UNIT 1

How can the diversity of

materials be explained?
The development and use of materials for specific purposes is an important human
endeavour. In this unit students investigate the chemical structures and properties of a range
of materials, including covalent compounds, metals, ionic compounds and polymers. They are
introduced to ways that chemical quantities are measured. They consider how manufacturing
innovations lead to more sustainable products being produced for society through the use of
renewable raw materials and a transition from a linear economy towards a circular economy.
Students conduct practical investigations involving the reactivity series of metals, separation
of mixtures by chromatography, use of precipitation reactions to identify ionic compounds,
determination of empirical formulas, and synthesis of polymers.
Throughout this unit, students use chemistry terminology including symbols, formulas,
chemical nomenclature and equations to represent and explain observations and data from
their own investigations and to evaluate the chemistry-based claims of others.
A student-directed research investigation into the sustainable production or use of a selected
material is to be undertaken in Area of Study 3. The investigation explores how sustainability
factors such as green chemistry principles and the transition to a circular economy are
considered in the production of materials to ensure minimum toxicity and impacts on human
health and the environment. The investigation draws on key knowledge and key science skills
from Area of Study 1 and/or Area of Study 2.
Reproduced from VCAA VCE Chemistry Study Design 2023-2027

Image: motorolka/Shutterstock.com

1
UNIT 1 AOS 1
How do the chemical structures of materials
explain their properties and reactions?
In this area of study students focus on elements as the
They use solubility tables to experimentally identify unknown
building blocks of useful materials. They investigate the
ions in solution. They respond to challenges such as
structures, properties and reactions of carbon compounds,
developing their own reactivity series by reacting samples
metals and ionic compounds, and use chromatography
of metals with acids, oxygen and water.
to separate the components of mixtures. They use
metal recycling as a context to explore the transition in Outcome 1
manufacturing processes from a linear economy to a
On completion of this unit the student should be able
circular economy.
to explain how elements form carbon compounds,
The selection of learning contexts should allow students metallic lattices and ionic compounds, experimentally
to develop practical techniques to investigate the properties investigate and model the properties of different materials,
and reactions of various materials. Students develop their and use chromatography to separate the components
skills in the use of scientific equipment and apparatus. of mixtures.
Students may conduct flame tests to identify elements Reproduced from VCAA VCE Chemistry Study Design 2023-2027
in the periodic table. They may model covalent, metallic
and ionic structures using simple ball-and-stick models
and may use computer simulations of the three-dimensional
representations of molecules and lattices to better
understand structures.

Image: vchal/Shutterstock.com

2
 1
CHAPTER 1
Atoms, elements and
the periodic table
LESSONS

1A Atoms and elements

1B The periodic table – part 1
1C The periodic table – part 2
1D Recycling critical elements
Chapter 1 review

KEY KNOWLEDGE

• the definitions of elements, isotopes and ions, including appropriate notation:

atomic number; mass number; and number of protons, neutrons and electrons
• the periodic table as an organisational tool to identify patterns and trends in,
and relationships between, the structures (including shell and subshell electronic
configurations and atomic radii) and properties (including electronegativity,
first ionisation energy, metallic and non-metallic character and reactivity) of elements
• critical elements (for example, helium, phosphorus, rare-earth elements and
post-transition metals and metalloids) and the importance of recycling processes
for element recovery

3
 1A Atoms and elements
STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT

• the definitions of elements, isotopes

and ions, including appropriate
notation: atomic number; mass
number; and number of protons,
neutrons and electrons

1A 1B 1C 1D

1.1.1.1 Atomic number

1.1.1.2 Mass number

1.1.1.3 Isotopes Image: Adison Pangchai/Shutterstock.com

ESSENTIAL PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

How much volume of an atom do subatomic particles occupy?
• There are many different types In chemistry atoms consist of three fundamental different components –
of atoms that exist protons and neutrons which form the nucleus and electrons which surround the
• Subatomic particles nucleus. In this lesson we’ll discuss how to accurately describe the structure of
elements and learn about the numerical characteristics that define elements.
See questions 1–2.

ACTIVITIES KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Atom smallest unit of matter used in VCE chemistry

Atomic number number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Chemical symbol abbreviation used to represent a chemical element
Compound two or more atoms of different elements bound together
Electron negatively charged particle that exists outside the nucleus of an atom
Element pure substance containing only a single type of atom
Ion atom that has lost or gained electrons to become a charged particle
Isotope variants of an element which have the same atomic number but a different
number of neutrons in their nuclei
Mass number mass of an atom, equal to the sum of protons and neutrons
Molecule when two or more non-metal atoms bond by sharing electrons
Neutron neutral particle inside the nucleus of an atom
Nucleus region at the centre of an atom that contains protons and neutrons
Periodic table table of chemical elements in which elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number
Proton positively charged particle inside the nucleus of an atom
Subatomic particle particle that exists inside the atom

Atomic number 1.1.1.1

All elements have different atomic numbers.
Nucleus

Proton
Neutron
How is the atomic number of an element determined?
Atoms consist of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons and
Electrons

electrons figure 1) and to date, scientists have discovered 118

Figure 1 Protons (+) are attracted to different types of atoms, referred to as elements.
the electrons (-) in an atom

4 ChApter 1: AtoMs, eleMents And the perIodIC tAble

With so many different elements to keep track of, Russian chemist
Dimitri Mendeleev developed a way of organising these into a table
we now refer to as the periodic table shown in figure 2. We will learn
about the periodic table in great detail in the next few lessons.

1A THEORY
1 Periodic table of the elements 2
H He
1.0 4.0
hydrogen helium
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be 79 Atomic number B C N O F Ne
6.9 9.0 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
lithium beryllium Au Symbol of element boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
197.0 Relative atomic mass
16 17 18
11 12 13 14 15
Na Mg gold Name of element Al Si P S Cl Ar
23.0 24.3 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 96.0 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)
caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon

87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
(223) (226) (261) (262) (266) (264) (267) (268) (271) (272) (285) (280) (289) (289) (292) (294) (294)
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstad roentgenium copernicium nihonium flerovium moscovium livermorium tennessine oganesson

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethi samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(227) 232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium

Figure 2 The periodic table

Although we have names for each of the different elements, chemists

generally represent each element using its chemical symbol. Each box
Atomic number

in the table represents a new element, as seen by the different names

and symbols. When two or more atoms bond by sharing electrons,
8

they form molecules such as O2 (oxygen).

Chemical
symbol O Relative
When these atoms come from different elements, such as H2O
16.0
(water), they form
atomic mass
oxygen
compounds. We will now explore the information displayed for each
element on the periodic table in further detail. As shown in figure
3, the number located at
Element

the top of each element indicates how many protons are in the
Figure 3 Notation of elements in the
periodic table
nucleus of each atom, and is referred to as the atomic number.
The atomic number is unique to every element and gives information
about the number of protons found in the nucleus of the atom.
MISCONCEPTION

Looking at the example of oxygen in figure 3, oxygen has an atomic

number of 8, and by no coincidence, is also the 8th element on the
‘protons, electrons and neutrons

periodic table. This means that the identity of an element is based on

are the only subatomic particles.’

the number of protons it has in its nucleus, and does not depend on
Subatomic particles like quarks and

the number of neutrons or electrons. When an atom gains or loses

muons have been discovered by

electrons it becomes an ion. As this change only results in the atom

physicists and at the last count there
are a total of 36 elementary and
becoming charged, it does not affect the number of either protons or composite subatomic particles.
neutrons.

Progress questions
Question 1
The atomic number describes the
number of
A. neutrons in an atom.
protons in an atom.
Continues
B.
→

1A AtoMs And eleMents 5

 MISCONCEPTION
Question 2
_ are positively charged and are in the nucleus of an atom
whereas
‘Atoms have an overall charge.’

_ are negatively charged and exist outside the

1A THEORY

All atoms in the periodic table have

nucleus. _ are neutral particles.

the same number of protons (each
with a relative charge of +1) and
Protons, electrons, Neutrons
electrons (each with a relative charge
A.
Electrons, protons, Neutrons
of -1) which cancel each other making
atoms neutral. Neutrons have no effect B.
on charge as they are neutral. Ions
are atoms that have gained or lost
Question 3
Which of the following equations is always correct
electrons and are charged.

with respect to a neutral atom?

A. Protons = electrons
8 Electrons B. Protons + neutrons = electrons
8 Protons C. Protons + electrons = neutrons (x2)
Electrons + neutrons = neutrons (x2)
8 Neutrons
D.

Figure 4 Model of an oxygen atom Mass number 1.1.1.2

The mass number of an element indicates the number of protons
USEFUL TIP and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

The mass number of an element

How do you determine the mass number of an element?
As elements are made up of a different combination of subatomic
is a relative value compared to other

particles, they all have different masses. The mass number of an

elements and therefore does not

element is based on the number of protons and neutrons found in the

have any units. Using the relative

nucleus and is calculated as a relative mass:

masses from the periodic table a
carbon atom (12) is 12 times heavier

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

than a hydrogen atom (1) and a

If we inspect the model of an oxygen atom in figure 4, we can see that

magnesium atom (24) is twice as

the nucleus contains a total of eight protons and eight neutrons.

heavy as
a carbon atom (12). This will be

To calculate the relative mass number for oxygen, we need to

disscussed in lesson 6A.

sum the number of protons and neutrons.

Mass number for oxygen = 8 + 8 = 16
Protons have approximately the same mass as a neutron. Electrons
KEEN TO INVESTIGATE? have a very small mass (about 1/1800 of a proton or neutron); so
small that it’s almost negligible when it comes to calculating the mass
of an atom. As a result, we don’t include electrons in our calculations
1
How do we know what is in the

and almost all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus.1

nucleus of an atom?
Search YouTube: Rutherford’s gold

If we combine our knowledge of the atomic number and mass number

foil experiment

of an element of an atom, we can determine the number of neutrons

found in an atom using the following formula:
Number of neutrons in an atom = mass number − atomic number

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 2. Subtract the atomic number from the mass number.

Consider the element shown. Given that the

mass number is 40, how many neutrons would
be found in the nucleus of this atom?

What information is presented in the question?

Information from the periodic table for the
element calcium.
What is the question asking us to do?
Determine the number of neutrons found in the
nucleus of calcium.
What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?
1. Determine the atomic number of calcium.

6 ChApter 1: AtoMs, eleMents And the perIodIC tAble

 20
Ca
40
calcium

Answe
r
The atomic number of calcium is 20. Given that
it has a mass number of 40, the number of
neutrons would be:
Number of neutrons in an atom = mass
number − atomic number
Neutrons = 40 − 20 Neutrons = 20
There would be 20 neutrons in a calcium atom.

1A AtoMs And eleMents 7

 MISCONCEPTION
Progress questions
‘the atomic masses that appear
Question 4
The relative mass number is determined by
on the periodic table are actual

1A THEORY
masses of the atoms.’

A. multiplying the mass of a proton by the number of protons. The relative atomic masses shown

adding the total number of neutrons and protons in the

on the periodic table are the relative
B. average mass of all of the isotopes of
that element. This will be covered in
more detail in lesson 6A.
Question 5
A neutral atom with 10 electrons
would have
A. 10 neutrons.

Question 6
A neutral atom with 10 protons would
always have
A. 10 neutrons.
The Three Isotopes of Hydrogen

Question 7
Elements on the periodic table are numbered in
Proton

increasing order of the number of P Protium 11 H

A. protons.
electrons.
E Electron
B.

Proton
Question 8
The mass of a proton is approximately the same
N

amount as
P Deuterium 21 H
Neutron

A. a neutron. E Electron

Isotopes 1.1.1.3 Proton

The same element can have different mass numbers. N
P
N
Tritium 31 H
Neutron
How many elements have multiple isotopes? E Electron
Individual elements can exist in different forms known as isotopes.
Isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons (and
Figure 5 Different isotopes of hydrogen

therefore have the same atomic number), however, they vary in the
number of neutrons and therefore have
Mass number
a different mass (see figure 5).
Considering the mass number is the total number of protons and
1 2 3
1H 1H 1H

neutrons in the atom, the mass numbers of protium, deuterium and

tritium would be 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The mass number is shown
Atomic number

as a superscript to the upper left hand side of the chemical symbol.

Figure 6 Conventions used to
represent isotopes

This value can be used to determine the identity

of the isotope as shown in figure 6.
Of the first 82 elements in the periodic table, 71 of them are
KEEN TO INVESTIGATE?

considered to have at least one stable isotope (not radioactive2) in

2
Why are some isotopes radioactive?

nature. Tin is the winner with 10 stable isotopes ranging in mass

Search YouTube: What are

from 112 to 124.

radioactive isotopes?

STRATEGY

The convention used to represent isotopes is different to what appears

in the VCE Data Book. Mass and atomic number are swapped around.

8 ChApter 1: AtoMs, eleMents And the perIodIC tAble

 Progress questions
1A QUESTIONS

Question 9
The number of neutrons in an atom with an atomic number of
11 and a mass number of 23 is
A. 12.
B. 34.

Question 10
The mass number of the following
atom is Protons
A. 22. Neutrons
Electrons

Question 11
Isotopes have
atoms with a different number of protons but the same
number of neutrons.
A.

Question 12
Isotopes of an element all have the same physical
properties.
A. True

Theory summary
• The atomic number reflects the number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom.
• Different elements have different atomic numbers.
• The mass number is the sum of neutrons and protons in
the nucleus of an atom.
• Isotopes have the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons (and therefore a
different mass).

1A Questions Mild Medium Spicy

Deconstructed
Use the following information to answer questions 13–15.
Atoms are the most basic building blocks of living things.
In order to be able to produce different kinds of
substances, we require a whole range of different types of
atoms. Take for example the following two atoms:
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons

1A AtoMs And eleMents 9

 Question 13 (1 MARK)

These atoms
are isotopes of each other.

1A QUESTIONS
A.
B. have the same number of neutrons.
C. have the same number of protons.
D. are radioactive.

Question 14 (1 MARK)

The atomic number of each atom is/are

A. 19 and 20 respectively.
B. 10.
C. 9 and 10 respectively.
D. 7 and 8 respectively.

Question 15 (3 MARKS)

Describe the difference in mass number between the two atoms.

Exam-style
Question 16 (1 MARK)
Dorothy is a nuclear physicist who devotes much of her time to her love of isotopes. One
afternoon she decides that she wishes to explore the potential of artificially
synthesising some zinc isotopes, and carries out some inquiries. Identify the key
characteristic of zinc that she would change in order to develop different isotopes.

Question 17 (3 MARKS)

When an atom becomes radioactive, it can undergo a process called

neutron release. During neutron release, a neutron is effectively ‘ejected’
from the nucleus.
Consider an atom with the nucleus shown.
Proton

Assuming all of the protons and neutrons are visible, describe what would
Neutron

happen to the atom if it were to undergo neutron release.

Question 18 (13 MARKS)

Alicia conducted an experiment to detect subatomic particles in newly

discovered atoms. Her observations are given in the table below:
Fictitious elemental symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons Mass number
R 17 17 17
I 18 18 18
T 18 19 18
A 19 20 19

a. Determine the mass number of each element. (4 MARKS)

b. Which of the two elements are isotopes of each other? (1 MARK)
c. How should the table be updated to reflect your answer in part b? (2 MARKS)
d. What is the complete notation including the symbol, atomic number and mass
number for element A? (3 MARKS)
e. If elements R and A came together to create RA, would RA be classified as a
molecule or a compound? (3 MARKS)

10 ChApter 1: AtoMs, eleMents And the perIodIC tAble

 Key science skills
Question 19 (5 MARKS)

Matthew, a year 11 chemistry student, wanted to compare two unknown elements.

1A QUESTIONS

He believed that by developing an experiment which could measure and compare

the mass number of two elements, he would be able to distinguish the two elements
from one another. In preparation for his experiment,
Matthew developed a set of scales that could detect extremely small masses.
Prior to conducting the experiments, he made sure to calibrate the scales.
a. Why is it important for Matthew to calibrate the scales prior to an experiment? (1 MARK)
b. Consider the following statement from Matthew:
“Every element is different, and therefore will have a different mass number to
other elements.” Comment on the accuracy of his statement. (4 MARKS)
FROM LESSON 16D

Hints
16. Isotopes have a varying number of neutrons.
18d. The representation involves only symbols and numbers.
17. Isotopes have a varying number of neutrons.
18e. Compounds involve two or more different elements.
18a. Calculating mass number involves only the protons and
19a. Errors can affect experimental results.
neutrons.
19b. Isotopes have different masses.
18b. Isotopes are derived from the same element.
18c. Isotopes have the same atomic number.

1A AtoMs And eleMents 1

1
 1B The periodic table – part 1
STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT

• the periodic table as an

organisational tool to identify
patterns and trends
in, and relationships between, the
structures (including shell and
subshell electronic configurations
and atomic radii) and properties
(including electronegativity, first
ionisation energy, metallic and non–
metallic character and reactivity)
of elements

1A 1B 1C 1D

Image: Pavel Sapozhnikov/Shutterstock.com

1.1.2.1 Electronic configurations
Who created the periodic table and why did they leave gaps?
1.1.2.2 & 1.1.2.4 The basic organisation
In this lesson, we will learn how an element’s electron configuration is written, of the periodic table
how elements are organised in the periodic table, and the periodic trend & atomic radii
in the size of atoms.
1.1.2.3 Blocks on the
periodic table

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

ESSENTIAL PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Aufbau principle rule that states subshells are filled by electrons from the lowest
to the highest energy level 1A Subatomic particles
Blocks assortment of elements into discrete categories based on which subshell their 1A An element
valence electrons are found in See questions 3–4.
Electron configuration arrangement of electrons in shells and/or subshells
Energy shells or energy levels orbits containing different levels of energy,
around the nucleus of an atom where electrons are found according to the Bohr ACTIVITIES
and Schrodinger models
Log into your Edrolo account for
Groups columns in the periodic table
activities that support this lesson.
Orbitals regions with the highest probability of finding electrons
Pauli exclusion principle rule that states an orbital can’t hold more than 2 electrons
Periods rows in the periodic table
Periodicity characteristics of elements in a period
Valence shell outermost energy shell
Valence electrons electrons in the outermost shell of an atom

Electronic configurations 1.1.2.1

We can use the Bohr and Schrodinger models of the atom to write the
electron configurations of the shells and subshells of different atoms.

How are electron shells configured around the nucleus

of an atom?
The electron configurations show information about the number of
electrons in each atom and where they are located in terms of
electron shells (table 1).

1B ThE pErIodIc TaBlE – parT 1 11

 In the Bohr model, when electrons occupy shells in an atom, there are
three general rules that need to be followed:
1. Each electron shell holds a different number of electrons.
2. Electrons will fill shells closest to the nucleus first.
1B THEORY

3. Electrons fill and empty shells in a particular order.

Table 1 Difference between shells in the Bohr model

Distance from nucleus Shell number Maximum number of
electrons in the shell
Closest 1 2
↓ 2 8
↓ 3 18
Farthest 4 32

Figure 1 shows how electrons fill in an atom of titanium, starting with the
inner shell.

Electrons

Ti Ti
Ti Ti

Electrons found Two electrons fill Eight electrons fill Electrons begin to fill
in titanium. the first shell. the second shell. the third shell as the
first two shells are full.
Figure 1 Order of filling of electrons in an atom

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Scientists discovered an atom with a total of 28 electrons. What is the electron

shell configuration for this atom?

However, once the third shell reaches eight

What information is presented in the question?
The atom contains 28 electrons. electrons, it will fill the fourth shell with two
electrons first before electrons will start to fill shell
number three again.
What is the question asking us to do?
Write the electron configuration for the
atom. According to the question, there are 28
electrons in total. Therefore the order of filling
would be:
What strategies do we need in order
to answer the question?
1. Recall the maximum number of
electrons that can fill each shell.
Order of filling Number of Total electrons

Fill each shell with electrons until it is

electrons filling placed in a

full.
2. the shell shell
First shell 2 2
Write the electron configuration for the
atom. Second shell 8 10
3.

Answer Third shell 8 18

We know that the capacity of each shell is: Fourth shell 2 20
Shell number Max number of electrons Third shell 8 28
it can hold
1 2 We can see that the third shell is filled twice,
with a total of 16 electrons. Therefore the
2 8 electronic configuration for this atom is 2, 8,
3 18 16, 2.

4 32

12 chapTEr 1: aToms, ElEmEnTs and ThE pErIodIc TaBlE

How are electrons configured within shells and subshells?
The Schrödinger model of the atom is a more accurate and complex
model than the Bohr shell model. Instead of electrons occupying
fixed orbits, electrons occupy regions around the nucleus.
Schrödinger’s model of the atom takes this principle into account
and defines orbitals as regions of space where electrons are likely
to be found.
One of the key rules about orbitals is the Pauli exclusion principle
which states that the maximum number of electrons in an orbital
is 2. Therefore, it could hold 0, 1 or 2 electrons. However, similar
to the Bohr model, electrons are said to be
found in shells which vary in energy level. These shells are numbered
starting at 1, and also reflect the order of energy levels. Shells
contain smaller subshells, however, not all shells contain the same
type of subshells, as seen in table 2 and figure 2.

Table 2 The different shells, subshells and orbitals in an atom

Number Subshell(s) in shell Number of orbitals Maximum number
of shell in subshell of electrons
1 1s 1 2
2s 1 2
2
2p 3 6
3s 1 2
3 3p 3 6
3d 5 10
4s 1 2
4p 3 6
4
4d 5 10
4f 7 14

USEFUL TIP
4th shell
4 subshells,
When electrons are filling either
s, p, d and f the p, d or f subshells they
4p
generally
1st shell spread out when they can so that
3d
1 subshell, s only 1 electron is in each orbital due
to the fact that electrons repel each
4s
other.
When electrons have to pair up in
3p 4
a subshell they do so by spinning
1 in
3s
Energy

2p
2
2s

2nd shell
2 subshells,
1s s and p
3rd shell
3 subshells,
s, p, and d 4f
4d
Figure 2 Subshells and shells around the nucleus (a) and by increasing energy (b) 4 4p
3d
How do we write electron configurations using shells 4s
and subshells?
We can also use the Schrodinger model of the atom to write the electron configurations
3 3p

of different elements by counting how many electrons are in each subshell. In order
3s
2p
to do this, we need to understand the Aufbau principle, which states that electrons
2

1B ThE pErIodIc TaBlE – parT 1 13

 fill the lowest energy shells or energy levels first. Based on experiments, it’s been 1
2s

shown that the energy levels found in atoms can be

1s
represented in figure 3.
Figure 3 Different energy levels found in atoms

1B THEORY

14 chapTEr 1: aToms, ElEmEnTs and ThE pErIodIc TaBlE

 1s While each energy level represents an energy shell, we can see that
the order does not necessarily show that electrons fill shells
n=1

completely before moving onto the next. Electrons prefer to fill

subshells with lower energy first, as they are more stable. As such,
2s 2p

we can see from figure 4 that electrons will begin to fill subshell 1s
n=2

first, followed by 2s, 2p and so on. However, when electrons have

filled subshell
3s 3p 3d
n=3

3p, they then start to fill 4s before 3d. This is due to the fact that
shell 4s has lower energy than 3d. This whole process can be
4s 4d 4f

represented by the geometric design

n=4 4p

5s 5p
5d 5f in figure 4.
n=5

6s 6p 5d USEFUL TIP
n=6
Sometimes the subshell energy levels are not in sequential order. For example,
7s the 4s subshell is lower in energy than the 3d subshell. It takes less energy to fill
n=7 7p
the one orbital in the 4s subshell than the five orbitals in the 3d subshell.

n=8 8s
The standard notation when writing electron configurations is to write the shell number
Figure 4 The electron filling pattern of subshell first, the type of subshell second and then in superscript above the subshell, the number
energy levels
of electrons. Consider an atom of sulfur, which contains a total of 16 electrons. We know
that electrons fill subshells as outlined in figure 5. We also need to remember that the s
subshell is able to hold two electrons, the p subshell is able to hold six electrons and the
d subshell is able to hold 10 electrons. Every subshell needs to be filled with electrons
before moving onto the next subshell. Using this information, we can determine the
electron configuration for sulfur to be:

1s22s22p 63s23p 4

1B ThE pErIodIc TaBlE – parT 1 15

 Shell Number of electrons Subshell

Based on the electron configuration, we can see that sulfur contains a total of three shells.
1B THEORY

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

Write out the complete electron configuration for an atom of oxygen which has 8 electrons.

What information is presented in the question?

The atom in question is oxygen which has 8 electrons.
What is the question asking us to do?
Find the complete electron configuration of oxygen by using the Schrödinger model.
What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?
1. Write out the order of the energy levels of shells and subshells.
Fill the subshells with the maximum number of electrons they can hold in
this order, remembering the s subshell can hold two electrons, the p
2.

subshell can hold six electrons and the d subshell can hold 10 electrons.
Answer
There are eight electrons in an oxygen
atom. The order of energy subshells is:
1s<2s<2p<3s…
The s–subshell can hold two electrons and the p–subshell can hold six electrons.
Therefore, there will be two electrons in the 1s subshell, two electrons in the 2s
subshell and the remaining four electrons in the p–subshell. Therefore, the
electron configuration of oxygen is: 1s²2s²2p⁴

16 chapTEr 1: aToms, ElEmEnTs and ThE pErIodIc TaBlE

 Progress questions
Question 1
An atom that contains 11 electrons would

1B THEORY
contain
A. 3 energy shells.
B. 11 energy shells.

Question 2
Orbitals are
mathematical visualisations of regions where
electrons are likely to be found.
A.

B. real and measurable bubbles around the nucleus.

Question 3
What shell and subshell will the 28th electron of
an atom fill?
A. 4p

Question 4
Which of the following correctly shows the electronic
configuration of a sodium atom?
A. 1s²2s²3p⁶4s¹
B. 1s²2s²2p⁶3s¹

The basic organisation of the

periodic table & atomic radii 1.1.2.2 &
1.2.2.4
The periodic table is arranged in a systematic manner.

How is the periodic table organised?

As we explored in the previous lesson, elements behave differently,
and the periodic table helps scientists represent all the different
elements in a way that demonstrates their properties and trends. A
modern version of the periodic table is shown
in figure 5.

1 Periodic table of the elements 2 Alkali metals

H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Alkaline-earth metals
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Transition metals
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Other metals
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Other non-metals
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Halogens
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba –71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Noble gases
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Actinoid elements
Fr Ra –103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Metalloids
Lanthanoids
Rare-earth elements
Actinoids (57–71) and lanthanoid
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 elements (57–71 only)
La Ce
Figure 5 A modern periodic table Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No 1BLr ThE pErIodIc TaBlE – parT 1 17
 From a broad perspective, we can see that the colours in the periodic
table highlight the many different types of elements that exist, ranging
from metals to non-metals. Within these two categories, the elements
can be further classified into sub–categories.
1B THEORY

How can a period explain trends in the periodic table?

At first glance, we can notice that elements are arranged by their
atomic number, which increases from left to right across rows. As we
learned in the previous lesson, the atomic number reflects the number
of protons in the nucleus of an atom, therefore we can appreciate that
as we progress from left to right on the periodic table, the number of
protons increases.
Rows in the periodic table are referred to as periods. Elements in the
KEEN TO INVESTIGATE? same period show periodicity;1 a repeating trend in properties,
1
What other blocks of elements including:
• same number of occupied electron shells, and
are there?

• decreasing atomic radius.

Search: interactive periodic table rs

A special characteristic of periods on the periodic table is that

elements in the same period contain the same number of occupied
electron shells as seen in figure 6.

Period 1

MISCONCEPTION Hydrogen Helium

‘atoms get bigger as you

Period 2
add more electrons.’
Moving from left to right across
the period, there is an increase in Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
the number of protons and therefore
also electrons. However, if we Period 3
investigate further, we will realise
that the increase in protons is exactly
the reason why the size of the atom Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
decreases as we move along a period
Figure 6 The electron arrangement in different elements
If we look carefully at figure 6, we can also see that although elements in the
because the attraction of the protons

same
to the valence electrons is stronger.

period contain the same number of electron shells, the radius of the
Valence shell atom actually becomes smaller.
The atomic radius of an atom is estimated (due to the fact that an atom
(outermost

does not have a defined boundary) from the nucleus to the outer shell
electron shell)

of an atom as shown in figure 7. The outermost shell of an atom is

Atomic

known as the valence shell.

radius

Electrons that are found in the valence shell are known as valence
electrons. Valence electrons are an important contributor to the
behaviour of an atom; a concept that we will investigate further.
The number of protons in an atom increases with atomic number
across a period. Given there will be more protons in the nucleus,
Nucleus

there would be a greater positive charge in the nucleus. As each

Figure 7 The method of measuring

period contains the same number of occupied shells, atoms towards

atomic radius

the end of the period would have a greater ability to attract the
valence electrons towards the nucleus compared to elements at the
start of the period, due to the increase in number of protons (and
therefore positive charge). This would result in the valence shell
being pulled closer to the nucleus, reducing the atomic radius. This is
summarised in figure 8.

18 chapTEr 1: aToms, ElEmEnTs and ThE pErIodIc TaBlE

 Decrease in atomic radius

Figure 8 Atomic radius decreases across a period

1B ThE pErIodIc TaBlE – parT 1 19

However, we need to remember that in–between the valence shell and
the nucleus are inner shells of occupied electrons.. As we know, Va
electrons are negatively charged particles, and therefore would repel
Repulsion len

each other when they come into close contact, as shown in figure 9.
c
Repulsion ee
le
ct

1B THEORY
So far, we have been investigating the periodic table by looking at
ro
ns
the properties of elements in the same period (row), however, we
can also look at the table from a different perspective:
Attraction

investigating elements in the same column.

Repulsion

Attraction
How can a group explain trends in the periodic table?
The columns of a periodic table are known as groups. Groups are
numbered from left to right from 1 to 18, where each different
Nucleus

column represents a different group.

Repulsion

Consider figure 10, which shows the first few elements in a variety of different groups.

Figure 9 Repulsion of electrons in an atom

Group 1 Group 14 Group 17 Group 18

H He

Li C F Ne

Na Si Cl Ar

Figure 10 Electron arrangement of elements in the same group

If we look closely, we can notice that the valence shell in each element
(in red) of each group contains the same number of valence electrons.
Hydrogen, lithium and sodium, all found in group 1, all contain one
valence electron. The elements in group 14 all contain four valence
electrons. This pattern is evident throughout all groups except helium
in group 18. Due to the fact that elements in the same group contain
the same number of valence electrons, they all behave similarly.
Although elements in the same group have the same number of
valence electrons, they differ in the total number of occupied electron
shells. As we move down
a group, we can see that there is an additional electron shell. This
makes sense considering when we move down a group, we are
essentially entering a new period. As such, we experience the addition
of another occupied electron shell.
The increase in the number of electron shells as we progress down a
group results in an increase in atomic radius as seen in figure 11.
As we know, this means that there is an increase in the distance
between the nucleus and the valence shell.
Consequently, the valence electrons experience a weaker force of
attraction towards the nucleus. Again, the electrons found in between
the valence shell and nucleus also have a shielding effect which
contributes to the atomic radius increasing down a group.
Increase in atomic radius

1B ThE pErIodIc TaBlE – parT 1 17

 Figure 11 Atomic radius increases down a group

18 chapTEr 1: aToms, ElEmEnTs and ThE pErIodIc TaBlE

 Progress questions
Question 5
Elements with the same number of occupied energy
1B THEORY

shells are found in the same

A. group.
B. period.

Question 6
Elements with three valence electrons can be found
in the same
A. group.

Question 7
Potassium can be
found in
A. group 1, period 4.

Question 8
The number of protons _ as we move across a
period.
A. decreases

Question 9
The greater the number of electrons the larger
the atom.
A. True

Question 10
Atomic radius increases across a
period.
A. True

Question 11
Atomic radius increases as the number of protons
increases.
A. True

Blocks on the periodic table 1.1.2.3

Elements can be grouped based on their highest occupied energy subshell.

How can the periodic table be divided into blocks?

As we learned earlier in this lesson, the electron configuration of atoms
involves
a system whereby electron shells are divided up into discrete energy
levels – called subshells – from the lowest energy level to the highest
energy level. Combined with our understanding of the information
reflected by the periods of the periodic table, we can now appreciate
the organisation of elements into blocks as shown
in figure 12.

1B ThE pErIodIc TaBlE – parT 1 17

 1s
2s 2p
Block s Block p Block d Block f
3s 3p

1B THEORY
4s 3d 4p
5s 4d 5p
Figure
6s 12 Elemental blocks in the periodic table

The
7s periodic table is also organised into 7p
different categories called
5d 6p
USEFUL TIP
blocks. Specifically, elements are placed into blocks according to
6d

which subshell their highest energy, valence electrons fill. As we can

The best way to identify an atom

see in figure 12,

4f there are four different blocks, each corresponding
based on its electron configuration is

to a subshell: s, p, d or f. Elements that fall within the s–block will

to simply add up all of the electrons,

have the s subshell as its outermost occupied subshell. For example,

5f
because this is equal to the atomic

lithium, which is found in period two, falls within the s–block and has
(proton) number of the element.

a 2s subshell as its highest energy subshell. This pattern is the same

for all of the other blocks.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3

In which block would carbon be found on the periodic table? Include the electron
configuration of carbon to support your answer.

What information is presented in the question?

The element in question is carbon.
What is the question asking us to do?
Find the block in which carbon is found in the periodic table.
What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?
1. Write the electron configuration for carbon.
2. Identify the last subshell in carbon as shown in the electron configuration.
Answer
As a neutral atom, carbon contains a total of six electrons. Therefore the electron
configuration for carbon is 1s²2s²2p². As a result, carbon would be found in the p-block
as its outermost electrons are in a p-subshell.

Progress questions
Question 12
Elements in the s block
A. have the same number of valence electrons.
B. have the same outer subshell type.

Question 13
Elements in the same period belong in the same block.
A. True
B. False

Question 14
An element found in the p block
A. will have the same number of energy shells.
will have a maximum of six electrons occupying their outer
subshell.
B.

Continues →

1B ThE pErIodIc TaBlE – parT 1 19

 Question 15
Oxygen can be found in block
s.
1B QUESTIONS

A.
B. p.

Theory summary
• Schrödinger’s subshell model of the atom replaced Bohr’s
shell model and describes electrons inhabiting orbitals as
well as the shells and subshells of atoms.
• Groups (columns) of elements in the periodic table all
have the same number of outer valence electrons.
• Periods (rows) of elements in the periodic table all have the
same number of occupied energy shells.
• Atomic radius decreases across a period and increases down a
group.
• There are four blocks on the periodic table: s, p, d and f.
• Blocks on the periodic table reflect the highest energy
subshell found in the atoms of an element.

1B Questions Mild Medium Spicy

Deconstructed
Use the following information to answer questions 16–18.
Selenium is an element found in trace amounts in everyday foods. A sample of selenium
is examined to determine its chemical properties. A second element is studied, sulfur,
which exists abundantly on Earth as a yellow crystalline solid.

Images (left to right): Bjoern Wylezich, Sebastian Janicki/Shutterstock.com

Question 16 (1 MARK)

Sulfur is found in group

A. 13.
B. 14.
C. 15.
D. 16.

Question 17 (1 MARK)

In comparison to sulfur, selenium has

A. the same number of occupied electron shells.
B. a smaller number of protons in the nucleus.
C. less valence electrons.
D. a larger atomic radius.

20 chapTEr 1: aToms, ElEmEnTs and ThE pErIodIc TaBlE

Question 18 (2 MARKS)

What is the subshell electron configuration of sulfur?

1B QUESTIONS
Exam–style
Question 19 (1 MARK)

The maximum number of electrons that can occupy a 4p subshell is

A. 2
B. 6
C. 10
D. 14
VCAA 2002 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q2

Question 20 (3 MARKS)

The periodic table acts like a list that shows all of the elements that
currently exist. Consider the following elements:
Ca V P Si Be
a. Which elements would be found in the same period? (1 MARK)
b. Which elements would be found in the same block? (1 MARK)
c. Which element would most likely have the greatest atomic radius? (1 MARK)

Question 21 (5 MARKS)

Two elements were selected at random, both belonging to period 4. Element A

contains 32 electrons and element B contains 20 electrons.
a. If both atoms were neutral, identify the number of protons in each element. (1 MARK)
b. Write the subshell electron configuration for each element. (1 MARK)
c. Of the two elements, which would have a smaller atomic radius? Explain. (3 MARKS)

Key science skills

Question 22 (5 MARKS)

Scientists have developed a high-powered electron microscope that is able to

visualise atoms, however not the way we’re used to seeing it in textbooks.
To test the machine, a scientist obtained two elements, lithium and sodium, to
be viewed under the microscope. The scientist wanted to see whether the
clarity of the image would increase
if the atom was left under the electron microscope for a longer period of time.
a. Identify the dependent variable. (1 MARK)
b. The results from the test can be seen below:
Test 1
1 min 5 mins 10 mins
Clarity Not very clear Clear Semi–clear

Test 2

1 min 5 mins 10 mins

Clarity Clear Clear Not very clear

i. What kind of data was collected in the experiment? (1 MARK)

ii. Comment on the reproducibility of the results. (3 MARKS)
FROM LESSONS 16A, 16B & 16D

1B ThE pErIodIc TaBlE – parT 1 21

 Questions from multiple lessons
Question 23 (4 MARKS)
1B QUESTIONS

The discovery of element 113 was claimed by teams of Russian and American scientists
in February 2004. It has since been given the name nihonium and the symbol Nh. Nh
undergoes rapid radioactive decay but atoms of Nh have been identified with a mass
number of 283 and also with a mass number of 284.
a. State the number of subatomic particles in an uncharged Nh atom of mass number
284. protons _ electrons _ neutrons _ (1 MARK)
b. In what group and period is Nh located in the periodic
table? group _ period _ (1 MARK)
c. Give the symbol of the element that is expected to be most similar to Nh in
chemical properties. (1 MARK)
d. In terms of atomic structure, explain why the atomic radius of Nh is predicted to be smaller than
that of Francium. (1 MARK)
Adapted from VCAA 2007 Exam 2 Short answer Q2b

FROM LESSON 1A

Hints
19. The maximum number of electrons is fixed in each subshell.
22a. The independent variable is changed by the experimenter.
20a. Periods are viewed as rows in the periodic table.
22bi. Data can be categorised based on the information collected.
20b. Blocks are viewed as sections in the periodic table according
to valence electrons. 22bii. Reproducibility relates to the consistency of experimental data
between experiments.
20c. The atomic radius increases down a group.
23a. mass number = protons + neutrons
21a. Neutral atoms have no overall charge.
23b. Valence electrons determine the group and number of shells
21b. Electron configurations show the electron arrangement determines the period.
of elements.
23c. Elements are grouped together for a specific reason.
21c. Atomic size decreases across a period.
23d. Atomic radius changes across and down the periodic table.

22 chapTEr 1: aToms, ElEmEnTs and ThE pErIodIc TaBlE

 1C The periodic table – part 2
STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT

• the periodic table as an

organisational tool to identify
patterns and trends in, and
relationships between, the structures
(including shell and subshell
electronic configurations and atomic
radii) and properties (including
electronegativity, first ionisation
energy, metallic and non-metallic
character and reactivity) of elements

1A 1B 1C 1D

Image: Megan Alia Broussard/Shutterstock.com

1.1.2.5 Electronegativity
How are some trends of elements on the periodic table
1.1.2.6 First ionisation energy
related to the movement of electrons?
In this lesson, we will learn about more trends in the periodic table. 1.1.2.7 Metallic character
More specifically, with regards to their electronegativity, ionisation energy,
1.1.2.8 Reactivity
metallic character and reactivity.

ESSENTIAL PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
1B Valence electrons
Core charge attractive force between the positive nucleus and valence electrons, 1B Atomic radius
measured as the difference in the number of protons and inner electrons
See questions 5–6.
Electronegativity how strongly an atom attracts electrons towards itself
First ionisation energy energy required to remove the first valence electron from an atom
Ion atom that has lost or gained electrons to become a charged particle
ACTIVITIES
Metallic character chemical properties associated with metals
Log into your Edrolo account for
Metalloids elements which possess properties that are in-between those of metals
activities that support this lesson.
and non-metals
Noble gases unreactive gases found in group 18 of the periodic table
Octet rule general principle which states that atoms like to have 8 electrons in their
valence shell for stability
Reactivity tendency of atoms to undergo a chemical reaction

Electronegativity 1.1.2.5
Elements attract valence electrons differently.

Why do some elements attract electrons more strongly

than others?
Different atoms have the ability to attract electrons differently
depending on the number of protons in their nucleus and their
atomic radius. The ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself
is known as electronegativity. The greater the
electronegativity, the greater the ability of the atom to attract
electrons towards its nucleus. This will be an important concept
when we explore chemical bonding later in the book.

1C ThE pERIodIC TablE – paRT 2 23

 The quantitative measurement of electronegativity is called the
Pauling Scale, where the greater the number, the more
MISCONCEPTION

electronegative the element. As we can see in figure 1, fluorine has

the highest number on the Pauling Scale (4.0), and therefore is the
‘helium is the most electronegative

most electronegative element on the periodic table. Caesium, on the

element as it is in the top right hand
1C THEORY

other hand, has the lowest Pauling value (0.7), and is therefore the
corner of the periodic table.’

least electronegative element on the periodic table. For this study

Group 18 elements – known as the

design, we are not required to know the Pauling Scale in any detail.
noble gases – already have a full
valence shell and therefore, according
to the octet rule, do not want to attract
any more electrons. Hence, they are Increasing electronegativity
not considered to be electronegative.

Decreasing electronegativity
2.1
He
H
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 Ne
Li Be B C N O F
0.9 1.2 Increasing electronegativity 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0 Ar
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8 Kr
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5 Xe
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
0.7 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.1 Rn
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
Figure 1 Trends in electronegativity based on the Pauling Scale

The trend shown by the red arrow in figure 1 aligns with our
understanding of the number of protons in the nucleus and atomic
radius of elements in the periodic table. Elements with a greater
number of protons in the nucleus and smaller atomic radius can be
found towards the end of each period and further up in a group. As
such, the trend in electronegativity follows the same pattern, where
the most electronegative elements are found towards the upper right
hand corner of the periodic table.

Progress questions
Question 1
Highly electronegative
elements will
have a large atomic
radius.
A.

Question 2
The electronegativity varies across a period
due to the
A. change in size of atomic radii.

Question 3
How does electronegativity vary down a
group?
A. Increases
B. Decreases

First ionisation energy 1.1.2.6

The properties of atoms affect the amount of energy required to
remove electrons from an atom.

Why do some elements lose their electrons more easily

than others?
Elements are represented on the periodic table as neutral atoms. This
means that the number of electrons and protons is the same, and
therefore the negative and positive charges cancel each other out.

24 ChapTER 1: aToMs, ElEMEnTs and ThE pERIodIC TablE

However, this is not always how elements exist.

1C ThE pERIodIC TablE – paRT 2 25

 Given enough energy, we are able to remove electrons from an atom.
More specifically, atoms are able to lose their valence electrons.1
KEEN TO INVESTIGATE?
When this happens, atoms become ions; charged atoms. The amount
of energy required to remove
1
How can the movement of electrons

the first valence electron from an atom in its gaseous state is known
create light?

1C THEORY
Search YouTube: electron energy
as the first ionisation energy. This depends on the attraction of the and light spectra
valence electrons to the positively charged nucleus.
As we have already learned, the atomic radius of an atom decreases as
we move across a period and increases as we move down a group,
which affects the attraction between the nucleus and the valence
electrons. This concept - the attraction between the nucleus and
valence electrons - is related to the core charge of an atom,
which describes how strongly the nucleus is able to attract valence electrons.
The core charge takes into consideration the electrons between the
valence shell and the nucleus, also known as the inner-shell
electrons, and can be expressed as:
core charge = atomic number (number of protons) - number of inner-shell electrons.
The greater the core charge, the greater the attraction between the
valence shell and the nucleus, and therefore, the more energy
required to remove valence electrons from the atom. We also need to
consider the impact of the inner shell electrons on the ability of the
nucleus to attract the valence electrons. The inner electrons can
shield the valence electron from the full attractive force of the
nucleus as seen in figure 2, and this is why we need to consider
these electrons when calculating the core charge.

Electrons on outside have no efect

on attractive force felt by electron
of interest

Figure 2 Illustration of the shielding effect of inner shell electrons

Consider a lithium and sodium atom as shown in figure 3, both of

which occur in group 1.

Lithium Sodium

Figure 3 The deconstruction of a lithium and sodium atom

We can see that both lithium and sodium have a core charge of one.
Therefore we would expect the valence electrons from both atoms to
experience the same level of attraction towards the nucleus. However,
sodium contains more inner-shell electrons and has a larger atomic
radius. Therefore, not only would there be more shielding from inner-
shell electrons, but the valence electron is much further from the
nucleus compared to lithium. As a result, sodium is not able to hold
onto its valence electron as strongly as lithium, and thus would
require less energy to remove the valence electron. Hence, the first
ionisation energy for sodium would be less than that
of lithium.
We can also compare lithium with fluorine as shown in figure 4,
26 ChapTER 1: aToMs, ElEMEnTs and ThE pERIodIC TablE
both of which are found in period 2.

1C ThE pERIodIC TablE – paRT 2 27

1C THEORY

Lithium
Fluorine
Protons: 3 Protons: 9
Electrons: 3 Electrons: 9
Core charge = 3 - 2 = Core charge = 9 - 2 = +7
+1
Figure 4 The deconstruction of a lithium and fluorine atom

As we can see, fluorine has a greater core charger and smaller atomic
radius than lithium, both of which allow fluorine to better attract the
valence electrons. As a result, fluorine would have a greater first
ionisation energy than lithium. The overall trend
of ionisation energy can be seen in figure 5.

Increasing ionisation energy

USEFUL TIP
1 2
Ionisation (loss of electrons) H He
is the opposite of electronegativity
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Decreasing ionisation energy

(gain of electrons). Li Be B C N O F Ne
Periodic table of the elements
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba –71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra –103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Figure 5 Trend in ionisation energy

We can now appreciate that both core charge and atomic radius affect
the first ionisation energy of an atom.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

As you move down the elements of group 1 of the periodic table, what is the trend in the
first ionisation energy and electronegativity?

What information is presented in the question?

A group is equivalent to a column in the periodic table.
What is the question asking us to do?
Identify the trends in ionisation energy and electronegativity down a group.
What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?
1. Recall the trend in ionisation energies down a group.
2. Recall the trend in electronegativity down a group.
Answer
Ionisation energy and electronegativity both decrease as you go down a group on the periodic table.

Adapted from VCAA 2002 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q3

28 ChapTER 1: aToMs, ElEMEnTs and ThE pERIodIC TablE

 Progress questions
Question 4
The core charge _ as we move across a

1C THEORY
period.
A. increases

Question 5
The larger the atom, the greater the
core charge.
A. True

Question 6
Atomic radius increases across a
period.
A. True

Question 7
Atomic radius increases as core charge
increases.
A. True

Question 8
Ionisation energy increases as
we move
A. up a group.

Question 9
Ionisation energy decreases as atomic size
increases.
A. True

Metallic character 1.1.2.7

Some metallic elements can easily lose valence electrons.

Why do some metals lose their valence electrons more easily

than others?
Elements in group 1 and 2, known as the alkali and alkaline earth
metals respectively, exhibit similar physical properties. For
example, both types of metals are shiny, have a silvery appearance
and are good conductors of electricity.
Scientists define a metal in the periodic table as an element that
readily loses electrons to form a positively charged ion. Elements that
have a similar physical appearance and chemical properties to the
elements in group 1 and 2 possess high metallic character. Metals will
be further investigated in the next chapter.
To identify the trend in metallic character, the elements can first be
organised by how easily electrons are lost. As we’ve learned earlier, it
is easier to remove electrons from an atom as we move down a group,
than when we move across a period from left to right. As a result,
metallic character increases as we move down a group
and decreases as we move across a period from left to right. This
is summarised in figure 6.

1C ThE pERIodIC TablE – paRT 2 29

 Decreasing metallic character
1 2
H He

Increasing metallic character

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Metalloids
1C THEORY

Li B C N O F Ne
Be the elements
11 12 Periodic table of 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba –71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra –103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Figure 6 Trend in the metallic character

Metalloids are an interesting group of elements that display a mixture

of both metallic and non-metallic properties. Silicon, considered a
metalloid, is able to conduct electricity however is not shiny or silvery
in appearance. Some other metalloids include boron, arsenic and
tellurium as shown in figure 6.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

The elements in group 4 of the periodic table become more metallic in character
as we go down the group. Provide an explanation for this trend.

What information is presented in the question?

Group 4 is equivalent to a column in the periodic
Answer
The size of the atom increases down a group
table.
which means the valence electron is more easily
What is the question asking us to do? lost, a defining feature of metallic behaviour.
Explain the trends in metallic behaviour down a
group.
Adapted from VCAA 2004 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q12

What strategies do we need in order to answer the question?

1. Recall the trend in metallic behaviour down a
group.
2. Explain why the metallic behaviour changes.

Progress questions
Question 10
Metals
contain five or more valence
electrons.
A.

B. are able to easily lose electrons.

Question 11
Metallic character increases as we move
across a period.
A. True

Question 12
Metalloids are the most metallic elements on the
periodic table.
A. True
B. False

30 ChapTER 1: aToMs, ElEMEnTs and ThE pERIodIC TablE

Reactivity 1.1.2.8
The reactivity of an element depends on various factors.

1C THEORY
Why are some elements more reactive than others?
In the previous lesson, we learned about the features affecting an
atom’s ability to attract or lose electrons, including the number of
electron shells present, the number of valence electrons in the outer
shell, the size of the atomic radius and the core charge of the atom.
These concepts are important as they help us to understand the
reactivity of different elements. Reactivity describes how easy it is for
an atom of an element to gain or lose electrons. The easier it is for
this to occur, the more reactive the element.
Whether atoms gain or lose electrons depends on the number of
valence electrons already present in the atom. For example, metallic
elements found in group 1 and 2, which contain one and two valence
electrons respectively, would rather lose their valence electrons to
have a full valence shell as shown in figure 7. In contrast,
non-metallic elements in groups 16 and 17 which contain six and
seven valence electrons respectively, would prefer to gain one or
two more electrons to satisfy the octet rule as shown in figure 7.

Lithium Group 1 Fluorine Group

17 Figure 7 Behaviours of atoms in different groups of the periodic table
Based on the previous lesson we know that atomic radius,
electron shielding and core charge can all impact how easy it is
for atoms to lose or gain electrons.
Reactivity across a period is a multi-faceted concept, as the criterion
changes as we move across different types of elements. While we
define reactivity of metals as how easily metals lose electrons, we
define reactivity of non-metals by how easily
non-metals gain electrons. As such, groups 16 and 17 elements can
also be described to be highly reactive, as they have a great tendency
to gain electrons based on their high electronegativity and core
charge. A summary of the factors affecting reactivity can be seen in
table 1.

Table 1 Summary of the impact of different properties on reactivity

Property Effect on reactivity Description
Increase in atomic radius ↑ for elements that tend A large atomic radius
to lose electrons allows valence electrons
↓ for elements that tend to be easily lost from the
to gain electrons valence shell, however
it reduces the ability of
atoms to attract electrons
due to the shielding
electrons.
Increase in core charge ↓ for elements that tend An increase in core
to lose electrons charge allows atoms to
↑ for elements that tend better hold onto their
to gain electrons valence electrons and gain
electrons more easily.

1C ThE pERIodIC TablE – paRT 2 31

 Increase in ↓ for elements that tend Electronegativity relates
electronegativity to lose electrons to an atom’s ability
↑ for elements that tend to attract electrons.
to gain electrons Atoms with high
electronegativity are more
likely to gain electrons.

32 ChapTER 1: aToMs, ElEMEnTs and ThE pERIodIC TablE

 There is one special group on the periodic table that includes the
least reactive elements. These elements are found in group 18
and are also referred to as the noble gases.
1C THEORY

Progress questions
Question 13
Atoms that can easily lose electrons are
highly reactive.
A. True
B. False

Question 14
Atoms that easily gain electrons are highly
reactive.
A. True

Question 15
Reactivity _ from group 1 to
group 3.
A. increases
B. decreases

Theory summary
Electronegativity increases

Ionisation energy increases

Core charge increases

1 2
H He
Core charge does not change
Ionisation energy decreases
Electronegativity decreases

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li B C N O F Ne
Be
12 the elements 13
11 Periodic table of 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba –71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra –103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

• The octet rule outlines that atoms require a total of eight

electrons in their
valence shell to become stable.
• Metals have a tendency to lose electrons (ionisation)
whereas non-metals have a tendency to gain electrons
(electronegativity).
• Metallic character decreases as we move across a period.
The content in this lesson is considered

• Metalloids have characteristics of both metals and non-

fundamental prior knowledge to

metals.
structure, nomenclature and
properties of organic compounds (Unit
4 AOS 1).

1C ThE pERIodIC TablE – paRT 2 33

 1C Questions Mild Medium Spicy

1C QUESTIONS
Deconstructed
Use the following information to answer questions 16–18.
Barium and magnesium both exhibit similar chemical properties. For example, barium
and magnesium both react with water.

Question 16 (1 MARK)
Which of the following statements about these elements is true?
A. Barium and magnesium are found in period 1.
B. Barium is found in period 5 and magnesium is found in period 3.
C. Barium is found in group 6 and magnesium is found in group 3.
D. Barium and magnesium are found in group 2.

Question 17 (1 MARK)
In a reaction, barium would be most likely to
A. gain electrons.
B. lose electrons.
C. gain protons.
D. lose protons.

Question 18 (3 MARKS)
For certain elements, a way in which we test their reactivity is to allow them to come
into contact with water and make observations about the interaction that occurs. If a
reaction were to occur, there may be the formation of bubbles and/or sparks which
would be observed relatively quickly if the element was highly reactive.
Both magnesium and barium react with water in this way. Of the two, which element
would show signs of a reaction the quickest? Explain with reference to the periodic
table.

Exam-style
Question 19 (5 MARKS)
Sodium and potassium are elements that share similar characteristics. For example,
both exhibit a silvery look and interact intensely with water.
a. Identify the core charge of each element. (1 MARK)
b. Compare the atomic radius of both elements. (2 MARKS)
c. Of the two, which element is more likely to have a lower ionisation energy? Explain. (2 MARKS)

Question 20 (7 MARKS)
Fluorine and bromine can both be found as gases in the atmosphere. Fluorine is highly
flammable and inhaling bromine can cause severe health problems.
a. From which element would it be hardest to remove a valence electron? Explain. (3 MARKS)
b. After conducting multiple tests, a scientist discovered that the elements had electronegativity
scores of 3.98 and 2.96, however the scientist was unsure which measurement belonged to which
element. Using your understanding, allocate each piece of data to the appropriate element. Explain
your reasoning. (3 MARKS)
c. Suppose both elements were within proximity of a floating electron that did not belong to any
atom. Which of the two elements would be more likely to attract the electron to itself? (1 MARK)

34 ChapTER 1: aToMs, ElEMEnTs and ThE pERIodIC TablE

 Question 21 (8 MARKS)
Two students are preparing for a presentation to their chemistry class. The notes
the students use for the presentation are composed of a series of statements and
justifications in order to tackle the misconceptions of the class. A segment of
1C QUESTIONS

their notes is given.

Complete the table by identifying whether each statement is correct or incorrect and
give a justification for your choice.
Statement Correct/Incorrect Justification
Atoms with high reactivity are
expected to have high
electronegativity.
Metals are more
reactive than non-
metals.
Metals can be found on the left
side of the periodic table.
First ionisation energy is highest
for the noble gases.

Key science skills

Question 22 (9 MARKS)
A scientist discovers a beaker hidden in a cupboard containing a solution of aqueous
sodium chloride (NaCl). In order to further explore the properties of the sodium
chloride, the scientist designs a practical investigation.
a. The first step of this investigation is researching the substance.
i. The scientist must classify the substance as belonging to one of the following categories:
atom, element, compound or mixture. Which category is most appropriate? (1 MARK)
ii.
The research conducted requires the period and group to be identified for each component of

Now the scientist must begin executing an experiment. A range of elements in the
the substance. Identify both the period and group of Na and Cl. (2 MARKS)

same period as sodium and chlorine are analysed and the following results are
obtained:
Sample A B C D E
First ionisation 494 577 785 997 1250
energy (kJ mol−1)

b. Explain the trend shown in the table, assuming the samples are listed in order of ascending
mass number, with reference to core charge. (3 MARKS)
c. Identify the dependent variable in this experiment. (1 MARK)
d. A fellow colleague of the scientist notes that the scales used to weigh the sodium chloride prior to
conducting the first ionisation energy analysis were not calibrated correctly. What type of error
would this induce? Explain your answer. (2 MARKS)
FROM LESSONS 16C, 16A & 16D

Questions from multiple lessons

Question 23 (7 MARKS)
Scientists use experimental results to determine properties and characteristics of
different elements and molecules.
Consider the following uncharged atoms.

1C ThE pERIodIC TablE – paRT 2 35

 A scientist conducting an experiment recorded the data shown.
Element A Element B
Ionisation energy (kJ mol– 1681 1313.9

1C QUESTIONS
1
)
Atomic radius (pm) 42 48
Period

a. Complete the missing numbers in the table provided. (2 MARKS)

b. Using all the information presented in the table, determine the name of elements A and
B. Explain your choices. (5 MARKS)
FROM LESSON 1B

Question 24 (2 MARKS)
Consider the following element.
e Electron
a. Write the electron configuration for this element. (1 MARK) e
e
b. In which block would we find this element on the periodic table? (1
p p Proton
MARK) FROM LESSON 1B p
n
n
n p e
p n
n n Neutron
p n

e e

Hints
19a. Core charge is calculated based on the number of protons
22ai. Substances are classified based on their composition.
and inner electrons.
22aii. Periods and groups are like coordinates for an element.
19b. Atomic radius is impacted by the number of protons
and energy shells. 22b. The ability to remove electrons depends on the strength
of attraction to the nucleus.
19c. Ionisation energy indicates how difficult it is for a valence
electron to be removed from an atom. 22c. The dependent variable is the variable affected by the change
in the independent variable.
20a. The attraction between the positive nucleus and valence
electrons is what keeps the valence electrons in the atom. 22d. Errors are categorised differently depending on their effect
on the experiment.
20b. Elements with a strong ability to attract electrons are more
electronegative. 23a. Periods indicate the number of energy shells.
20c. Elements with a higher electronegativity are able to more 23b. Elements with higher core charges have a greater tendency
strongly attract electrons. to attract valence electrons.
21. The atomic structure of an element impacts the properties 24a. Electrons fill an atom’s electron shells in a particular order.
of the element. 24b. Blocks on the periodic table are based on the
outermost subshell.

36 ChapTER 1: aToMs, ElEMEnTs and ThE pERIodIC TablE

 1D Recycling critical elements
STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT

• critical elements (for example,

helium, phosphorus, rare-earth
elements and post-transition
metals and metalloids) and the
importance of recycling processes
for element recovery

1A 1B 1C 1D

1.1.3.1 Critical elements

1.1.3.2 Recycling elements

Image: Andrey Suslov/Shutterstock.com

ESSENTIAL PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
1B The periodic table How many critical elements does it take to
1B Blocks on the periodic table make a mobile phone?
See questions 7–8. Humans continue to utilise more and more elements in their daily lives
to the extent that a common mobile phone can contain more than 70 different
elements. A consequence of this escalating demand has led to some vital
ACTIVITIES elements becoming listed as ‘endangered’. In this lesson we will learn about
these critical elements and how they can be recycled for future generations.
Log into your Edrolo account for
activities that support this lesson.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Critical elements elements that are vital and considered in short supply unless they
are recycled as sources could become depleted in 50–100 years
Endangered elements that have a limited supply left on Earth
Lanthanoids 15 naturally occurring metallic chemical elements, whose atomic numbers
fall between 57 (Lanthanum) and 71 (Lutetium)
Recycled converting a waste product into a reusable product
Sustainable can be produced at a rate that is greater than consumption without
compromising future generations
Transition metals elements that occupy groups 3 to 12 on the periodic table

Critical elements 1.1.3.1

Elements that are vital for industry and technology play an
important role in the development of the human race.

Why are some elements considered to be critical?

There are many elements that are in limited supply. Figure 1
highlights the estimated timescales remaining for the supply of many
of these vital elements. The supply, demand and discovery of new
reserves of these elements are constantly changing.
Table 1 outlines the uses and sources of some critical elements.

34 CHApteR 1: Atoms, elements And tHe peRIodIC tAble

 1 2 Remaining years until
H He depletion of known reserves
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (based on current rate of extraction)
Li Be B C N O F Ne

1D THEORY
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 5 – 50 years
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
50 – 100 years
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 100 – 500 years
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba –71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra –103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanoids
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinoids
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Figure 1 Estimated depletion timescales of critical elements

Table 1 Critical elements are all around us

Critical element(s) Uses and sources
Helium Used in party balloons, as a
coolant and as a mixture in deep-
sea diving. Can be produced from
either radioactive sources or
natural gas at a high cost.
Phosphorus Used in fertilisers, present in meat
and as a key element in living
organisms. Only limited sources
are found on Earth in the form of
phosphate salts.
Used heavily in electronics. We
only have small reserves left on
Transition metals

Earth. Examples include iridium,

platinum, osmium and palladium.
Indium as an example of a post Used in touch screens, automotive
transition metal/metalloid glass and solar panels. It is a
metalloid
(see figure 2) and is extracted as
a byproduct of zinc mining and
sources are dwindling.
Rare-earth Have many uses (see figure 3) and
are mostly from the lanthanoids on
the periodic table (see figure 4).
They are difficult to extract from
rocks.

1 2
H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba –71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra –103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanoids
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr 1d ReCyClIng CRItICAl elements 35
 Actinoids

36 CHApteR 1: Atoms, elements And tHe peRIodIC tAble

 Figure 2 Location of the post-transition metals and metalloids (shown in red)

Glass polishing 5% Ceramic/Glass 6%

1D THEORY

Metallurgy 4%

Other 10%
Catalysts 75%

Figure 3 Uses of rare-earth elements

MISCONCEPTION
57 62 67
‘elements are used up.’
La Sm Ho
Only helium (as it escapes into space) Lanthanum Samarium Holmium
and radioactive elements (as they
break down into other elements) are 58 63 68 Rare-earth
actually used up, meaning the supply Ce Eu Er elements
on Earth is reduced. Most elements Cerium Europium Erbium
have the potential to be recycled.
59 64 69
Pr Gd Tm
Praseodymium Gadolinium Thulium

60 65 70
Nd Tb Yb
Neodymium Terbium Ytterbium

61 66 71
Pm Dy Lu
Promethium Dysprosium Lutetium

Figure 4 Rare-earth elements

Progress questions
Question 1
With regards to a chemical element, critical means that it
is important to a particular product or material.
A. True
B. False

Question 2
Which of the following elements could be classified as
metalloids?
A. Sc, Ti, and V

Question 3
What name is given to the f-block that contains most of the rare-
earth elements?
A. Actinoids
B. Lanthanoids

1d ReCyClIng CRItICAl elements 37

 Recycling elements 1.1.3.2
The demand for these critical elements is increasing at a rate that is not sustainable.

1D THEORY
How can these critical elements be used more sustainably?
As both the population of the world and dependency on materials continues
to increase, the rate at which Earth’s reserves are being used is not
sustainable. Chemical processes need to meet the demands of
humans and must also take into account the requirements for future
generations. The solution is to improve and innovate methods of
recycling, as many critical elements are currently being buried in
landfill sites (see table 2). The recycling of metals will be discussed in
greater detail in lesson 3C.

Table 2 Using critical elements more sustainably

Critical element(s) Recycling and more sustainable options MISCONCEPTION
Helium • Collect and reuse helium liquid that has
‘Rare-earth elements are rare.’
been used as a coolant in MRI scanners
• Ban the use of helium in party balloons These elements are not rare but they

Phosphorus
are difficult, expensive and sometimes
• Reduce the use of artificial fertilisers dangerous to produce.
• Increase the use of natural fertilisers
• Remove phosphorus from
sewage and reuse
• Use algae to remove the phosphate
from polluted waterways
KEEN TO INVESTIGATE?
Transition metals • Recycle batteries1 which contain copper,
1
cobalt, manganese and nickel What is the rate of recycling
• Repurpose them instead of throwing them of batteries in Australia?
into landfill Search YouTube: Recycled Batteries
from envirostream
• Improve recycling to the same level as
iron and aluminium
Indium as an example of a post
transition metal/metalloid
• Improve collection methods
• Increase the duration that a device is used
for before getting a new one
• Use bacteria to remove indium
• Find non-metal alternatives to indium

Rare-earth • Improve manufacturing process to use less

• Increase the amount that is recycled
• Make products more recyclable

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Give an example and a common use of a transition metal that is considered to be a critical element.

What information is presented in the question?

The critical element must be a transition metal.
What is the question asking us to do?
Identify an element and give an example of how it is used.
What strategy do we need in order to answer the question?
Locate the transition metals in the periodic table.
Answer
Nickel is found in many rechargeable batteries.

38 CHApteR 1: Atoms, elements And tHe peRIodIC tAble

 Progress questions
Question 4
Given that Ni, Co, and Fe are all magnetic they could be more
1D THEORY

easily separated from other metals.

A. True
B. False

Question 5
Which of the following is an element recovery
method?
Removing phosphorus from human and
animal waste
A.

Theory summary
• Many elements are both endangered and vital to humans and are
therefore classified as critical.
• Many critical elements on the periodic table are found in blocks
The content in this lesson is considered
called transition metals, metalloids and lanthanoids.
fundamental prior knowledge to the
concept of sustainability which is • Recycling these elements and finding alternatives is crucial in creating
embedded throughout Units 3&4. more sustainable chemical processes.

1D Questions Mild Medium Spicy

Deconstructed
Use the following information to answer questions 6–8.
In 1669, Hennig Brand evaporated and condensed over 5000 litres of
urine to produce and discover phosphorus.
Phosphorus can also be found in dairy products, grains, and protein-rich foods in a
variety of forms, including phosphates and phosphate esters.

Question 6 (1 MARK)
Phosphorus is essential to all life because it is
A. an unreactive non-metal.
B. the building block of atoms.
C. exists in either white or red.
D. involved in many cellular reactions.

Question 7 (1 MARK)
Phosphorus is commonly found in waterways as
A. phosphate.
B. phosphine.
C. red phosphorus.
D. white phosphorus.

Question 8 (4 MARKS)
Explain how humans come to have phosphorus in their urine and how this phosphorus could be recycled.

1d ReCyClIng CRItICAl elements 39

 Exam-style
Question 9 (6 MARKS)
The periodic table shows the rates at which elements are recycled. Using the

1D QUESTIONS
information provided in the table and your knowledge answer the following
questions. 1 2
H He
> 50% 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
> 25 – 50% 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
> 10 – 25% 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
1 – 10% Ag Cd
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
< 1% Cs Ba –71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
negligible Fr Ra –103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanoids
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinoids
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

a. What is the name of the block of elements that are the most recycled? (1 MARK)
b. What is the name of the block of elements that are the least recycled? (1 MARK)
c. Suggest a reason why this difference in the rates of recycling in these blocks exists. (2 MARKS)
d. Comment on the sustainability of using elements like lithium in batteries. (2 MARKS)

Question 10 (5 MARKS)
Electric vehicles utilise an incredible amount of rare-earth elements. Some countries
like France have dedicated recycling plants used to isolate rare-earth elements. Most of
the world’s rare-earth metals come from China and to a lesser extent from Australia.
LCD screen Glass & mirror UV cut glass
– Europium polishing powder – Cerium
Diesel fuel additive
– Yttrium – Cerium
– Cerium
– Cerium – Lanthanum
Hybrid
electric
motor and generator
– Neodymium
– Praseodymium Hybrid NIMH battery
– Dysprosium – Lanthanum
– Terbium – Cerium

Catalytic converter
Component sensors
– Cerium/Zirconium
– Yttrium 25+ Electric motors
Headlight glass – Lanthanum
throughout vehicle
– Neodymium
– Nd magnets

Name the two elements used in the electric car shown that are not classified as rare-earth elements.
Image: Nerthuz/Shutterstock.com

a.
(1 MARK)

b. Give an advantage France has over other countries with regards to the sourcing of rare-earth elements.
(2 MARKS)

c. Why might other countries not have dedicated rare-earth element recycling plants? (2 MARKS)

40 CHApteR 1: Atoms, elements And tHe peRIodIC tAble

 Key science skills
Question 11 (6 MARKS)
Many critical elements come from countries that have ongoing civil wars and
1D QUESTIONS

conflicts. This can result in the mining of some critical elements being done by child
labour.

Image: Morphart Creation/Shutterstock.com

When carrying out an investigation into how rare-earth elements are extracted and then
used in the production of a mobile phone, what issues should be addressed about the
labour workforce? Discuss using the following themes.
a. Ethical (2 MARKS)
b. Economic (2 MARKS)
c. Legal (2
MARKS) FROM
LESSON 16B

Questions from multiple lessons

Question 12 (5 MARKS)
Use the periodic table to write the chemical symbols for the following elements.
a. The uncharged element that is given by the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s2 p64s23d6 (1 MARK)
b. The element from period 3 that has the highest first ionisation energy (1 MARK)
c. The element from period 3 that has the largest atomic radius (1 MARK)
d. The most electronegative element in group 17 (1 MARK)
e. The element in period 2 that has the greatest metallic character (1 MARK)
Adapted from VCAA 2002 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q1

FROM LESSONS 1A & 1B

Hints
9a. Remember the names of the blocks on the periodic table.
11c. Safe working conditions and minimum pay.
9b. Remember the names of the blocks on the periodic table.
12a. Number of electrons equals the number of protons.
9c. Iron and aluminium are recycled in most countries.
12b. Ionisation energy is determined by atomic radius and
9d. Data from the periodic table shown. core charge.
10a. There are different blocks on the periodic table. 12c. Atomic radius is determined by the number of electrons shells
10b. France has the ability to recycle rare-earth elements. and core charge.
10c. Recycling is a complex process. 12d. Electronegativity is determined by the number of electrons
11a. Worker age restrictions are enforced in a lot of countries. shells and core charge.
11b. Survival can sometimes depend on money. 12e. Metallic properties are determined by low ionisation energies.

1d ReCyClIng CRItICAl elements 41

 Chapter 1 review

ChApter 1 review
Multiple choice (10 MARKS)

Question 1 (1 MARK)
According to the subshell model, what is the electronic configuration of the atom in
period 3, group 2 of the periodic table?
A. 1s22s22p63s2
B. 1s22s22p6
C. 2, 8, 2
D. 2, 3

Question 2 (1 MARK)
Which of the following statements regarding atomic number is incorrect?
A. Atomic numbers are unique to each element.
B. The atomic number represents the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
C. The atomic number is the number of neutral particles in the nucleus.
D. The periodic table is organised with respect to atomic number.

Question 3 (1 MARK)
Which of the following is not considered to be a critical element?
A. La
B. Ce
C. Ca
D. Lu

Question 4 (1 MARK)
Which of the following options correctly matches the properties of elements to their trend in the periodic
table?

Property Across a period (left to right) Down a group

A. Electronegativity Increases Increases
B. Core charge Increases Decreases
C. First ionisation energy Decreases Increases
D. Metallic character Decreases Increases

Question 5 (1 MARK)
The noble gases (helium to radon) have an outer shell electron configuration of
A. s2.
B. s2p6.
C. either s2 or s2p6.
D. either s2p6 or s2p6d10.
VCAA 2005 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q17

42 CHApteR 1: Atoms, elements And tHe peRIodIC tAble

Chapter 1 review 41
 Question 6 (1 MARK)
Which one of the following alternatives lists the atoms of aluminium, calcium, sulfur and
ChApter 1 review

chlorine in order of increasing electronegativity?

A. (lowest) Al, S, Cl, Ca (highest)
B. (lowest) Ca, Al, S, Cl (highest)
C. (lowest) Cl, S, Al, Ca (highest)
D. (lowest) S, Ca, Al, Cl (highest)
VCAA 2006 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q16

Question 7 (1 MARK)
Which one of the following alternatives lists the atoms of chlorine, fluorine, magnesium and
potassium in order of increasing atomic radius?
A. (smallest) K, Mg, Cl, F (largest)
B. (smallest) F, Mg, Cl, K (largest)
C. (smallest) K, F, Mg, Cl (largest)
D. (smallest) F, Cl, Mg, K (largest)
VCAA 2006 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q17

Question 8 (1 MARK)
Which one of the following alternatives lists the atoms of chlorine, magnesium, neon and
phosphorus in order of increasing first ionisation energy?
A. (smallest) Mg, P, Cl, Ne (largest)
B. (smallest) Ne, Cl, P, Mg (largest)
C. (smallest) Cl, Mg, Ne, P (largest)
D. (smallest) P, Mg, Cl, Ne (largest)
VCAA 2006 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q18

Question 9 (1 MARK)
When Dimitri Mendeleev developed the periodic table he left gaps for as yet undiscovered
elements. On the basis of the position of these gaps and in relation to these undiscovered
elements, Mendeleev was able to predict
A. their electron configurations.
B. the occurrence of their isotopes.
C. many of their physical properties.
D. their atomic numbers and mass numbers.
VCAA 2006 Exam 2 Multiple choice Q19

Question 10 (1 MARK)
Which of the following equations is always true where A = atomic number, P = number of
protons, N = number of neutrons, and M = mass number?
A. M=2×P
B. M=A+P
C. M=2×N
D. M=A+N
42 Chapter 1: atoms, elements and the periodiC table
 Short answer (30 MARKS)

ChApter 1 review
Question 11 (11 MARKS)

Through experimentation, it is determined that a neutral atom of an element has an

electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p63d24s2.
a. What is the name, chemical symbol, atomic number and relative atomic mass of this element? (3
MARKS)

b. What block of the periodic table is this element found in? Justify your answer. (2 MARKS)
c. Compare the electronegativity of this element with copper. (2 MARKS)
d. Compare the metallic character of this element with zirconium. (2 MARKS)
e. Is this element more likely to react by gaining or losing electrons? Explain your answer (2 MARKS)

Question 12 (7 MARKS)

Predict the trend in the following properties of the second period elements, moving from
lithium to fluorine, giving an explanation in support of each prediction. (4 MARKS)
a.

Property Increases or decreases? Explanation for predicted trend

Atomic size
Electronegativity
VCAA 2004 Exam 2 Short answer Q6b

There is also a general trend in first ionisation energy both across periods and
down groups of the periodic table.
b.

What is meant by the term ionisation energy? (1 MARK)

Given that the atomic size of potassium is greater than that of sodium, explain why the
first ionisation energy of sodium is greater than that of potassium. (2 MARKS)
c.

Adapted from VCAA 2004 Exam 2 Short answer Q6c

Question 13 (12 MARKS)

Calcium and magnesium are not considered to be transition metals as they are found in group 2
of the periodic table. Nickel and copper are both found in the first transition metal period of
the periodic table.
a. Give two reasons why calcium and magnesium can be placed in the same vertical group. (2 MARKS)
b. Explain why the first series of transition metals are placed in the same period. (1 MARK)
The electronegativity of magnesium (1.31) is greater than that of calcium (1.00). Give
a brief explanation for this difference. (2 MARKS)
c.

d. Write the electron configuration, in terms of shells and subshells, for the calcium and nickel atoms. (2
MARKS)

e. Explain why there are exactly 10 elements in each of the periods of transition metals. (3 MARKS)
Europium is commonly found in mobile phones. What makes an element like europium
critical and what can be done to make its use more sustainable? (2 MARKS)
f.

Adapted from VCAA 2005 Exam 2 Short answer Q2c

Chapter 1 review 43
 Key science skills (9 MARKS)
ChApter 1 review

Question 14 (9 MARKS)
Antoine Lavoisier was a French chemist who conducted many experiments to prove that when
reactants completely react together, no mass is lost in the formation of the products; he called
this the law of conservation of mass. One of these experiments involved placing mercury in a
sealed glass jar and then heating it to see its reaction with oxygen.
a. Write a possible aim for this experiment. (1 MARK)
b. Write a possible hypothesis for this experiment. (2 MARKS)
Explain what data, and its type, would need to be collected in order to prove the
law of conservation of mass. (3 MARKS)
c.

In one experiment, the jar wasn’t sealed properly, and so some of the product escaped.
What effect would this have on the experiment and what type of error is it? (2 MARKS)
d.

Safety standards were not very good in the 18th century. Suggest one precaution that
should be taken when handling toxic mercury. (1 MARK)
e.

FROM LESSONS 16A, 16B & 16D

44 Chapter 1: atoms, elements and the periodiC table