GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

ABSTRACT

The experiment is a task assigned by the Mechanical Engineering Department.

The aim of this experiment is to be able to list and sketch common weld defects and
conduct common NDT methods to characterize those defects. Experiment’s analysis
took a whole week to be completed. During the period, the lab group had a
brainstorming session, followed by the analysis of the results obtained.

EXPERIMENT 6: NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) mainly consists of two

parts. The first part is to study the NDT Educational Kit and the weld defects. This is
then followed by NDT inspection. In this final part, the lab group also creates
appropriate tables that contain sketches of the results and description of it that were
required to include in the standard report.

Nondestructive tests are tests that determine the usefulness, serviceability, or

quality of a part or material without limiting its usefulness. is important for quality
control of engineering systems. For instance, they are used in manufacturing to ensure
product quality and minimize costs. In addition, dye penetrant test, magnetic particle
inspection, ultrasonic testing and radiographic testing will be discussed explicitly in the
theory section.

Some of the findings attached in the report are:

 The proof that NDT can be used to locate surface as well as subsurface flaws
and deflects and their sizes.
 Sketches of the defects indicating their size and position and size.
 The limitation and improvement of the different nondestructive testing
 The comparison of the advantages nd disadvantages of using Ultrasonic
Testing on PL 5723.

The report narrows to a conclusion that we now know that defect is able to be
detected by non-destructive test.

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GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

INTRODUCTION

Nondestructive Testing (NDT) can be defined as those test methods that are used to
examine the object or material without producing alteration to the part being tested.
These tests are conducted to determine the usefulness, serviceability or quality of a part
or material. Through nondestructive testing, the manufacturer of a material can detect
flaws, cracks and fractures in material that may create havoc in our daily lives. Hence, it
enables the manufacturer to identify the types of defects and subsequently improve of
structures. Nondestructive is important for quality control of engineering systems. For
instance, they are used in manufacturing to ensure product quality and minimize costs.

Many forms of energy are involved in nondestructive testing, such as magnetic,

electrical, mechanical and chemical energy. The electromagnetic spectrum and the
vibration mechanical energy (like sound) comprise all wavelengths and frequencies. The
major concern in nondestructive test is to determine the microstructure, texture,
chemical composition, physical and chemical properties of the structures. Besides, flaws
are detected and thickness is measured. The simplest nondestructive test is the visual
inspection. However, it should not be neglected since it is the noticeable or obvious
defects when we examine an engineering component.

In fact, nondestructive test plays a vital role in assuring the quality and the future
performance of the materials because the structures and properties of material are
under our manipulation. In order for us to produce structure with least or no defects, we
should understand different methods of testing material, their capabilities, limitations and
the relevant standards and specifications involved in performing the tests. This
knowledge enables us to understand factors that will lead to any failure. Thus, we can
repair, improve or replace the material.

The materials that can be tested by nondestructive test include metals, nonmetals and
objects with various sizes. Examination of a material via nondestructive tests will assist
us in taking subsequent action upon a material (whether the material is accepted or
rejected). Then, we can monitor the integrity (surface finish and fulfillment of design
specification) of the items or structures. The physical property of the material is one of

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GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

the factors considered in choosing the method of nondestructive test. In addition,

knowledge and experience are important for us to select the appropriate method for
each application.

Nondestructive test is used for the following reasons:

 Detection of any fracture and failure to prevent accident.

 Reduction in manufacturing and maintenance of the engineering component.
 Improvement of product reliability so that the users can utilizes the product
without worries.
 Identification of the orientation and types of defects so that immediate action can
be taken.

The basic requirement to obtain the valid results and precise information:

 Trained, qualified and experienced personnel

 A systematic steps I conducting the test.
 A comprehensive system for recording and reporting results.
 A standard for the interpretation of results to avoid uncertain confusion.

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GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

THEORY & PROCEDURE

THEORY

The most commonly used NDT (non – destructive testing) methods are:
A. Visual Inspection (VI)
Non-Destructive visual inspections can be preformed on-site or at the laboratory
facility, and are based upon the requirements of the client or specification. This method
is used extensively to evaluate the condition or the quality of a weld or component. It is
an inexpensive method, requiring usually very few equipment and is easily carried out. It
is also the primary evaluation method of many quality control programs. To conduct this
method, we must have good vision, good lightning and knowledge of what flaws to look
for. Ordinary magnifying glasses and microscopes can be used to enhance the
inspection. Surface preparation, which is done before conducting the inspection,
includes wiping with a cloth, blast cleaning or chemical treating of surface.

B. Dye Penetrant Test (DPT)

Liquid penetrant testing is a non-destructive method used to detect surface

breaking defects in any non-porous clean material, metallic or non-metallic, but is
unsuitable for dirty or very rough surfaces. Penetrants can contain a dye to make the
indication visible under white light, or a fluorescent material that fluoresces under
suitable ultra-violet light. Fluorescent penetrants are usually used when the maximum
flaw sensitivity is required. Liquid penetrant is applied to the surface and is drawn into
defects by capillary action. Once a preset dwell time has passed, excess penetrant is
removed and developer applied to draw out penetrant from defects. Visual inspection is
then performed. Cracks as narrow as 150 nanometers can be detected. The list below
shows the types of penetrant system, which are shown in a descending order of flaw
detection sensitivity:
 Post – emulsifiable – fluorescent
 Solvent based - fluorescent
 Water based - fluorescent
 Solvent based – colour contrast
 Water based - colour contrast

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GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

C. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

The Magnetic Particle Inspection method is a method for locating surface and
sub-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials only. It depends for its operation
on the face that when the material or part under test is magnetized, discontinuities that
lie in a direction generally transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, will cause a
leakage field, and therefore, the presence of the discontinuity, is detected by use of
finely divided ferromagnetic particles applied over the surface, some of these particles
being gathered and held by the leakage field (which has a North and South pole on
either side of it), this magnetically held collection of particles forms an outline of the
discontinuity and indicates its location, size, shape and extent. These discontinuities can
be spotted by a black indication against a contrasting background usually white contrast
paint. In a fluorescent indication on the other hand, it is usually green or yellow against a
dark violet background. When using fluorescent inks, the use of an ultra – violet light is
necessarily.

D. Radiographic Testing

Radiographic testing uses X – rays, gamma rays or other similar penetrating

radiation to reveal internal flaws, inclusions, thickness or structure of objects. When
applied, the penetrating rays move in straight lines towards the test object and these
rays are absorbed differentially by the object. Absorption quantities depend on the
energy of radiation, nature and thickness of the test material. The person conducting this
method must be fully aware of the dangers involved when conducting this test.

E. Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic methods make use beams of sound waves (vibrations) of short

wavelengths and high frequency, transmitted from a probe and detected by the same or
other probes. Usually, pulsed beams of ultrasound are used and in the simplest
instruments a single probe, hand held, is placed on the specimen surface. An
oscilloscope display with a time base shows the time it takes for an ultrasonic pulse to
travel to a reflector (a flaw, the back surface or other free surface) in terms of distance
traveled across the oscilloscope screen. The height of the reflected pulse is related to
the flaw size as seen from the transmitter probe. The relationship of flaw size, distance

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GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

and reflectivity are complex, and a considerable skill is required to interpret the display.
Complex mutiprobe systems are also used with mechanical probe movement and
digitization of signals, followed by computer interpretation are developing rapidly.
Materials which are capable of being tested by ultrasonic energy are those which
transmit vibrational energy. Noncellular plastics, ceramics, glass, new concrete, organic
materials, and rubber can be tested.

F. Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy-current testing uses electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in conductive

materials. When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a
magnetic field developes in and around the conductor. This magnetic field expands as
the alternating rises to a maximum and collapses as the curent is reduced to zero. There
are several limitations, among them: only conductive materials can be tested, the
surface of the material must be accessible, the finish of the material may cause bad
readings, the depth of penetration into the material is limited, and flaws that lie parallel to
the probe may be undetectable. However, eddy-current testing can detect very small
cracks in or near the surface of the material, the surfaces need minimal preparation, and
physically complex geometries can be investigated. It is also useful for making electrical
conductivity and coating thickness measurements.

In addition, dye penetrant test, magnetic particle inspection, ultrasonic testing and
radiographic testing will be discussed explicitly in the theory section.

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GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

PROCEDURE

A. Dye Penetrating Tests

Equipment and materials: Cleaner, penetrant, developer and brushes.
Steps:
1) The noticeable dirts are cleaned by using a brusher.
2) Then, cleaner is spayed on the weld bead. Make sure the cleaner fully appied on
this area.
3) Penetrant (which is of red color) is applied onto the inspection surface. Time
(around 8 minutes) is allocated for the penetrant to seep into the weld bead.
Besides, this period of time depends on the material property.
4) Cleaner is sprayed again onto a lint-free cloth. This cloth is used to wipe the
inspection surface. The cleaner should not be sprayed directly onto the relevant
surface.
5) After that, developer (white in color) is sprayed on the weld bead.
6) Immediately, the surface is inspected after the application of developer.
7) Any colored stains will represent the defects.
8) A datum (reference point) is chosen. Then, the distance from datum to the
starting point of defect and defect’s length are measured. Then, the name of the
particular defect is identified and recorded.
9) Step 9 is repeated if there are other defects on the inspection surface.
10) The inspection surface should be cleaned after the inspection.

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GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

B. Magnetic Particle Inspection

Equipment and materials: Cleaner, contrast aid faint (white color), black magnetic ink
and Yoke(used for generating magnetic field)
Steps
1) Brusher is used to clean the inspection surface from any noticeable dirts.
2) Cleaner is then sprayed on the inspection surface to remove grease, oil and
contaminants.
3) Contrast aid faint is applied on the weld bead.
4) Yoke is placed on the plate and switch on the equipment. Yoke will start
generating magnetic field at the location where its two magnet ends are placed.
5) Subsequently, black magnetic ink is sprayed in liquid suspension around the
welding area. Move yoke along the both sides of weld beam slowly.
6) Observe whether there is any area where sharp black stain exists on the weld
bead’s surface.
7) A datum (reference point) is chosen. Then, the distance from datum to the
starting point of defect and defect’s length are measured. Then, the name of the
particular defect is identified and recorded.
8) Step 7 is repeated if there are other defects on the inspection surface.
9) The plate is cleaned for future use.

C. Ultrasonic Testing
Equipment and materials: Transducer, diagnostic machine, grease and calibration block.
Steps:
1) Diagnostic machine is switched on. X-axis indicates the thickness while y-axis on
the screen helps us in identifying the defects.
2) Transducer is placed in contact with the calibration block to check whether the
transducer is functioning well.
3) Grease is applied on the surface of the plate. The transducer is moved vertically
from side to another and pattern of the curve shown on the monitor of diagnostic
machine is observed.
4) When the monitor shows a vast difference of curve pattern, attention should be
paid because there is a defect existed around the area of inspection.
Confirmation of the existence of defect is very important.

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GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

5) A datum (reference point) is chosen. Then, the distance from datum to the
starting point of defect and defect’s length are measured. Then, the name of the
particular defect is identified and recorded.
6) Step 5 is repeated if there are other defects on the inspection surface.
7) The plate is cleaned for future use.

D. Radiographic Testing
Equipment and materials: X-ray source, radiograph, fluorescent light
Steps:
1) X-ray is generated by the radiating source. The diverging beam of the source is
projected through the weld beam on the tested object to give contrast and
definition on the image plane (film), which is placed at a certain distance from the
tested object.
2) Then, the film is placed on top of a block where there is a fluorescent light source
in it.
3) The images on the film was inspected and analyzed.
4) A datum (reference point) is chosen. Then, the distance from datum to the
starting point of defect and defect’s length are measured. Then, the name of the
particular defect is identified and recorded.
5) Step 4 is repeated if there are other defects noticed on the film.

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GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

RESULTS

Experiment 1: NDT Educational Kit

Figure R1 and Figure R2 shows the weld defects:

Figure R1

Figure R2

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GROUP 7 E6 – MAB 2023

The name of each defect is indicated in the following according to the labeled number:
1. Toe crack 8. Lack of side fusion
2. Root crack 9. Lack of root fusion
3. Side wall crack 10. Concavity
4. Centerline surface crack 11. Incomplete penetration
5. Center line crack 12. Over penetration
6. Porosity 13. Incomplete penetration
7. Slag 14. Lamination

Table R1: Suggestion of appropriate nondestructive testing methods to detect all the
defects.
No. Defect VI DPT MPI RT UT
1 Toe crack - √ √ √ √
2 Root crack - √ - √ √
3 Side wall crack - - - √ √
4 Centerline - √ √ √ √
surface crack
5 Center line crack - - - √ √
6 Porosity - - - √ √
7 Slag - - - √ √
8 Lack of side - - - √ √
fusion
9 Lack of root - - - √ √
fusion
10 Concavity √ - - √ √
11 Incomplete √ - - √ √
penetration
12 Over penetration √ - - √ √
13 Incomplete - √ √ √ √
penetration
14 Lamination - - - √ √

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Please note the following short form and symbol and their meaning:
a. VI-Visual inspection
b. DPT-Dye penetration test
c. MPI-Magnetic particle inspection
d. RT-Radiography testing
e. UT-Ultrasonic testing
f. √-The method is suitable for the defect’s inspection
g. - - The method is not suitable for the defect’s inspection.

Experiment 2: NDT Inspection.

DYE PENETRATION TEST

Table R2: Defects found on the front part of plate by Dye penetration test
1 2 3
4.7 cm 18.3 cm 21.5 cm
Incomplete penetration Lamination Lamination

Table R3: Defects noticed on the back part of the plate by Dye penetration test
1 2 3
10.7 cm 12.4 cm 28.7 cm
Incomplete penetration Lamination Lamination

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST

Figure R3: Defects found on the front part of plate by magnetic particle inspection.
Figure R4: Defects noticed on the back part of the plate by magnetic particle inspection.

ULTRASONIC TESTING

Datum – at the bottom of left corner (0.65 cm)

Defects – 13 cm (x-axis)
Normal thickness 12 mm
Defect 10 mm

Dimension of the defect – L = 6 cm

H = 2.5 cm

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

0 75 155 190 215 (mm)

Figure R5: Defects shown on the film after the X-ray radiographic test.
DISCUSSIONS

Experiment 1: NDT Educational Kit

Defects can occur in the weld bead or welding area during welding. The factors that
contribute to the weld defects such as porosity, lamination, toe crack, slag inclusion, lack
of root fusion and over penetration are discussed in this section. Apart from that, the
ways to combat them will also be explained.

Porosity
Porosity is a discontinuity formed by gas entrapment during solidification or in a thermal
spray deposit. Pores can be found at the weld center and either under or on the weld
surface. The causes of porosity are atmospheric contamination, presence of foreign
matter and excessively oxidized work piece surface.
The way to combat them is to provide adequate shielding gas when welding is being
carried out. Another corrective action is to preclean the weld surface before welding and
slowing the welding speed to allow time for gas to escape.
.
Lamination
Laminations and inclusions can occur as a result of oxides or other impurities
trapped in the material. As the material cools in the manufacturing process, a small
pocket is formed internal to the steel plate or billet. A lamination or inclusion can
eventually lead to failure when they are oriented such that they eventually grow to
the inner or outer wall of the pipe or pipeline component through pressure cycles.
The cause of lamination is mainly because heat treatment of the welded plate does not
follow the precise manner. To prevent lamination, we should thoroughly clean in
between each passes during welding, hold a smaller weld puddle and weld properly.

Toe Crack
A toe crack can occur where the crown of the weld bead intersects the edge of the
plate. This defect is seen in pipe joined using the Double Submerged Arc Welding
(DSAW) process. Materials that are susceptible to excessive stress will easily have
toe cracks. In order to avoid toe crack, appropriate welding technique should be
applied by the personnel and preheat of weld metal should be done.
Slag inclusion
Slag inclusions occur when nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or
between weld metal and base metal. The solidified slag represents a portion of the
weld’s cross section where the metal is not fused to itself. Slag inclusion can eventually
leads to the impairment of the serviceability of the component.

Fig D1: Causes of incomplete root fusion

a) b)

c) d)
a) Excessively thick root face
b) Too small a root gap
c) Misplaced welds
d) Power input too low
e) e) Arc (heat) input too low

The way to combat slag inclusion is to use the heat of arc to melt the best plate and
control the amount of heat penetrated on the metal properly.

Lack of Root Fusion

Lack of fusion (also called cold lapping or cold shuts) occurs when there is no fusion
between the weld metal and the surfaces of the base plate. It occurs due to poor welding
technique and slow travel speed of the welding torch as well as the heat or arc. To
overcome this defect, arc must be kept on the leading edge of the puddle. In addition,
we can make the joint narrower or direct the arc towards the side wall of the base plate.

Fig D2: Lack of fusion

Over Penetration
Over penetration occurs when the heat input is too high or the slow transverse of the
welding torch along the welding area. The heat produced may burn through the metal
plate and is commonly occurring on thin sheet of metal. To avoid over penetration, we
need to control the heat input so that sufficient heat is provided only. Besides, we can
adjust the speed of transverse of the welding torch properly to reduce over penetration.
Experiment 2: NDT inspection

The defects found in four plates are: toe crack, root crack, heat-affected zone,
transverse crack, discontinuity (thickness difference), porosity, center line surface crack.
Firstly, toe crack is easily identified because it appears on the surface of the weld area.
Its length of defect continues in a horizontal manner. On the other hand, heat-affected
zone (HAZ) is the regions where there are bubble-like circles appear. This defect occurs
when the microstructure and properties of this region has been altered by welding.
Transverse crack can be considered as a toe crack. However, its defect’s length
propagates vertically compared to toe crack. Root crack is similar to toe crack but it
occurs at the bottom of weld bead, which is the back part of the plate. In the ultrasonic
testing, the defect discovered is the difference of thickness of a particular region with the
rest of plate. In this region, the thickness is slightly thinner than the entire plate. Porosity
is one of the defects found on the plate inspected by radiographic testing. It can be
imagined that bubbles are forming in the interior of the plate since there is similar images
on the radiographic film. Apart from that, center-line surface crack can be noticed on the
center of the weld bead. It is a crack that propagates along the center line of the tested
plate.

Magnetic particle inspection can actually replace the dye penetration test in inspecting
the surface of PL5721. This is because we only noticed surface crack like toe crack and
heat affected zone and there are no internal flaws in this plate. Therefore, magnetic
particle inspection is another method of inspecting PL 5721 since the cracks will interrupt
the line of magnetic force and thus create magnetic leakage field due to the application
of magnetic particles.

On the other hand, for PL 5722, radiographic testing can be applied in detecting toe
crack, root crack, and transverse crack. As we know, electromagnetic radiation such as
X-ray can penetrate through the tested specimen and it can clearly indicates the location
of cracks. Besides, information such as the depth of crack is not required since all of the
cracks noticed are surface cracks.
The limitation and improvement of the different nondestructive testing:

a. Dye penetration test

i. Limitations: It is restricted to defects that are opened to the surface and the specimen
geometry and material must be known.
ii. Improvement: Sufficient time should be allowed for the penetrant to seep into the flaws
(this can be done by knowing the specimen material). Besides, the inspected surface
must be cleaned from any contaminants so that a better indication of defects can be
obtained.

b. Magnetic particles inspection

i. Limitations: Defects must be at or very near the surface. Apart from that, a crack or
linear discontinuity should have a length about three times greater than its width.
ii. Improvement: Suitable magnetic particles in liquid suspension should be selected.
Predict the orientation and types of defects before the beginning of inspection. The
person making the inspection should be a trained, skilled and experienced one.

c. Radiographic testing:
i. Limitation: This method cannot determine the depth of the cracks.
ii. Improvement: We should visually identify probable orientation of defects and thickness
of the specimen in relation to the diverging beam of X-rays. In addition, we should use
grid or blocking materials to prevent the scattering effects from affecting the image.
The orientation of the object should be properly adjusted to permit any discontinuity or
defect to show maximum contrast.
The advantages and disadvantages of using Ultrasonic testing on PL 5723:

a. Advantages:
i. It has a high penetrating power (but the density of material should be known for
obtaining impressive results.
ii. It is an accurate test that can determine the depth of internal flaws and thickness of
parts with parallel surfaces.
iii. It is capable of estimating the orientation, shape, size and nature of defects.
iv. It has no effect on the material. (like changing the microstructures of material)
v. We only need to access one surface to detects all the possible defects in the material.

b. Disadvantages:
i. Couplants (the medium of contact between transducer and plate) are needed to
provide efficient transfer of ultrasonic waves.
ii. A broader technical knowledge is required for the inspection procedures and process.
iii. Parts that are nonhomogeneous or have irregular shape are difficult to inspect.
SUMMARY

Material testing is grouped into two major specifications that are Nondestructive
test and Destructive test. These four tasks that we have experimentally done in the lab is
the kind of Nondestructive test. This is one of the important methods to analyze the
design and cracks or defects on the surface or the sub-surface of the product or
material. Every single of them have their own advantages and disadvantages that can
be determined when conducting the experiment. It is important to know the test
properties in order to use it properly to determine the defect in materials. So it is a very
important for all engineers to know how to use this method for identifying and analyze
the materials or products defects.

Nondestructive testing (NDT) is testing that does not destroy the test object. One of the
advantages (long term) is we can reduce the cost to and save a lot of money after
knowing the behavior of the material. We also can ensure or enhance the quality of the
material.

After the experiment, we now know that defect is able to be detected by non-destructive
test. The defect is detected by checking the cracks on the work pieces and characterizes
them from its shape and behavior.