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ASSIGNMENT REFERENCE MATERIAL (2020-21)

BPC – 002

Developmental Psychology

SECTION-A

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Q1. Explain different types of parenting and highlight the important dimensions of parenting.

Ans. Researchers have uncovered convincing links between parenting styles and the effects these
styles have on children. During the early 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study on

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more than 100 preschool age children (Baumrind, 1967). Using naturalistic observation, parental
interviews and other research methods, she identified four important dimensions of parenting:

• Disciplinary strategies
• Warmth and nurturance

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• Communication styles
• a
Expectations of maturity and control

A parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use in their
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child rearing. The quality of parenting can be more essential than the quantity of time spent with the
child. For instance, a parent can spend an entire afternoon with his or her child, yet the parent may be

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engaging in a different activity and not demonstrating enough interest towards the child. Parenting
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a
styles are the representation of how parents respond and demand to their children.

Types of Parenting Styles: There are mainly four types of parenting styles, which are as follows:
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(1) Authoritarian Parenting: In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict
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rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment.
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Authoritarian parents don’t explain the reasoning behind these rules. If asked to explain, the parent
might simply reply, “Because I said so.” These parents have high demands but are not responsive to
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their children. According to Baumrind, these parents “are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect
their orders to be obeyed without explanation.”
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Also, in authoritarian parenting, called also as strict parenting, the style of parenting is characterised
by high expectations of conformity and compliance to parental rules and directions, while allowing
little open dialogue between parent and child. Authoritarian parenting is a restrictive, punitive style in
which parents pressurize the child to follow their directions and to respect their work and effort.
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(2) Authoritative Parenting: Like authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting
style establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting
style is much more democratic. Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to
listen to questions.

When children fail to meet the expectations, these parents are more nurturing and forgiving
rather than punishing. Baumrind suggests that these parents “monitor and impart clear standards for
their children’s conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. Their disciplinary

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methods are supportive, rather than punitive. They want their children to be assertive as well as
socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative.”

(3) Permissive Parenting: Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, have
very few demands to make of their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because
they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control.

According to Baumrind, permissive parents “are more responsive than they are demanding.
They are nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behaviour, allow considerable self-
regulation, and avoid confrontation.” Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative
with their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than that of a parent.

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(4) Uninvolved Parenting: An uninvolved parenting style is characterised by few demands, low
responsiveness, and little communication. While these parents fulfil the child’s basic needs, they are
generally detached from their child’s life. In extreme cases, these parents may even reject or neglect
the needs of their children.

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Q2. Elucidate psychodynamic theory of human development.

Ans. Psychodynamics, also known as dynamic psychology, is the study of the interrelationship of
various parts of the mind, personality, or psyche as they relate to mental, emotional, or motivational

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forces especially at the unconscious level. (Hall, Calvin, S.1954).

1. Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic theory

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Sigmund Freud’s Theory is quite complex and although his writings on psychosexual development set
the groundwork for how our personalities developed, it was only one of five parts to his overall theory

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of personality. He also believed that different driving forces develop during these stages which play
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a
an important role in how we interact with the world. He believed that human behaviour is brought
about by inner forces over which the individual has little control.
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The structure of Personality: The role of the mind is something that Freud repeatedly talked about
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because he believed that the mind is responsible for both conscious and unconscious decisions based
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on drives and forces. Unconscious desires motivate people to act accordingly. The id, ego, and super
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ego are three aspects of the mind. Freud believed to make up a person’s personality. Freud believed
people are “simply actors in the drama of [their] own minds, pushed by desire, pulled by coincidence.
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Underneath the surface, our personalities represent the power struggle going on deep within us.”

2. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (1902-1994)

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Erikson was a psychoanalytic like Freud, but differ from Freud in regard to psycho sexual
development. This means that he accepts Freud’s ideas as basically correct. Erikson is much more
culture-oriented than Freud and his theory is labeled Psychosocial instead of Psychosexual.
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The epigenetic principle: Development functions by the epigenetic principle which means that we
develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress through
each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages.

Psychosocial virtues or strengths (positive outcomes): Each stage involves certain developmental
tasks that are psychosocial in nature and has a certain optimal time as well. If a stage is managed well,
we carry with us certain virtue or psychosocial strength that will help us through the rest of the stages
of our lives.

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Q3. Discuss the development of ego-identity according to Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory.

Ans. One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego
identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction.
According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and information
we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we face each new stage of development, we face a
new challenge that can help further develop or hinder the development of identity.

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that
help shape and guide a person’s behaviour.

Forming the identity is something that begins in childhood and becomes particularly important during

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adolescence, but Erikson believed that it is a process that continues throughout life. Our personal
identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures and continues to grow
as we age.

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Young Adulthood (Intimacy vs. Isolation): In this stage, the most important events are love
relationships. Intimacy refers to one’s ability to relate to another human being on a deep, personal
level. An individual who has not developed a sense of identity usually will fear a committed
relationship and may retreat into isolation. Having a sexual relationship does not indicate intimacy.
People can be sexually intimate without being committed and open with another. True intimacy
requires personal commitment. However, mutual satisfaction will increase the closeness of people in a

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true intimate relationship.
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They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of
rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain,
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and to some of us, rejection is painful; our egos cannot bear the pain.

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a
Elements for a positive outcome: The young adult must develop intimate relationships with others.
Not resolving this conflict leaves the young adult feeling isolated. The young adult must be willing to
be open and committed to another individual.
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Elements for a negative outcome: An individual may retreat into isolation if a sense of identity is not
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developed and will fear a committed relationship.

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Examples: Giving and sharing with an individual without asking what will be received in return.
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Middle Adulthood (Generativity vs. Stagnation): In this stage, generativity refers to the adult’s
ability to care for another person. The most important event in this stage is parenting. Generativity has
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a broader meaning then just having children. Each adult must have some way to satisfy and support
the next generation. According to Erikson, “A person does best at this time to put aside thoughts of
death and balance its certainty with the only happiness that is lasting: to increase, by whatever is
yours to give, the goodwill and higher order in your sector of the world”.
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Elements for a positive outcome: To have and nurture children and/or become involved with future
generations.

Elements for a negative outcome: An individual must deal with issues they are concerned with or it
can lead to stagnation in later life.

SECTION-B

Q4. Define prenatal development. Elucidate the hazards during prenatal development.

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Ans. Prenatal or antenatal development is the process in which a human embryo and later fetus (or
foetus) develops during pregnancy, from fertilisation until birth. Often, the terms fetal development,
or embryology are used in a similar sense.

Hazards during prenatal development

At no other time during the life span are there more serious hazards to development—or hazards of a
more serious nature— than during the relatively short period before birth. These may be physical or
psychological. Physical hazards have received more scientific attention because they are more easily
recognised. However, psychological hazards are sometimes as serious as physical hazards since they
affect the attitudes of significant people towards the developing child. Furthermore, they often
intensify physical hazards.

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(1) Physical Hazards: Each of the three major subdivisions of the prenatal period involves particular
physical hazards. While these do not affect all individuals by any means, they do occur with some
frequency and can be serious enough to affect the development of the individual throughout life.

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Period of the Zygote:

(i) Starvation: The zygote will die of starvation if it has too little yolk to keep it alive until it can
lodge itself in the uterine wall or if it remains too long in the tube.

Period of the Embryo:

(i)
a .
Miscarriages: Malnutrition, vitamin deficiency, fall, emotional shocks, glandular disturbances
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and other serious diseases such as pneumonia and diabetes can cause the embryo to become dislodged
from its place in the uterine wall, resulting in a miscarriage.

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a
Period of the Fetus:

(i) Miscarriages: Miscarriages are always possible up to the fifth month of pregnancy, the most
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vulnerable time when the woman’s menstrual period would normally occur.
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(2) Psychological Hazards: Like the physical hazards associated with the prenatal period, the
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psychological hazards can have persistent effects on the individual’s development and can influence
the postnatal environment and the treatment the child receives from significant people during the
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early, formative years. The three most important psychological hazards are traditional beliefs about
prenatal development, maternal stress during the prenatal period, and unfavourable attitudes towards
the unborn child on the part of people who will play significant roles in the child’s life.
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(i) Traditional beliefs about parental influences: Perhaps there are more traditional, and more
damaging, beliefs about the prenatal developmental period than about any other period in the life
span. Such beliefs can and do affect parent’s treatment of their children and often have an effect on
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their attitudes towards each other.

(3) Teratological Hazards:

(i) Teratogen agent that causes birth defect.

(ii) Maternal Factors emanating from mother are: age, nutrition, emotional state and stress.

(iii) Toxoplasmosis disease caused from parasite ingested from eating raw meat, or touching cat
feces.

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Q5. Explain developmental tasks during young adulthood.

Ans. The concept of developmental tasks describes development as a lifelong process. Thus, it is also
an early and significant contributor to the emerging field of lifelong human development (e.g., life-
span psychology and life-course sociology; Setterstery, 1999).

In young adulthood, developmental tasks are mainly located in family, work, and social life. Family-
related developmental tasks are described as finding a mate, learning to live with a marriage partner,
having and rearing children, and managing the family and one’s home. A developmental task that
takes an enormous amount of time of young adults relates to the achievement of an occupational
career.

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Family and work related tasks may represent a potential conflict, given that the individual’s time and
energy are limited resources. Thus, young adults may postpone one task in order to secure the
achievement of another. With respect to their social life, young adults are also confronted with
establishing new friendships outside of the marriage and assuming responsibility in the larger

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community.

1) Selecting a mate: Until it is accomplished, the task of finding a marriage partner is at once the most
interesting and the most disturbing of the tasks of early adulthood.

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2) Learning to live with a marriage partner: After the wedding there comes a period of learning how
to fit two lives together. In the main this consists of learning to express and control one’s feeling that
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is anger, joy, disgust, so that one can live intimately and happily with one’s spouse.

3) Starting a family: To have the first child successfully.

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4) Rearing children: With the gaining of children the young couple take over a responsibility far
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a
greater than any responsibility they have ever had before. Now they are responsible for human life
that is not their own. To meet this responsibility they must learn to meet the physical and emotional
needs of young children. This means learning how to manage the child, and also learning to adapt
b

their own daily and weekly schedules to the needs of growing children.
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5) Managing a home: Family life is built around a physical center, the home, and depends for its
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success greatly upon how well-managed this home is. Good home management is only partly a matter
of keeping the house clean, the furniture and plumbing and lighting fixtures in repair, having meals
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wellcooked, and the like.

Q6. Discuss the types and characteristics of aging.

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Ans. Types of Ageing: Four types of ageing are as follows:

(1) Primary Ageing: Primary ageing is principally produced by inevitable age-related changes —
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changes associated with chronological age or distance from birth. Primary ageing effects on cognition
are basically observed in the decline of mental speed. This slowing may in turn affect other cognitive
processes where speed of behaviour is an essential component, for example in problem solving and
executive functioning (see Hartley, 2006). Primary ageing effects are also observed in working
memory, episodic memory and in fluid abilities. In most tests, time limits are more disadvantageous
for older people. The likelihood of primary ageing effects occurring in isolation, empirically defined
as lack of manifest or subclinical illnesses, decreases substantially with age.

(2) Psychological Ageing: Psychological ageing consists of a general decline in the mental
abilities that accompany old age. Decline in mental abilities does not normally correspond to physical

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changes. Psychological ageing may also include the study of psychological capacities, perceptions,
learning, and problem solving feelings, emotions, social behaviour and other related characteristics as
they emerge and change consequent upon old age.

(3) Social Ageing: Social ageing is limited to the role of an old person is culturally conditioned
and may change as customs change. Social ageing refers to how a human being perceives the ageing
process and how society sees it.

(4) Secondary Ageing: Secondary ageing happens to most people but it is neither universal nor
inevitable, secondary ageing is the result of disease, abuse or disuse but can be modified by changes
in lifestyle. Secondary ageing results from negative environmental influences, poor diet and disease,
lack of physical activity, poor nutrition, environmental pollution, stress and unhealthy activities like

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smoking and drinking, and exposure to hazardous materials.

Q7. Define identity status. Elucidate Marcia’s identity statuses.

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Ans. Identity crisis is a normal part of adolescent development. It is observed as the discrepancy
between rapidly shifting physical and psychological experiences, on the on hand, and a widening gap
between self-perception and the experiences of others’ perceptions of the self. Identity crisis may
result when the adolescent is faced with the “demand for his simultaneous commitment to physical
intimacy, to decisive occupational choice, to energetic competition, and to psychosocial self-
definition”.

Marcia’s Identity Statuses a .

Researcher James Marcia (1966, 1976 and 1980) has expanded upon Erikson’s initial theory.
b
According to Marcia and his colleagues, the balance between identity and confusion lies in making a

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commitment to an identity. Marcia also developed an interview method to measure identity as well as
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a
four different identity statuses. This method looks at three different areas of functioning: occupational
role, beliefs and values, and sexuality.
b

It was argued by James Marcia that identity could be viewed as a structure of beliefs, abilities and past
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experiences regarding the self. “The better developed this structure is the more individuals appear to
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be of their own strengths and weaknesses. The less developed this structure is the more confused
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individuals seem to be about their own distinctiveness from others and the more they have to rely on
external sources to evaluate themselves”. Identity is a dynamic, not static psychological structure. The
formation of identity in adolescence sets the stage for continual changes in the content of identity
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through the adult years.

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Q8. Explain strategies to enhance self-esteem in adolescence.

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Ans. It’s normal for things not always to be rosy, but teens can help themselves by putting a little
effort in building their self-confidence. Acting self-confident is the first step to feeling self-confident.
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(1) Making eye contact: Sometimes a teenager feels painfully shy, but their look says “Back
off!” Meeting another person’s gaze — whether it’s a cute guy or an interviewer– lets them know a
teen is approachable and confident.

(2) Going easy on themselves: Nobody’s perfect, but when teenagers obsess about what’s
“wrong” with themselves, they don’t give anyone else a chance to notice all the things that are great.
Self-confidence comes from being able to put a break on that nay-saying voice and moving on.

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(3) Preparing for things: Procrastination is a teen’s favorite friend. But life is stressful enough
without teens tripping themselves up. It’s hard to feel self-confident when things feel out of control.
When teens give themselves enough time to prepare for that big date, study for that test, write that
paper, etc., they find that things tend to go much better and more simply.

(4) Smiling: People like friendly people – it’s that simple. Plus, even a forced smile will lighten
up a teen’s own bad mood.

(5) Being able to walk away-I: Sometimes teens that lack self-esteem or have low self-
confidence is willing to put themselves in situations that they know are not good, just to gain another
person’s approval. Teenagers need to learn to stop and trust their cautious side. Teens need to know
they can always try things like sex and drinking later, when it’s more appropriate, but if they do

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something they regret, it can’t be done.

SECTION-C

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Q9. Characteristics of fully functioning person.

Ans. Humanists focus upon potentials. They believe that humans strive for an upper level of
capabilities. Humans seek the frontiers of creativity, the highest reaches of consciousness and
wisdom. This has been labelled “fully functioning person”, “healthy personality”, or as Maslow calls

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this level, “self-actualising person.”

Q10. Reversibility
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Ans. By seven or eight years of age, children develop conservation of substance: If a ball of clay is
taken and roll it into a long thin rod, or even split it into ten little pieces, the child knows that there is

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still the same amount of clay. And he will know that, if we rolled it all back into a single ball, it would
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look quite the same as it did - a feature known as reversibility.

Q11. Teachable moments

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Ans. Havighurst believed that there are sensitive periods for learning developmental tasks—that is,
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times when the person is most ready to acquire a new ability. Havighurst called these periods
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teachable moments. Most people learn developmental tasks at the time and in the sequence
appropriate in their society. If a particular task is not learned during the sensitive period, learning it
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may be much more difficult later on.

Q12. Malignancies and maladaptation

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Ans. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will
help us through the rest of the stages of our lives. On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may
develop maladaptations and malignancies, as well as endanger all our future development.
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A malignancy is the worse of the two, and involves too little of the positive and too much of the
negative aspect of the task, such as a person who can’t trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as
bad and involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts
too much.

Q13. Mid-life crisis

Ans. Erikson (1980) saw middle age as a period when adults have to face a conflict between
generativity and stagnation. Generativity–the process of making a contribution to the next generation–

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can be realised in a variety of ways through personal (family) or career attainments that provide a
basis for others to progress. Midlife is also viewed as a period of creativity and significant
contribution to society. It is found that the best works of scientists, writers and artists are produced
during the late-forties and early-fifties.

Q14. Characteristics of attachment

Ans. (1) Safe Haven: When the child feel threatened or afraid, he or she can return to the caregiver for
comfort and soothing.

(2) Secure Base: The caregiver provides a secure and dependable base for the child to explore the

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world.

(3) Proximity Maintenance: The child strives to stay near the caregiver, thus, keeping the child safe.

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(4) Separation Distress: When separated from the caregiver, the child will become upset and
distressed.

Q15. Social dimensions of play

Ans. Play has physical, cognitive, and psychosocial benefits. Changes in the types of play children

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engage in reflect cognitive and social development. Through play, children stimulate the senses, learn
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how to use their muscles, coordinate sight with movement, gain mastery over their bodies, and
acquire new skills. As they sort blocks of different shapes, count how many they can pile on each
other, or announce that “my house is bigger than yours,” they lay the foundation for mathematical
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concepts. Researchers categorise children’s play by its content and its social dimension.

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Q16. Diagnostic guidelines for Expressive Language Disorder
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a
Ans. Although considerable individual variation occurs in normal language development, the absence
of single words by the age of 2 years, and the failure to generate simple two-word phrases by 3 years,
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should as significant signs of delay. Later difficulties include: restricted vocabulary development;
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overuse of a small set of general words, difficulties in selecting appropriate words, and word
substitutions; short utterance length; immature sentence structure; syntactical errors, especially
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omissions of word endings or prefixes; and misuse of or failure to use grammatical features such as
prepositions, pronouns, articles, and verb and noun inflexions.
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Q17. Childhood autism

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Ans. This condition was originally described by Kanner in 1943 who called it “infantile autism”.
Three main features were listed by him which are still used as diagnostic.

(1) Abnormalities of communication: Delay and deviance mark the language problems. Speech
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develops late or in about 50 per cent of cases it never appears.

(2) Abnormalities of social development: These are more specific to autism. Autistic children are
unable to relate to parents or other people.
(3) Stereotyped behaviour: Behaviour is restricted and stereotyped. When left alone they often
show abnormal stereotyped movements with their hands.

Q18. Infancy period

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Ans. Trust verses mistrust (birth of 1 year): Infant’s basic impulses around his/her oral satisfaction
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like taking in food and actions such as biting. These experiences are provided by the mother and lead
to comfort and satisfaction for the infant. In case, the significant social relations the mother handles
these needs firmly together with a sense of loving, then, the infant develops trust, confidence and
optimism, or vice-versa.

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