioannis D. Sfikas, National and
Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece; Albert Stadler, Herrliberg,
Switzerland; Neculai Stanciu,“George Emil Palade” School, Buzău and Tito
Zvonaru, Comănesti, Romania; David Stone and John Hawkins of Southern
Georgia University, Statesboro, GA, and the proposer.

5482: Proposed by Daniel Sitaru, “Theodor Costescu” National Economic College,

Drobeta Turnu-Severin, Mehedinti, Romania
Prove that if n is a natural number then
(tan5◦ )n (tan4◦ )n (tan3◦ )n 3
◦ n ◦ n
+ ◦ n ◦ n
+ ◦ n ◦ n
≥ .
(tan4 ) + (tan3 ) (tan3 ) + (tan2 ) (tan2 ) + (tan1 ) 2

Solutions 1 and 2 by Henry Ricardo, Westchester Area Math Circle, NY

Solution 1.
Since, for a fixed natural number n, (tan x)n is an increasing positive function for
x ∈ [0, 90◦ ), we have
(tan 5◦ )n (tan 5◦ )n 1
≥ = ,
(tan 4◦ )n + (tan 3◦ )n (tan 5◦ )n + (tan 5◦ )n 2
(tan 4◦ )n (tan 4◦ )n 1
◦ n ◦ n
≥ ◦ n ◦ n
= ,
(tan 3 ) + (tan 2 ) (tan 4 ) + (tan 4 ) 2
(tan 3◦ )n (tan 3◦ )n 1
◦ n ◦ n
≥ ◦ n ◦ n
= ,
(tan 2 ) + (tan 1 ) (tan 3 ) + (tan 3 ) 2
so that adding these inequalities gives us the desired result. Equality holds if and only if
n = 0 (assuming that 0 is considered a natural number).

Solution 2.
Since, for a fixed natural number n, (tan x)n is an increasing positive function for
x ∈ [0, 90◦ ), we have
(tan 3◦ )n (tan 3◦ )n
≥ ,
(tan 2◦ )n + (tan 1◦ )n (tan 4◦ )n + (tan 5◦ )n
and
◦
(tan 4 ) n (tan 4◦ )n
≥ ,
(tan 3◦ )n + (tan 2◦ )n (tan 3◦ )n + (tan 5◦ )n

7
so that
X (tan 3◦ )n (tan 5◦ )n (tan 4◦ )n (tan 3◦ )n
≥ + + .
(tan 2◦ )n + (tan 1◦ )n (tan 4◦ )n + (tan 3◦ )n (tan 3◦ )n + (tan 5◦ )n (tan 4◦ )n + (tan 5◦ )n
cyclic

Setting a = (tan 3◦ )n , b = (tan 4◦ )n , and c = (tan 5◦ )n , we see that the right-hand side of
the last inequality has the form
a b c
+ + ,
b+c c+a a+b
for a, b, c > 0, which is greater than or equal to 3/2 by Nesbitt’s inequality. Equality
holds if and only if n = 0 (assuming that 0 is considered a natural number).

Solution 3 by Ed Gray, Highland Beach, FL

First we retrieve the required values:
1. tan 1◦ = .017455065
2. tan 2◦ = .034920769
3. tan 3◦ = .052407779
4. tan 4◦ = .069926812
5. tan 5◦ = .087488664

We rewrite the problem’s equation as:

1 1 1 3
+ + ≥
tan 4◦ tan 3◦ tan 3◦ tan 2◦ tan 2◦ tan 1◦ 2
◦
+ ◦ ◦
+ ◦ ◦
+ ◦
tan 5 tan 5 tan 4 tan 4 tan 3 tan 3
Substituting the values from steps 1-5 and performing the indicated divisions we define:

1 1 1
f (n) = + + .
(.799267114)n + (.599023652) n n
(.794551256) + (.499433116) n (.66632797) + (.333062483)n
n

We note that f (n) is an increasing function of n since the denominators clearly decrease
as n increases.
3
Finally we note that f (1) = .715158838 + 1.248899272 + 1.000609919 = 2.964668029 > .
2
Then the equality holds for all n since f (n) is an increasing function.

Solution 4 by David Stone and John Hawkins, Georgia Southern University,

Statesboro, GA
cx
Lemma: For fixed positive reals a, b, c with a < c, b < c let f (x) = for x ≥ 0.
bx + ax
1
Then f (x) ≥ , for x ≥ 0, with equality holding only for x = 0.
2
Proof: We calculate the derivative:

(bx + ax ) cx ln c − cx (ax ln a + bx ln b)
f 0 (x) =
(bx + ax )2

8
 (bx + ax ) ln c − (ax ln a + bx ln b)
= cx
(bx + ax )2

bx (ln c − ln b) + ax (ln c − ln a)
= cx .
(bx + ax )2

The ln function is increasing, so ln c > ln b and ln c > ln a; thus we see that the derivative
1
is positive. Hence the function f is increasing, so = f(0) ≤ f (x) for x ≥ 0. Because
2
1
the derivative is strictly positive, the function f actually grows: so f (x) > for x > 0.
2
To verify the inequality of the problem, we note that the tangent function is increasing,
so in each summand the tangent term in the numerator is larger that each tangent term
in the denominator. Hence we can apply the lemma to each of the three summands,
3
forcing the sum ≥ . Note that equality holds if and only if n = 0.
2
Comment: We can apply the lemma to obtain some ugly inequalities which are clearly
true:
3n 4n 5n (n + 2)n n
+ + + · · · + ≥ , and
1n + 2n 2n + 3n 3n + 4n nn + (n + 1)n 2

[(n + 2)!]n 1
≥ .
[n!]n + [(n + 1)!]n 2

Also solved by Arkady Alt, San Jose, CA (two solutions); Paul M. Harms,
North Newton, KS; Kee-Wai Lau, Hong Kong, China; Paolo Perfetti,
Department of Mathematics, University of Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy; Angel
Plaza, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; Ioannis D. Sfikas,
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece; Albert Stadler,
Herrliberg, Switzerland, and the proposers

5483: Proposed by D.M. Bătinetu-Giurgiu, “Matei Basarab” National College,

Bucharest and Neculai Stanciu, “George Emil Palade” School Buzău, Romania
 π
If a, b > 0, and x ∈ 0, then show that
2
sin x 2ab tan x 6ab
(i) (a + b) · + · ≥ .
x a+b x a+b
√
(ii) a · tan x + b · sin x > 2x ab.

Solution 1 by Paolo Perfetti, Department of Mathematics, Tor Vergata

University, Rome, Italy
Proof of (i).

9
The AHM yields
4
a+b≥ 1 1 ⇐⇒ (a + b)2 ≥ 4ab
a + b
and then
sin x 2ab tan x 4ab sin x 2ab tan x
(a + b) · + · ≥ · + ·
x a+b x a+b x a+b x
Thus we prove
4ab 2ab 6ab
· sin x + · tan x − x≥0
a+b a+b a+b
This is equivalent to
.
f (x) = 4 sin x + 2 tan x − 6x ≥ 0
2
f 0 (x) = 4 cos x + −6
cos2 x
 
00 4 sin x 4
f (x) = −4 sin x + = 4 sin x −1 >0
cos3 x cos3 x
via cos x ∈ (0, 1) for 0 < x < π/2. Since f 0 (0) = f (0) = 0 we get f (x) ≥ 0.

Proof of (ii).
Let √
f (x) = a · tan x + b · sin x − 2x ab,f (0) = 0
√ √ √
r
0 a a ab cos x
f (x) = + b cos x − 2 ab ≥ + b cos x − 2 ab ≥ 2 − 2 ab = 0
cos2 x cos x cos x
and this concludes the proof.

Solution 2 by Arkady Alt, San Jose, CA

(i) First we will prove inequality
tan x 2 sin x
tan x + 2 sin x > 3x ⇐⇒ + > 3, x ∈ (0, π/2) .
x x
1
Let h (x) := tan x + 2 sin x − 3x, x ∈ (0, π/2) . Since h0 (x) = + 2 cos x − 3 =
cos2 x
(2 cos x + 1) (1 − cos x)2
> 0, x ∈ (0, π/2) then h (x) > h (0) = 0.
cos2 x  
sin x 2ab tan x 2ab 2 sin x
Hence, (a + b) + · > (a + b) sin x + · 3− =
x a+b x a+b x
sin x (a − b)2
 
sin x 4ab 6ab 6ab 6ab
a+b− + = · + ≥ .
x a+b a+b x a+b a+b a+b
√ a √
(ii) Let h (x) := a tan x + b sin x− 2x ab. Since h0 (x) = + b cos x− 2 ab ≥
√ cos2 x
√ √
r
a 1 − cos x
2 2
· b cos x− 2 ab = 2 ab · √ > 0 then h (x) > h (0) = 0 ⇐⇒
cos x √ cos x
a tan x + b sin x > 2x ab.

Solution 3 by Kee-Wai Lau, Hong Kong, China

10
  π x3 x3
It is well known that for x ∈ 0, , we have sin x − and tan x ≥ x + . Since
2 6 3
4ab + (a − b)2 4ab
a+b= ≥ , so the left side of (i) is greater than or equal to
a+b a+b
x2 x2
      
2ab 2 sin x + tan x 2ab 6ab
≥ 2 1− + 1+ = ,
a+b x a+b 6 3 a+b

as required.
 π x2 x4
It is also well known that for x ∈ 0, , cos x ≤ 1 − + , so that
2 2 24
2
x3 x2 x4 x4 (12 − x2 )
  
sin2 x = x2 cos x ≥ x − − x2 1 − + = ≥ 0.
6 2 24 72

Hence,
r
p √ sin2 x √
a · tan x + b · sin x ≥ 2 (a tan x)(b sin x) = 2 abx ≥ 2 abx
x2 cos x
and (ii) holds.

Also solved by Ioannis D. Sfikas, National and Kapodistrian University of

Athens, Greece; Albert Stadler, Herrliberg, Switzerland; David Stone and
John Hawkins, Southern Georgia University, Statesboro, GA, and the
proposers

5484: Proposed by Mohsen Soltanifar, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University
of Toronto, Canada
Let X1 , X2 be two continuous positive valued random variables on the real line with
corresponding mean, median, and mode x1 , x e1 , x
b1 and x2 , x
e2 , x
b2 respectively. Assume
for their associated CDFs, (Cumulative Distribution Functions) we have

FX1 (t) ≤ FX2 (t) (t > 0).

Prove or give a counter example:

(i) x2 ≤ x1 , (ii) x
f2 ≤ x b2 ≤ x
f1 , (iii) x b1 .

Solution 1 by Albert Stadler, Herrliberg, Switzerland

Z ∞ Z ∞
(i) We have x2 = E(X2 ) = (1 − FX 2 (t))dt ≤ (1 − FX1 (t))dt = E (X1 ) = x1 .
0 0

f2 = 1 . The functions t → FX (t) and t → FX (t)

   
(ii) By definition, FX1 X
f1 = FX X
2 1 2
2 
are monotonically increasing. Therefore FX2 X2 ≤ FX1 (X1 ) implies x
f f f2 ≤ x
f1 .

(iii) We construct a counter example as a follows:

Let p1 (x) = 0, if x ≤ 1/3 or x ≥ 1, p1 (x) = 9x − 3, if 1/3 ≤ x ≤ 2/3, and p1 (x) = 9 − 9x
, if 2/3 ≤ x ≤ 1.

11
Let p2 (x) = 36x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1/6, p2 (x) = 12 − 36x, if 1/6 ≤ x ≤ 1/3, p2 (x) = 0, if x ≤ 0
or x ≥ 1/3.
Z 1 Z 1
p1 (x) and p2 (x) are probability density functions since p1 (x)dx = p2 (x)dx = 1.
0 0
Z x Z x
Obviously, FX 1 (x) = p1 (t)dt ≤ p2 (t)dt = FX2 (x), however xf1 = 3, xf2 = 6.
0 0

Solution 2 by Kee-Wai Lau, Hong Kong, China

We answer (i) and (ii) in the affirmative and (iii) in the negative.

Let X be a continuous random variable on the real line with CDF FX (t) and mean x. It
Z ∞ Z 0
is known that x = (1 − FX (t))dt − FX (t)dt, provided at least one of the two
0 −∞ Z 0 Z 0
integrals is finite. Since X1 , X2 are positive, so FX1 (t)dt = FX2 (t)dt = 0 and
−∞ −∞
(i) follows from the fact that
Z ∞ Z ∞
x2 − x1 = ((1 − FX2 (t)) − (1 − FX1 (t))) dt = (FX1 (t) − FX2 (t)) dt ≤ 0.
0 0

Next we consider the medians, assuming that x e is the least number a satisfying
1
FX (a) = . Suppose, on the contrary, that x f2 > xf1 . Since FX (t) is a non-decreasing
2
x
f1 + x
f2
function and x1 < <x
f2 , we have
2
   
1 x
f1 + x
f2 x
f1 + xf2 1
FX2 (f
x2 ) = > FX2 ≥ FX1 ≥ FX1 (fx1 ) = ,
2 2 2 2

which is false. This proves (ii).

We now show that (iii) does not necessarily hold. Define the probability density
functions fX1 (t) and fX2 (t) of X1 and X2 as follows:
x ≤ 0,

 0

x ≤ 0,
 
 0
 x

 
≤ ≤


 0 x 4, 

 16
 
2x

fX1 (t) = and fX2 (t) = 0 ≤ x ≤ 5,
 8−x  25
4 ≤ x ≤ 8,

 

 
 16

 



 0 x ≥ 5.

0 x≥8
Then

12
 x ≤ 0,

 0

 
0 x ≤ 0,


x2

 

 

 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, 

32
 
 2
x

FX1 (t) = and FX2 (t) = 0 ≤ x ≤ 5,

 −x2 + 16x − 32

 25
4 ≤ x ≤ 8,

 

 



 32 

1 x ≥ 5.



1 x≥8
It is easy to check that FX1 (t) ≤ FX 2 (t) for t > 0, but x
f1 = 4 < 5 = x
f2 .
This completes the solution.

Also solved by the proposer.

5485: Proposed by José Luis Dı́az-Barrero, Barcelona Tech, Barcelona, Spain

Let x, y, z be three positive real numbers. Show that

(4x + 2y + 1)−3 ≥ 3.
Y X
(2x + 3y + z + 1)
cyclic cyclic

Solution 1 by Neculai Stanciu, “George Emil Palade” School, Bazău

Romania and Tito Zvonaru, Comănesti, Romania
We denote 4x + 2y + 1 = a, 4y + 2z + 1 = b, and 4z + 2x + 1 = c. We must prove that
 
(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) 1 1 1
+ + ≥3 (∗)
8 a3 b3 c3
By the AM-GM inequality we have that
√ √ √
(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) 2 ab · 2 bc · 2 ca 8abc
≥ = = abc, (1)
8 8 8
r
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3
3
+ 3 + 3 ≥ 3· 3
· 3· 3 = , (2)
a b c a b c abc
By (1) and (2) we obtain
 
(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) 1 1 1 3
3
+ 3+ 3 ≥ abc · = 3. I.e. (∗)
8 a b c abc

Solution 2 by Nikos Kalapodis, Patras, Greece

By the AM-GM inequality we have
Y X Y 3
(2x + 3y + z + 1) (4x + 2y + 1)−3 ≥ (2x + 3y + z + 1) Y .
cyclic cyclic cyclic (4x + 2y + 1)
cyclic
Y Y
So, it suffices to prove that (2x + 3y + z + 1) ≥ (4x + 2y + 1).
cyclic cyclic

13
After expanding the inequality reduces to
2(x3 +y 3 +z 3 )+x2 +y 2 +z 2 +3(xy 2 +yz 2 +zx2 ) ≥ 3(x2 y +y 2 z +z 2 x)+xy +yz +zx+6xyz.

Since x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≥ xy + yz + zx, it remains to prove that

2(x3 + y 3 + z 3 ) + 3(xy 2 + yz 2 + zx2 ) ≥ 3(x2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x) + 6xyz.
This follows again by using the AM-GM inequality properly:
2(x3 + y 3 + z 3 ) + 3(xy 2 + yz 2 + zx2 ) = 2(x3 + xy 2 ) + 2(y 3 + yz 2 ) + 2(z 3 + zx2 ) + (xy 2 +
yz 2 + zx2 ) ≥ 4x2 y + 4y 2 z + 4z 2 x + (xy 2 + yz 2 + zx2 ) =
3(x2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x) + (x2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x + xy 2 + yz 2 + zx2 ) ≥ 3(x2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x) + 6xyz.

Also solved by Arkady Alt, San Jose, CA; Kee-Wai Lau, Hong Kong, China;
Paolo Perfetti, Department of Mathematics, Tor Vergata University, Rome,
Italy; Kevin Soto Palacios, Huarmey, Perú; Ioannis D. Sfikas, National and
Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece; Albert Stadler, Herrliberg,
Switzerland, and the proposer.

5486: Proposed by Ovidiu Furdui, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca,

Romania
Let (xn )n≥0 be the sequence defined by x0 = 0, x1 = 1, x2 = 1 and
∞
X xn
xn+3 = xn+2 + xn+1 + xn + n, ∀n ≥ 0. Prove that the series converges and find
2n
n=1
its sum.

Solution 1 by Ángel Plaza, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain.

The recurrence sequence may be unmasked by generating functions. Let F (z) be the
∞
X
associated generating function. That is, F (z) = xn z n . Multiplying by z n+3 the
n=0
recurrence relation defining (xn ) and taking into account the initial values it is obtained
that
z4
F (z) − z + z 2 = z (F (z) − z) + z 2 F (z) + z 3 F (z) +


(1 − z)2
z(1 − z)2 + x4
from where F (z) = .
(z − 1)2 (1 − z − z 2 − z 3 )
!
√
q
1 3 2
Since F (z) converges for |z| < 17 + 3 33 − p √ − 1 ∼ 0.5436..., then
3 3
17 + 3 33
∞
X xn
= F (1/2) = 6.
2n
n=1

Solution 2 by Paolo Perfetti, Department of Mathematics, Tor Vergata

University, Rome, Italy
Answer: 6.

14
Clearly xn increases and xn ≥ 1.
p p p−3
X xn x1 x2 X xn 3 X xn+3
= + + = + =
2n 2 4 2n 4 2n+3
n=1 n=3 n=0
 
p−3 p−3
3 X  xn+2 + xn+1 + xn  +
 X n
= +  2n+3 2n+3 2n+3  n+3
=
4 2
n=0 | {z } | {z } | {z } n=0
I1 I2 I3
p−1 p−2 p−3 p−3
3 X xn X xn X xn X n
= + + + + =
4 2n+1 2n+2 2n+3 2n+3
n=2 n=1 n=1 n=0
| {z } | {z } | {z }
I1 I2 I3
p p
3 1 X xn xp X xn xp−1 xp
= +− + n+1
− p+1 + n+2
− p+1 − p+2 +
4 4 2 2 2 2 2
n=1
| {z } n=1
| {z }
I1 I2
p p−3
X xn xp−2 xp−1 xp n X
+ n+3
− p+1 − p+2 − p+3 + n+3
2 2 2 2 2
|n=1 {z } n=0
| {z }
I3 →1/4 as p→∞

It follows
p
1 X xn 1 h xp xp−1 xp xp−2 xp−1 i 1
= − p+1 + p+1 + p+2 + p+1 + p+2 +
8 2n 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
n=1
Now we prove the

Lemma xk /2k → 0.
Proof of the Lemma
First step: the sequence xk /2k in monotonic not increasing.
xk+3 xk+2 + xk+1 + xk + k xk+2 xk+1 + xk + k xk+2
k+3
= k+3
≤ k+2 ⇐⇒ k+3
≤ k+3
2 2 2 2 2
that is
x(k−1)+2 + x(k−1)+1 + (k − 1) + 1 ≤ x(k−1)+3
and this is implied by

x(k−1)+2 + x(k−1)+1 + (k − 1) + 1 ≤ x(k−1)+2 + x(k−1)+1 + xk−1 + (k − 1) = x(k−1)+3

via xk−1 ≥ 1. The monotonicity of the sequence means that the limit L of xk /2k does
exist and moreover 0 ≤ L < +∞. If L = 0 the proof is concluded yielding
p ∞
1 X xn 3 X xn
lim n
= ⇐⇒ =6
p→∞ 8 2 4 2n
n=1 n=1

L 6= 0 is impossible as shown by the following argument. We employ the Cesaro–Stolz

theorem that states:
xk xk+1 − xk
lim k = lim k+1
k→∞ 2 k→∞ 2 − 2k
15
provided that the second limit does exist. We write
xk+3 − xk+2 xk+1 + xk + k 1 xk+1 1 xk k
k+3 k+2
= k+2
= k+1
+ k
+ k+2
2 −2 2 22 42 2
xk
The existence of the limit L = lim k would imply
k→∞ 2

1 1
L = L + L =⇒ L = 0
2 4

Solution 3 by Arkady Alt, San Jose, CA

For any sequence (xn )n≥0 let T (xn ) := xn+3 − xn+2 − xn+1 − xn , n ∈ N ∪ {0} .
Obvious that such defined operator T (we will call it Tribonacci Operator) is linear.
 n n+3 n+2 n+1 n
Since T − =− + + + = n then denoting
2 2 2 2 2
n
un := xn + , n ∈ N ∪ {0}
2
n
we obtain xn = un − , n ∈ N ∪ {0} where T (un ) = 0 and,
2
1 3 2
u0 = 0, u1 = 1 + = , u2 = 1 + = 2.
2 2 2
Let (tn )n≥0 be the sequence defined by t0 = 0, t1 = 1, t2 = 1 and
T (tn ) = 0, n ∈ N ∪ {0} .
(Tribonacci  Sequence).
 We have t3 = 2, t4 = 4, t5 = 7, t6 = 13, t7 = 24, t8 = 44, ...
0 1 1
Since det 1 1 2 6= 0 then for any sequence (xn )n≥0 there is triple (c1 , c2 , c3 ) of real
1 2 4
numbers such that xn = c2 tn + c2 tn+1 + c3 tn+2 , that is sequences (tn )n≥0 , (tn+1 )n≥0 ,
(tn+2 )n≥0
form a basis of 3-dimesion space ker T := {(xn )n≥0 | T (xn ) = 0, n ∈ N ∪ {0}} .
We will find representation un as linear combination of tn , tn+1 , tn+2 ,
namely, un = c1 tn + c2 tn+1 + c3 tn+2 , n ∈ N ∪ {0} .
We
3
have u0 = c1 t0 +c2 t1 +c3 t2 ⇐⇒ c2 +c3 = 0, u1 = c1 t1 +c2 t2 +c3 t3 ⇐⇒ c1 +c2 +2c3 = ,
2
u2 = c1 t2 + c2 t3 + c3 t4 ⇐⇒ c1 + 2c2 + 4c3 = 2. From this system of equations we obtain
3 1 1
c3 = −c2 , c1 − c2 = , c1 − 2c2 = 2.Hence, c1 = 1, c2 = − , c3 = and since
2 2 2
tn+1 tn+2 tn+1 tn+2 n 2tn − tn+1 + tn+2 − n
un = tn − + we obtain xn = tn − + − = .
2 2 2 2 2 2
∞ ∞ 1
nxn−1 is 1 and nxn−1 =
P P
Since radius of convergence of seies
n=1 n=1 (1 − x)2
P∞ n 1 P∞ n 1 1
then = = = 2 and, therefore, for convergency of
n=1 2n 2 n=1 2 n−1 2 (1 − 1/2)2
∞ x ∞ t
P n P n
n
suffice to prove convergency of series n
.
n=1 2 n=1 2
We can prove that using another basis of ker T which form sequences (αn )n≥0 , (β n )n≥0 ,
(γ n )n≥0
where α, β, γ are roots of characteristic equation x3 − x2 − x − 1 = 0.
4u + 1
Substitution x = in equation x3 − x2 − x − 1 = 0 give us equivalent equation
3
19
4u3 − 3u =
8
16
  
1 1 19
which we solve using substitution u := t+ . Then equation 4u3 − 3u =
2 t 8
  3  
1 1 1 1 19 1 19
becomes 4 t+ −3· t+ = ⇐⇒ 3 + t3 = .Denoting z := t3
2 t 2 t 8 t 4
we obtain √ √ √ √
1 19 19 − 3 33 19 + 3 33 3 19 − 3 33 19 + 3 33
+z = ⇐⇒ z = , ⇐⇒ t = , .
z 4 √ √8 8   8 8
19 − 3 33 19 + 3 33 1 1
Since · = 1 and u = t+ then suffices to
8 √ 8 2 t
19 + 3 33
find t3 = .
8 p √
3
19 + 3 33 2kπ
We have t = r (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ) , where r = and ϕ = , k = 1, 2, 3.
p √ 2 3
3
19 + 3 33 k 2π 2π
that is tk = ω , k = 1, 2, 3 and ω = cos + i sin , ω 3 = 1.
2 p √ p √ 3 3
3 3
Thus, denoting θ := 19 + 3 33, θ∗ := 19 − 3 33 we obtain
1 + θ + θ∗ 1 + ωθ + ω 2 θ∗
α= ,β = ,
3 3
2
1 + ω θ + ωθ ∗
γ= , the three roots of the equation x3 − x2 − x − 1 = 0.
3
1 + θ + θ∗
We will prove that α = < 2.
3
First note that by Power Mean–Arithmetic r Mean inequality
√ √
p3
√ p3
√ 3 19 + 3 33 + 19 − 3 33 √ √
p := 19 + 3 33 + 19 − 3 33 < 2 = 2 3 19 < 2 3 27 = 6.
p √ p √ √ 2
3 3 3 2 − 9 · 33 = 4 then
Since 19 + p 3 33 · √ 19 −
p 3 33 =√ 19
3 3
p3 = 38 + 3 19 + 3 33 · 19 − 3 33 · p = 38+ 12p < 38+ 12 · 6 = 110 < 125 = 53 .
1 + θ + θ∗
Hence, α < 2. Also, we obtain |β| , |γ| ≤ < 2.
n
3
∞ ∞ ∞
 
P  α n P
 β P  γ n

Since series , , are convergent and tn is linear combination
n=1 2 n=1 2 n=1 2
of
∞ t
n
(αn )n≥0 , (β n )n≥0 , (γ n )n≥0 then series
P
n
convergent as well.
n=1 2
∞ x
P n
Now we ready to find sum of series n
.
n=1 2
n t n
n
tn+1 xn . Note also that function
P P
Let sn := n
and s (x) =
k=1 2 k=0
1
generates
1 − x − x2 − x3
1 ∞
an xn . Then
P
Tribonacci numbers. Indeed, let 2 3
=
1−x−x −x n=0
∞
n 2 3
P

an x · 1 − x − x − x = 1
n=0
and since
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
an xn · 1 − x − x2 − x3 = an xn − an xn+1 −∞ n+2 − an xn+3 =
P
P P P
n=0 an x
n=0 n=0 n=0 n=0
∞
) x2 ) xn+3
P
a0 + (a1 − a0 ) x + (a2 − a1 − a0 + (an+3 − an+2 − an+1 − an then
n=3
a0 = 1, a1 − a0 = a2 − a1 − a0 = 0 implies a1 = 1, a2 = 2 and

17
an+3 − an+2 − an+1 − an = 0, n ∈ N ∪ {0} . Thus, an = tn+1 , n ∈ N ∪ {0} and, therefore,
n 1
tn+1 xn = s (x) =
P
. In,
k=0 1 − x − x2 − x3  
∞ t 1 P ∞ tn 1 1
P n
particular, n
= n−1−
= s =
n=1 2 2 n=1 2 2 2
1 1
·  2  3 = 4.
2 1 1 1
1− − −
2 2 2
∞ x ∞ t ∞ t ∞ t ∞ n
P n P n P n+1 P n+2 P
Then, n
= n
− n+1
+2 n+2
− n+1
=
n=1 2 n=1 2 n=1 2 n=1 2 n=1 2
∞ t ∞ t ∞ n
n n ∞ tn − 1
P P P
n
− n
+ 2 n=3 n =
n=1 2 n=2 2 2 2 n=1 2n
∞ t ∞ t
   
t1 P n 1 1 P n t1 t2 1 1 1
+2 − ·2=− +2 −2 + =− +2·4−2 + = 6.
21 n=3 2
n 2 2 n=1 2
n 21 22 2 2 4

Solution 4 by Brian D. Beasley, Presbyterian College, Clinton, SC

We show that the given series converges by first using induction to prove that
xn < 1.95n for each positive integer n. Note that this claim holds for n ∈ {1, 2, 3}.
Given a positive integer k, if xn < 1.95n for n ∈ {k, k + 1, k + 2}, then
xk+3 < 1.95k+2 + 1.95k+1 + 1.95k + k = 1.95k (6.7525) + k.
Thus it suffices to show that 1.95k (6.7525) + k ≤ 1.95k+3 , or equivalently
k ≤ 1.95k (0.662375). This latter inequality holds for each positive integer k (using a
separate induction argument). Hence xn < 1.95n for n ≥ 1, so for any positive integer m,
m ∞ ∞
X xn X xn X 1.95n 0.975
n
< n
< n
= = 39.
2 2 2 1 − 0.975
n=1 n=1 n=1
Since its sequence of partial sums is increasing and bounded above, the given series
converges.
∞
X xn
Next, we let = L. Then
2n
n=1
∞   ∞
1 1 X xn+2 + xn+1 + xn + n 3 1 1 1 1 X n
L= + + = + L− + L+ L+ .
2 4 2n+3 4 2 2 4 8 2n+3
n=0 n=0
∞
X n
Since = 2, we conclude L = 78 L + 1
2 + 81 (2) and hence L = 6.
2n
n=0

Also solved by Kee-Wai Lau, Hong Kong, China; Ioannis D. Sfikas, National
and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece; Albert Stadler (two
solutions), Herrliberg, Switzerland; David Stone and John Hawkins,
Southern Georgia University, Statesboro, GA, and the proposer.

M ea − Culpa

18
Arkady Alt of San Jose, CA should have been credited with having solved 5477, and
5478.
Dionne Bailey, Elsie Campbell, Charles Diminnie, and Trey Smith, all of
Angelo State University in San Angelo, TX should have been credited with
having solved 5475.
Paul M. Harms, of North Newton, KS should have been credited for having solved
5476.
Anna Valkova Tomova of Varna, Bulgaria should have been credited with having
solved 5475 and 5477.
Mea Culpa.

19