Summary

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SUMMARY
LO1 Thomson’s experiments with cathode rays, Millikan’s

oil-drop experiments, Rutherford’s gold-foil experiments,
and studies of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and Marie
and Pierre Curie led to our understanding of atomic
structure. (Sections 2.1 and 2.2)
LO2 Atoms consist of nuclei that each contain one or more
nucleons, that is, protons and neutrons. The nucleus
accounts for nearly all the mass of an atom; it is
surrounded by much less massive electrons, whose
negative charges balance the positive charges of the
protons. Unique symbols for each isotope of every
element indicate the identity of an atom by showing its
atomic number (the number of protons in its nucleus) and
its mass number (the number of nucleons in the nucleus).
(Sections 2.2 and 2.3)
LO3 The average atomic mass of an element is the
weighted average of all the isotopes of that element. It is
calculated by multiplying the mass of each stable isotope
by the isotope’s natural abundance and then summing
these products. (Section 2.4)
LO4 Russian chemist Dmitri
Mendeleev developed a forerunner
of the modern periodic table of the
elements in which the elements
were arranged in patterns based on
their physical and chemical
properties. Elements in the same
vertical column are said to be in the same group. The
main group (or representative) elements are in groups 1,
2, and 13–18, and the transition metals are in groups 3–12.
Within the periodic table, three regions contain metals,
metalloids, and nonmetals. (Sections 2.3 and 2.5)
LO5 The law of multiple proportions
describes the ratio of the masses of
elements in simple compounds in
terms of small whole numbers.
Compounds composed of pairs of
metallic and nonmetallic elements
tend to be ionic compounds, whereas those composed of
two nonmetals or metalloids tend to be molecular
compounds. The empirical formula of a molecular or
ionic compound gives the smallest whole-number ratio of
the atoms (or ions) in it. (Section 2.6)
LO6 Standardized naming conventions allow us to translate
the names of molecular and ionic compounds into their
chemical formulas, and vice versa. (Section 2.7)
LO7 Organic compounds always contain carbon atoms
and almost always contain hydrogen atoms. Different
classes of organic compounds are composed of molecules
with characteristic functional groups. (Section 2.8)
LO8 During primordial
nucleosynthesis, protons and
neutrons fused, producing nuclei of
helium. Nuclei of atoms as massive
as 56Fe formed when the nuclei of
lighter elements fused in the cores of
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lighter elements fused in the cores of
Summary
giant stars in a process called stellar nucleosynthesis,

which continues today. Even more massive nuclei are
formed by a combination of other nuclear reactions,
leading to supernovas (explosions of giant stars). (Section
2.9)
PARTICULATE PREVIEW WRAP-UP
The middle compound is ionic

because it contains two types of
particles (one is a polyatomic ion)
arranged in an extended, ordered
array. The other two are molecular compounds. The
images show single molecules containing atoms of two (on
the le ) and three (on the right) elements bonded together.
PROBLEM-SOLVING SUMMARY
Type of Concepts and Equations Sample
Problem Exercises
Writing To the left of the element symbol, place a superscript for 2.1, 2.2
symbols of the mass number (A) and (if needed) a subscript for the
isotopes atomic number (Z).
Calculating Multiply the mass (m) of each stable isotope of the 2.3
the average element times the natural abundance (a) of that isotope
atomic converted to a decimal; then sum these products:
mass of an
element
Locating Use the row number, group designation, and chemical 2.4
elements in properties to locate elements.
the periodic
table
Predicting Use the chemical formulas of the two compounds and the 2.5
the law of multiple proportions.
composition
of different
compounds
formed by
the same
two
elements
Classifying Ionic compounds contain metallic and nonmetallic 2.6
compounds elements, whereas molecular compounds contain
as ionic or nonmetals or metalloids.
molecular
Naming Apply the naming rules in 2.7, 2.8
binary Section 2.7.
compounds
and writing
their
formulas
Naming Use a Roman numeral to indicate the charge on the 2.9
transition transition metal cation.
metal
compounds
and writing
their
formulas
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Naming Apply the naming rules in 2.10,
oxoacids Section 2.7. 2.11
and
compounds
containing
oxoanions
and writing
their
formulas
VISUAL PROBLEMS
2.1. Alpha and beta particles emitted by a sample of

pitchblende escape through a narrow channel in the
shielding surrounding the sample and into an
electrical field as shown in Figure P2.1. Which path in
the figure corresponds to each form of radiation?
FIGURE P2.1
2.2. Does the particle that follows the red path in Figure
P2.1 penetrate solid objects better than the radiation
following the green path? Explain your answer.
2.3. The images in Figure P2.3 represent the nuclei of
three nuclides. Assuming all the nucleons are visible,
what are the symbols of these nuclides (include both
mass number and atomic number).
FIGURE P2.3
2.4. The images in Figure P2.4 represent the nuclei of

three nuclides. Assuming all the nucleons are visible,
what are the symbols of these nuclides (include both
mass number and atomic number).
FIGURE P2.4
2.5. In Figure P2.5 the blue spheres represent nitrogen

atoms and the red spheres represent oxygen atoms.
The figure represents which of the following gases? (a)
N2O3; (b) N7O11; (c) a mixture of NO2 and NO; (d) a
mixture of N2 and O3
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FIGURE P2.5
2.6. In Figure P2.6 the black spheres represent carbon

atoms and the red spheres represent oxygen atoms.
Which of the following statements about the two
equal-volume compartments is or are true?
FIGURE P2.6
a. The compartment on the le contains CO2; the one

on the right contains CO.
b. The compartments contain the same mass of
carbon.
c. The ratio of oxygen to carbon in the gas in the le
compartment is twice that of the gas in the right
compartment.
d. The pressures inside the two compartments are
equal. (Assume that the pressures are proportional
to the number of molecules in each compartment.)
2.7. Which of the highlighted elements in Figure P2.7 is (a)
a reactive nonmetal, (b) a chemically inert gas, (c) a
reactive metal?
FIGURE P2.7
2.8. Which of the highlighted elements in Figure P2.8

forms monatomic ions with a charge of (a) 1+, (b) 2+,
(c) 3+, (d) 1− , (e) 2− ?
FIGURE P2.8

forms an oxide with the following formula: (a) XO; (b)
X2O; (c) XO2; (d) X2O3?
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FIGURE P2.9

forms an oxoanion with the following generic
formula: (a) XO4–; (b) XO42−; (c) XO43−; (d) XO3−?
FIGURE P2.10
2.11. Which of the highlighted elements in Figure P2.11 is

not formed by the fusion of lighter elements in the
cores of giant stars?
FIGURE P2.11
2.12. Use representations [A] through [I] in Figure P2.12 to

answer questions (a)–(f).
a. Which are molecular compounds?
b. Which are ionic compounds?
c. Which incorporates both covalent and ionic
bonding?
d. Which two representations demonstrate the law of
multiple proportions?
e. Which of the representations, if any, have the
same empirical formula?
f. What are the names of the substances in [D], [F],
and [H]?
FIGURE P2.12
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
The Rutherford Model
Concept Review
2.13. Explain how the results of the gold-foil experiment

l d h f d di i h l
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led Rutherford to dismiss the plum-pudding model
of the atom and create his own model based on a
nucleus surrounded by electrons.
2.14. Had the plum-pudding model been valid, how
would the results of the gold-foil experiment have
differed from what Geiger and Marsden observed?
2.15. What properties of cathode rays led Thomson to
conclude that they were not pure energy, but rather
particles with an electric charge?
*2.16. What would be observed if the charges on the
plates of Millikan’s apparatus (Figure 2.4) were
reversed?
Isotopes and Average Atomic Mass
Concept Review
2.17. What is meant by a weighted average?

2.18. Explain how natural abundance percentages are
related to average atomic masses.
2.19. Explain the inherent redundancy in the nuclide
symbol .
2.20. How are the mass number and atomic number of a
nuclide related to the number of neutrons and
protons in each of its nuclei?
2.21. Use the data in the periodic table on the inside of the
front cover of this book to decide which of the
isotopes in each of the following pairs is more
abundant. (a) 10B or 11B; (b) 6Li or 7Li; (c) 14N or 15N;
(d) 20Ne or 22Ne
2.22. If the nucleus of an atom contains an equal number
of neutrons and protons, is the ratio of its mass
number to its atomic number greater than, less than,
or equal to 1?
Problems
2.23. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are

there in the following atoms? (a) 14C; (b) 59Fe; (c) 90Sr;
(d) 210Pb
2.24. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are
there in the following atoms? (a) 11B; (b) 19Fe; (c) 131I;
(d) 222Rn
2.25. Fill in the missing information about atoms of the

four nuclides in the following table.
Symbol 16
O ? ? ?
Number of Protons ? 26 ? 79
Number of Neutrons ? 30 ? ?
Number of Electrons ? ? 50 ?
Mass Number ? ? 118 197
2.26. Fill in the missing information about atoms of the

four nuclides in the following table.
Symbol 27
Al ? ? ?
Number of Neutrons ? 56 ? ?
Number of Electrons ? ? 60 ?
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2.27. The natural abundances of the two stable isotopes of

boron can vary. If a sample collected from a volcanic
crater lake in southeastern Australia contained 81.07%
11B (mass = 11.0093 u) and 18.93% 10B (mass = 10.0129
u), what is the average atomic mass of the boron in
the sample? Compare your calculated result to the
average atomic mass of boron listed on the inside of
the front cover of this book.
2.28. The natural abundances of the two stable isotopes of
lithium can vary a little. If a sample of Li is 7.714% 6Li
(mass = 6.015123 u) and 92.286% 7Li (mass = 7.016003
u), what is the average atomic mass of the lithium in
the sample? Compare your calculated result to the
average atomic mass of lithium listed on the inside
of the front cover of this book.
2.29. Chemistry of MarsNASA’s 1997 mission to Mars

included a small robot, the Sojourner, that analyzed
the composition of Martian rocks. Magnesium oxide
from a boulder dubbed “Barnacle Bill” was analyzed
and found to have the following isotopic
composition:
Mass (u) Natural Abundance (%)
39.9872 78.70
40.9886 10.13
41.9846 11.17
If essentially all the oxygen in the Martian MgO

sample is oxygen-16 (which has a mass of 15.9948 u),
is the average atomic mass of magnesium on Mars
the same as on Earth (24.31 u)?
2.30. Platinum has six isotopes: 190Pt, 192Pt, 194Pt, 195Pt,
196Pt, and 198Pt.
a. How many neutrons are there in each isotope?
b. The natural abundances of the six isotopes are
0.014% 190Pt (189.96 u); 0.782% 192Pt (191.96 u);
32.967% 194Pt (193.96 u); 33.832% 195Pt (194.97 u);
25.242% 196Pt (195.97 u); and 7.163% 198Pt (197.97 u).
Calculate the average atomic mass of platinum and
compare it with the value in the periodic table on
the inside front cover.
2.31. Use the following table of abundances and masses of

five naturally occurring titanium isotopes to
calculate the mass of 48Ti.
Symbol Mass (u) Natural Abundance (%)
46
Ti 45.95263 8.25
47
Ti 46.9518 7.44
48
Ti ? 73.72
49
Ti 48.94787 5.41
50
Ti 49.9448 5.18
Average 47.87
2.32. Use the following table of abundances and masses of

the three naturally occurring argon isotopes to
calculate the mass of 40Ar.
Symbol Mass (u) Natural Abundance (%)
36
Ar 35.96755 0.337
38
Ar 37.96272 0.063
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40
Ar ? 99.60
Average 39.948
The Periodic Table of the Elements
Concept Review
2.33. Mendeleev ordered the elements in his version of

the periodic table according to their atomic masses
instead of their atomic numbers. Why?
2.34. Why didn’t Mendeleev include the noble gases in his
version of the periodic table?
2.35. Mendeleev arranged the elements on the le side of
his periodic table according to the formulas of the
binary compounds they form with oxygen, and he
used those formulas as column labels. For example,
group 1 of the modern periodic table was labeled
“R2O” in Mendeleev’s table, where “R” represented
one of the elements in the group. What labels did
Mendeleev use for groups 2, 3, and 4 of the modern
periodic table?
2.36. Mendeleev arranged the elements on the right side
of his periodic table according to the formulas of the
binary compounds they form with hydrogen, and he
used those formulas as column labels. Which groups
of the modern periodic table were labeled “HR,”
“H2R,” and “H3R” in Mendeleev’s table, where “R”
represented one of the elements in the group?
Problems
2.37. Which element is most likely to form a cation with a

3+ charge? (a) S; (b) P; (c) Be; (d) Al
2.38. Which element is most likely to form a monatomic
ion with a 3− charge? (a) S; (b) P; (c) Be; (d) Al
2.39. Which ions have the same number of electrons as

an atom of argon? (a) S2−; (b) P3−; (c) Be2+; (d) Ca2+
2.40. Which ions have the same number of electrons as an
atom of krypton? (a) Se2−; (b) As3−; (c) Ca2+; (d) K+
2.41. Classify each of the following fi h-row elements as a

metal, a metalloid, or a nonmetal: (a) Y; (b) Ag; (c) Sn;
(d) Te; (e) I.
2.42. Classify each of the following fourth-row elements
as a metal, a metalloid, or a nonmetal: (a) Ca; (b) Cr;
(c) Cu; (d) As; (e) Br.
2.43. Classify each of the following fourth-row elements

as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a
transition metal, a halogen, or a noble gas: (a) Br; (b)
Ca; (c) K; (d) Kr; (e) V.
2.44. Which element in the second row of the periodic
table is (a) a halogen; (b) an alkali metal; (c) an
alkaline earth metal; (d) a noble gas?
2.45. Elements in TNTMolecules of the explosive called

TNT contain atoms of hydrogen and of the second-
row elements in groups 14, 15, and 16. Which three
elements are these?
2.46. Chemical Weapons Phosgene, a colorless, poisonous
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gas, was used as a chemical weapon during World

War I. Despite its name, molecules of phosgene
contain no atoms of phosphorus. Instead, they
contain atoms of carbon, of the group 16 element in
the second row of the periodic table, and of the
group 17 element in the third row. What are the
names and the atomic numbers of these last two
elements?
2.47. Catalytic ConvertersThe catalytic converters used to

remove pollutants from automobile exhaust contain
the compounds of several expensive elements,
including those described below. Which elements
are they?
a. The group 10 transition metal in the fi h row of
the periodic table.
b. The transition metal whose atoms contain one less
proton than the atoms of your answer to part (a).
c. The name of the transition metal with an average
atomic mass of 195.08 u.
2.48. Swimming Pool Chemistry Compounds containing
chlorine have long been used to disinfect the water
in swimming pools, but in recent years a compound
of a less corrosive halogen has become a popular
alternative disinfectant. What is the name of this
fourth-row element?
Trends in Compound Formation
Concept Review
2.49. How does Dalton’s atomic theory of matter explain

the fact that when water is decomposed into
hydrogen and oxygen gas, the ratio of the volumes
of the two gases is 2∶1?
2.50. Pollutants in Automobile ExhaustIn the internal
combustion engines that power most automobiles,
nitrogen and oxygen may combine to form NO.
When NO in automobile exhaust is released into the
atmosphere, it reacts with more oxygen, forming
NO2, a key ingredient in smog. How do these
reactions illustrate Dalton’s law of multiple
proportions?
2.51. Describe the types of elements that combine to form
molecular compounds and the types that combine to
form ionic compounds.
2.52. How do the properties of ionic compounds differ
from those of molecular compounds?
Problems
2.53. Cobalt forms two sulfides: CoS and Co2S3. Predict

the ratio of the two masses of sulfur that combine
with a fixed mass of cobalt to form CoS and Co2S3.
2.54. Lead forms two oxides: PbO and PbO2. Predict the
ratio of the two masses of oxygen that combine with
a fixed mass of lead to form PbO and PbO2.
2.55. When 5.0 g of sulfur is combined with 5.0 g of

oxygen, 10.0 g of sulfur dioxide (SO2) is formed.
What mass of oxygen would be required to convert
5.0 g of sulfur into sulfur trioxide (SO3)?
*2.56. Nitrogen monoxide (NO) is 46.7% nitrogen by mass.
Use the law of multiple proportions to calculate the
mass percentage of nitrogen in nitrogen dioxide
(NO2)
(NO2).
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2.57. Fill in the missing information in the following table

of monatomic ions.
34 2−
Symbol S ? ? ?
Number of Neutrons ? 10 52 ?
Number of Electrons ? 10 36 46
2.58. Fill in the missing information in the following table

of monatomic ions.
40 2+
Symbol Ca ? ? ?
Number of Neutrons ? 18 36 ?
Number of Electrons ? 18 28 54
2.59. Which of these compounds consist of molecules,

and which consist of ions? (a) P4O10; (b) SrCl2; (c)
MgF2; (d) SO3
2.60. Which of these compounds consist of molecules,
and which consist of ions? (a) Mg3N2; (b) BaS; (c)
AgCl; (d) NCl3
2.61. Would compounds formed from each pair of

elements contain covalent bonds or ionic bonds? (a)
cesium and fluorine; (b) nitrogen and chlorine; (c)
carbon and oxygen; (d) magnesium and oxygen
2.62. Would compounds formed from each pair of
elements contain covalent bonds or ionic bonds? (a)
silver and oxygen; (b) sulfur and oxygen; (c) carbon
and hydrogen; (d) barium and nitrogen
2.63. Give the total number of atoms in a formula unit of

these compounds: (a) Mg(NO3)2; (b) Al2O3; (c)
(NH4)2CO3; (d) Ca3(PO4)2.
2.64. Give the total number of atoms in a formula unit of
these compounds: (a) K2SO4; (b) Sr3(AsO4)2; (C)
Fe(NO3)3; (d) In2(SO4)3.
Naming Compounds and Writing Formulas
Concept Review
2.65. Consider a mythical element X, which forms only

two oxoanions: XO22− and XO32−. Which of the two
has a name that ends in -ite?
2.66. Concerning the oxoanions in Problem 2.65, would
the name of either of them require a prefix such as
hypo- or per-? Explain why or why not.
2.67. What is the role of Roman numerals in the names of
the compounds formed by transition metals?
2.68. Why do the names of the ionic compounds formed
by the alkali metals and by the alkaline earth metals
not include Roman numerals?
Problems
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2.69. What are the names of these compounds of

phosphorus and oxygen? (a) PO; (b) P2O3; (c) P2O4;
(d) P2O5
2.70. What are the names of these compounds of chlorine
and oxygen? (a) ClO3; (b) ClO; (c) ClO2; (d) Cl2O7
2.71. What are the formulas and names of the ionic

compounds containing the following pairs of
elements? (a) sodium and sulfur; (b) strontium and
chlorine; (c) aluminum and oxygen; (d) lithium and
hydrogen
2.72. What are the formulas and names of the ionic
compounds containing the following pairs of
elements? (a) potassium and bromine; (b) barium
and oxygen; (c) lithium and nitrogen; (d) aluminum
and chlorine
2.73. Milk of magnesia is a slurry of

Milk of Magnesia
Mg(OH)2 in water. What is the chemical name of this

compound?
2.74. Smelling salts are an antidote for
Smelling Salts
fainting, made of (NH4)2CO3, which smells of

ammonia. What is the chemical name of (NH4)2CO3?
2.75. What are the names of these sodium compounds? (a)

Na2O; (b) Na2S; (c) Na2SO4; (d) NaNO3; (e) NaNO2
2.76. What are the names of these potassium compounds?
(a) K3PO4; (b) K2O; (c) K2SO3; (d) KNO3; (e) KNO2
2.77. What are the formulas of these compounds? (a)

potassium sulfide; (b) potassium selenide; (c)
rubidium sulfate; (d) rubidium nitrite; (e)
magnesium sulfate
rubidium nitride; (b) potassium selenite; (c)
rubidium sulfite; (d) rubidium nitrate; (e) magnesium
sulfite

sodium hypobromite; (b) potassium sulfate; (c)
lithium iodate; (d) magnesium nitrite
*2.80. What are the formulas of these compounds? (a)
potassium tellurite; (b) sodium arsenate; (c) calcium
selenite; (d) potassium chlorate
2.81. Which compound is magnesium nitrite? (a) Mg3N2;

(b) Mg(NO2)2; (c) Mg(NO3)2; (d) Mg(NO)2
2.82. Which compound is aluminum phosphate? (a) Al3P3;
(b) AlPO3; (c) AlPO4; (d) Al2(PO4)3
2.83. Which of these chemical names is followed by a

chemical formula that does not fit the name? (a)
calcium oxide, CaO; (b) lithium sulfate, LiSO4; (c)
barium sulfide, BaS; (d) potassium oxide, K2O
2.84. Which of these chemical names is followed by a
chemical formula that does not fit the name? (a)
aluminum nitride, AlN; (b) aluminum sulfate,
Al2(SO4)3; (c) potassium chloride, KCl2; (d) cesium
lf C SO
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sulfate, Cs2SO4
2.85. The most abundant cations in blood

Ions in Blood
plasma are Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+. Two of the

principal anions are Cl− and H2PO4−. Write the
formulas of the eight ionic compounds these cations
and anions form.
2.86. Evaporation of seawater gives a mixture of sodium
compounds that also contain chloride, sulfate,
carbonate, and fluoride ions. Write the chemical
formulas of all these compounds.
2.87. What are the names of these compounds? (a) Cr2Te3;

(b) V2(SO4)3; (c) Fe2(CrO4)3; (d) MnO
2.88. What are the names of these compounds? (a) FePO4;
(b) CuSO4; (c) Ag2CO3; (d) Zn(NO2)2
2.89. What are the formulas for these transition metal

compounds? (a) zinc dichromate; (b) iron(III) acetate;
(c) mercury(I) peroxide; (d) scandium thiocyanate
2.90. What are the formulas for these transition metal
compounds? (a) mercury(II) hydroxide; (b) silver
perchlorate; (c) manganese(IV) nitrate; (d)
vanadium(IV) oxide
2.91. What are the formulas of the following acids? (a)

hydroiodic acid; (b) hypobromous acid; (c) iodic
acid; (d) hydrobromic acid
2.92. What are the formulas of the following acids? (a)
selenous acid; (b) hydrocyanic acid; (c) phosphoric
acid; (d) nitrous acid
2.93. What are the names of the acids with the following
formulas? (a) HF; (b) HBrO3; (c) HBr; (d) HIO4
2.94. What are the names of the acids with the following
formulas? (a) HF; (b) HClO; (c) HBrO2; (d) HClO2
Organic Compounds: A First Look
Concept Review
2.95. What classes of organic compounds contain no

heteroatoms?
2.96. What classes of organic compounds contain oxygen
atoms?
2.97. What classes of organic compounds contain
nitrogen atoms? Does any class of organic
compounds contain both oxygen and nitrogen
atoms?
2.98. Are most organic compounds molecular or ionic?
Problems
2.99. To which class of organic compounds does each of

the following compounds belong?
a. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 (octane—a
principal component of gasoline)
b. HC CH (ethyne, also known as acetylene—used
in welding torches)
2.100. To which class of organic compounds does each of
the following compounds belong?
a. CH3CH2―O―CH2CH3 (once used as anesthesia
for surgery)
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for surgery) Summary
b. CH3CH2CH2CH2OH (a component of brake

fluids and perfumes)
2.101. Scent of PearsWhat is the functional group present

in propyl acetate (the substance responsible for the
smell of pears; Figure P2.101)?
FIGURE P2.101
*2.102. What two functional groups are present in glycine

(the simplest amino acid; Figure P2.102)?
FIGURE P2.102
Nucleosynthesis: The Origin of the Elements
Concept Review
2.103. In the history of the universe, which of these

particles formed first, and which formed last? (a)
deuteron; (b) neutron; (c) proton; (d) electron
2.104. Why did early nucleosynthesis last such a short
time?
2.105. In the current cosmological model, the volume of
the universe is increasing with time. How might
this expansion affect the density of the universe?
2.106. Components of Solar WindMost of the ions in the
solar wind emitted by the Sun are hydrogen ions.
The ions of which element should be next most
abundant?
Additional Problems
2.107. The molecular compounds HClO, HClO2, and

HClO4 are three of the four common oxoacids of
chlorine. Give the formula and chemical name of
the fourth oxoacid of chlorine.
2.108. One reaction in the process of carbon
Fusion in Stars
fusion in massive stars involves the combination of

two carbon-12 nuclei to form the nucleus of a new
element and an alpha particle. Write an equation
that describes this process.
2.109. A process called neon fusion takes place in massive
stars. In one of the reactions in this process, an
alpha particle combines with a neon-21 nucleus to
produce another element and a neutron. Write an
equation that describes this process.
FIGURE P2.110
2.110. In April 1897, J. J. Thomson presented the results of

his experiment with cathode-ray tubes (Figure
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p Summary
y ( g
P2.110) in which he proposed that the rays were
beams of negatively charged particles, which he
called “corpuscles.”
a. What is the name we use for these particles
today?
b. Why did the beam deflect when passed between
electrically charged plates, as shown in Figure
P2.110?
c. If the polarity of the plates was switched, how
would the position of the light spot on the
phosphorescent screen change?
d. If the voltage on the plates was reduced by half,
how would the position of the light spot change?
*2.111. Suppose the electrically charged disks at the end of
the cathode-ray tube were replaced with a
radioactive source, as shown in Figure P2.111. Also
suppose the radioactive material inside the source
emits α and β particles. The only way for either
kind of particle to escape the source is through a
narrow channel drilled through a block of lead.
a. How many light spots do you expect to see on
the phosphorescent screen?
b. What are their positions relative to the electrical
plates, and which particle produces which spot?
FIGURE P2.111
*2.112. Suppose the radioactive material inside the source

in the apparatus shown in Figure P2.111 emits
protons and α particles and suppose both kinds of
particles have the same velocities.
a. How many light spots do you expect to see on
the phosphorescent screen?
b. What are their positions on the screen (above, at,
or below the center)? Which particle produces
which spot?
2.113. Early UniverseCosmologists estimate that the matter
in the early universe was 75% hydrogen-1 and 25%
helium-4, by mass, when atoms first formed.
a. Assuming these proportions are correct, what was
the ratio of hydrogen to helium atoms in the early
universe?
b. The ratio of hydrogen to helium atoms in our
solar system is slightly less than 10:1. Compare
this value with the value you calculated in part
(a).
c. Propose a hypothesis that accounts for the
difference in composition between the solar
system and the early universe.
d. Describe an experiment that would test your
hypothesis.
2.114. Emergency Air Supply Potassium forms three
compounds with oxygen: K2O (potassium oxide),
K2O2 (potassium peroxide), and KO2 (potassium
superoxide). Elemental potassium is rarely
encountered; it reacts violently with water and is
very corrosive to human tissue. Potassium
superoxide is used in self-contained breathing
apparatuses as a source of oxygen for use in mines,
submarines, and spacecra . Potassium peroxide
binds carbon dioxide and is used to scrub (remove)
12/3/2020 Summary
binds carbon dioxide and is used to scrub (remove)
toxic CO2 from the air in submarines. Predict the
ratio of the masses of oxygen that combine with a
fixed mass of potassium in K2O, K2O2, and KO2.
*2.115. Bronze Age Historians and archaeologists o en
apply the term “Bronze Age” to the period in
Mediterranean and Middle Eastern history when
bronze was the preferred material for making
weapons, tools, and other metal objects. Ancient
bronze was prepared by blending molten copper
(88% by mass) and tin (12% by mass) into a mixture
called an alloy. What is the ratio of copper to tin
atoms in a piece of bronze with this composition?
*2.116. In his version of the periodic table, Mendeleev
arranged elements according to the formulas of
the compounds they formed with hydrogen and
oxygen. The elements in one of his eight groups
formed compounds with the generic formulas
MH3 and M2O5, where M was the symbol of an
element in the group. Which Roman numeral did
Mendeleev assign to this group?
2.117. In the Mendeleev table in Figure 2.11, there are no
symbols for elements with predicted atomic masses
of 44, 68, and 72.
a. Which elements are these?
b. Mendeleev anticipated the later discovery of
these three elements and gave them the tentative
names ekaaluminum, ekaboron, and ekasilicon,
reflecting the probability that their properties
would resemble those of aluminum, boron, and
silicon, respectively. What are the modern names
of ekaaluminum, ekaboron, and ekasilicon?
c. When were these elements finally discovered?
(Hint: Consult a reference such as
webelements.com.)
2.118. In chemical nomenclature, the prefix thio- is used to
indicate that a sulfur atom has replaced an oxygen
atom in the structure of a molecule or a polyatomic
ion.
a. With this rule in mind, write the formula for the
thiosulfate ion.
b. What is the formula of sodium thiosulfate?
2.119. There are two stable isotopes of gallium. Their
masses are 68.92558 u and 70.9247050 u. If the
average atomic mass of gallium is 69.7231 u, what is
the natural abundance of the lighter isotope?
2.120. There are two stable isotopes of bromine. Their
masses are 78.9183 u and 80.9163 u. If the average
atomic mass of bromine is 79.9091 u, what is the
natural abundance of the heavier isotope?
*2.121. Using the information in the previous question:
a. Predict the possible masses of individual
molecules of Br2.
b. Calculate the natural abundance of molecules
with each of the masses predicted in part (a) in a
sample of Br2.
*2.122. There are three stable isotopes of magnesium.
Their masses are 23.9850 u, 24.9858 u, and 25.9826
u. If the average atomic mass of magnesium is
24.3050 u and the natural abundance of the
lightest isotope is 78.99%, what are the natural
abundances of the other two isotopes?
12/3/2020 Summary
2.123. Write the names and formulas of the following

compounds from this list of elements: Li, Fe, Al, O,
C, and N.
a. A molecular substance AB2, where A is a group 14
element and B is a group 16 element
b. An ionic compound C3D, where C is a group 1
element and D is a group 15 element
2.124. Write the chemical symbol of each of the following
species: (a) a cation with a mass number of 24, an
atomic number of 12, and a charge of 2+; (b) a
member of group 15 that has a charge of 3+, 48
electrons, and 70 neutrons; (c) a noble gas atom
with 48 neutrons.
*2.125. Predict some physical and chemical properties of
radium (Ra). Predict the melting points of RaCl2
and RaO. (Hint: Research the melting points of the
other alkaline earth element chlorides and oxides.)
2.126. From their positions in the periodic table, predict
which of the following elements would be good
electrical conductors: Ti, Ne, N, Ag, Tb, Br, and Mo.
2.127. Argon has a larger average atomic mass than
potassium, yet it is placed before potassium in the
modern periodic table. Explain.
*2.128. It takes nearly twice the energy to remove an
electron from a helium atom as it does to remove
an electron from a hydrogen atom. Propose an
explanation for this.

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12/3/2020 Summary

LO1 Thomson’s experiments with cathode rays, Millikan’s

giant stars in a process called stellar nucleosynthesis,

PARTICULATE PREVIEW WRAP-UP

The middle compound is ionic

Type of Concepts and Equations Sample

isotopes atomic number (Z).

atomic converted to a decimal; then sum these products:

elements in properties to locate elements.

the law of multiple proportions.

Classifying Ionic compounds contain metallic and nonmetallic 2.6

compounds elements, whereas molecular compounds contain

as ionic or nonmetals or metalloids.

Naming Apply the naming rules in 2.7, 2.8

binary Section 2.7.

Naming Use a Roman numeral to indicate the charge on the 2.9

transition transition metal cation.

Naming Apply the naming rules in 2.10,

oxoacids Section 2.7. 2.11

2.1. Alpha and beta particles emitted by a sample of

2.4. The images in Figure P2.4 represent the nuclei of

2.5. In Figure P2.5 the blue spheres represent nitrogen

2.6. In Figure P2.6 the black spheres represent carbon

a. The compartment on the le contains CO2; the one

2.8. Which of the highlighted elements in Figure P2.8

2.9. Which of the highlighted elements in Figure P2.9

2.10. Which of the highlighted elements in Figure P2.10

2.11. Which of the highlighted elements in Figure P2.11 is

2.12. Use representations [A] through [I] in Figure P2.12 to

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

The Rutherford Model

2.13. Explain how the results of the gold-foil experiment

2.17. What is meant by a weighted average?

2.23. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are

2.25. Fill in the missing information about atoms of the

Mass Number ? ? 118 197

2.26. Fill in the missing information about atoms of the

Mass Number ? ? 143 238

2.27. The natural abundances of the two stable isotopes of

2.29. Chemistry of MarsNASA’s 1997 mission to Mars

If essentially all the oxygen in the Martian MgO

2.31. Use the following table of abundances and masses of

2.32. Use the following table of abundances and masses of

The Periodic Table of the Elements

2.33. Mendeleev ordered the elements in his version of

2.37. Which element is most likely to form a cation with a

2.39. Which ions have the same number of electrons as

2.41. Classify each of the following ﬁ h-row elements as a

2.43. Classify each of the following fourth-row elements

2.45. Elements in TNTMolecules of the explosive called

gas, was used as a chemical weapon during World

2.47. Catalytic ConvertersThe catalytic converters used to

2.49. How does Dalton’s atomic theory of matter explain

2.53. Cobalt forms two sulﬁdes: CoS and Co2S3. Predict

2.55. When 5.0 g of sulfur is combined with 5.0 g of

2.57. Fill in the missing information in the following table

Mass Number ? ? 90 120

2.58. Fill in the missing information in the following table

Mass Number ? ? 66 138

2.59. Which of these compounds consist of molecules,