JIMMA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OFNATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

TITLE: HOPINGCONDUCTIVITY IN MAGNETIC SEMICONDUCTORS

A PROPOSAL TO BE SUBMITTED TO THE JIMMA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OFNATURAL SCIENCES, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
FOR PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF BACHELOR OF DEGREE IN
PHYSICS

BY:-TSEGAYTU DEMEKE
ID. No RU/3062/10

ADVISOR: GIZACHEW DIGA (prof/Dr)

JIMMA, SOUTH WEST ETHIOPIA

JAN, 2013 E.C

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Abstract
In this project, hoping conductivity in magnetic semiconductors is studied, from theoretical
point of view. The magnetic semiconductor based on quantum spin transport is studied in
comparison with traditional electronics. A theory of hopping conductivity of semiconductors in
strong magnetic fields is developed in which the electrical conductivity in amorphous materials/
semiconductors described as a sequence of hops in which an electronic charge moves
stochastically between localized states in presence of magnetic field. the method employed to
describe the hoping conductivity is Boltzmann spin transport equation. In this context, the
hoping conductivity is understood in terms of magnetic properties typical magneto resistance
and magnetic fields.

Contents
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Contents........................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.............................................................................................iii
CHAPTER ONE.........................................................................................................1
Introduction..................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of study...............................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the problem........................................................................................3
1.3 Objectives of the study...........................................................................................3
1.3.1 General objective of the study....................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Specific objectives of the Project...............................................................................................3
1.5 limitation of the study.............................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO..........................................................................................................5
LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................5
CHAPTER THREE....................................................................................................12
3.2. Sources of information...............................................................................................................12
3.3 Methods of data gathering...........................................................................................................12
3.4 Mathematical models..................................................................................................................12
RESULT and DISCUSSION......................................................................................15
4.2 Relation between hall resistance and magnetic field...................................................................17
4.3 Conductivity and Mobility of Carriers........................................................................................17
4.4 Hall effect....................................................................................................................................18
Anomalous Hall Effect......................................................................................................................18
4.5 Giant magneto resistance and magnetic field..............................................................................18
CHAPTER FIVE...............................................................................................................................20
Conclusion and recommendation.............................................................................................20
5.1 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………...…20
5.2 Recommendation.................................................................................................................................................20
Reference....................................................................................................................21

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and for most, I would like to thank my God for granting me patience and confidence to
complete this study in time. Next, I am graciously thanks to my advisor GIZACHEW DIGA
(Prof/Dr.) for his continuous advice and encouragement through project paper work. Also, I am
very grateful to him for the confidence he gave me, for his valuable ideas, suggestions and
constructive comment that have helped me for considerable improvement of research work. In
addition, I would like to extend gratitude to my beloved families. Lastly, I would like to thank all
peoples, whose names are not mentioned here for their moral, constructive comment and support.

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 occupy the conduction band and thus no movement of
charge is possible. But at room temperature it is possible for
some electrons to give sufficient energy and make the
CHAPTER ONE transitions in conduction band. The density of electrons in
conduction bandit room temperature is not a sigh as in

Introduction metals, thus cannot conduct current as good as metal. The

electrical conductivity of semiconductor is not a sigh as
1.1 Background of metal but also not as poor as electrical insulator. That is
study why,this type of material is called semiconductor– means
Magnetic semiconductors are
half conductor [1].
semiconductor materials that
Magnetic semiconductors are semiconductor materials that
exhibit both ferromagnetism
exhibit both ferromagnetism (and a similar response) and
(and a similar response) and
useful semiconductor properties. If implemented in devices,
useful semiconductor
these materials could provide a new type of control of
properties.
conduction). Whereas traditional electronics are based on
A semiconductor material has
control of charge carriers (n- or p-type), practical magnetic
an electrical conductivity value
semiconductors would also allow control of quantum spin
falling between that of a
state (up or down). This would theoretically provide near-
conductor, such as metallic
total spin polarization (as opposed to iron and other metals,
copper, and an insulator, such
which provide only ~50% polarization), which is an
as glass. ...Some examples of
important property for Spintronics applications, e.g. spin
semiconductors are silicon,
transistors. While many traditional magnetic materials, such
germanium, gallium arsenide,
as magnetite, are al-o semiconductors (magnetite is a
and elements near the so-called
semimetal semiconductor with band gap 0.14 eV), materials
"metalloid staircase" on the
scientists generally predict that magnetic semiconductors
periodic table. In
will only find wide spread use if they are similar to well-
semiconductor the valance
developed semiconductor materials. To that end, dilute
band and conduction bandages
magnetic semiconductors (DMS) have recently been a
prated by a forbidden gap of
major focus of magnetic semiconductor research. It was
sufficient width. At low
discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.
temperature, no electron
possesses sufficient energy to
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 These are based on traditional principal role in the conductivity is assumed by hops of the
semiconductors, but are doped electron from donor or, due to the exponentially small
with transition metals instead overlap of the wave functions of the two states. (Free
of, or in addition to, donors are usually present as a result of compensation.)
electronically active elements. This is called hopping conductivity [4].
They are of interest because of
the unique Spintronics Hopping conductivity is somewhat interesting because it is
properties with possible new modern physics output and it expected to have advance
technological applications. [2] application for world. That is why I am interested to study
Magnetic semiconductors about this physical phenomenon to give clear vision and
(MSs) are obtained by doping understanding on its nature and application through
conventional semiconductors searching from different site and written material.
with transition metal impurities
such as Co, Ni, or Mint or
ender them paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic [3]. IN a
semiconductor having such
allow impurity density that the
overlap of the impurity wave
functions is small, the
contribution of the impurities to
the conductivity is determined
by two mechanisms. At
relatively high temperatures,
the conductivity is due to
electrons thrown from the
impurity levels in to the
conduction band. With
increasing temperature, the
number of electrons in the band
decreases sharply, and the

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1.2 Statement of the problem.
The science of magnetic semiconductors is modern science, which comes around19 thcentury and
somewhat new for our world. Only about few physics scientists can study on this physical
phenomenon and some of them fall in probabilistic idea that whether materials are built in such a
way that having both magnetic properties and semiconductor properties at room temperature.
Due to this fact most significance of these materials (magnetic semiconductors) is not viable. On
the other, many researchers have done project on hoping conductivity in magnetic
semiconductors. However, no perfect model has been developed. For this reason, this
project is done to explain the phenomenon of hopping conductivity in magnetic
semiconductors.

1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 General objective of the study

The main objective of this project is to understand the science of hopping conductivity in
magnetic semiconductors.

1.3.2 Specific objectives of the Project

The specific objectives of the project were:

 To explain relation between hoping conductivity and temperature.

 To explain hopping conductivity in magnetic semiconductor.
 To determine the relation between magneto resistance and magnetic field.

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1.4 Significance of study
Any scientific work is not designed without significance. After successful completion, this work
will help to:
• serve as a reference materials for coworkers.
• Access and use it as a source of knowledge, during further investigation on hopping
conductivity in magnetic semiconductors.
• It provides a simple approach for understanding hoping conductivity in magnetic
semiconductor
• To develop a habit, skill, knowledge and attitude of doing research .

1.5 limitation of the study

This project is not completed without obstacles and challenges. there were some hindering
problems. a few of them are

 short time
 covid-19
 program overload
 Lack of internet access
 No sufficient experimental observation in the laboratory

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The birth history of semiconductors can be traced back to the invention of the rectifier (AC- DC
converter) in1874.Decadeslater, Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Laboratories in the US invented the
point-contact transistor in 1947, and Shockley invented the junction transistor in 1948 [5].
In 1967, TexasInstrumentsdevelopedtheelectronicdesktopcalculator(thecalculator)using IC.
In Japan, electronic equipment manufacturers released curators one after another, and
fierce “calculator wars” continued until the end ofthe1970s. IC integration advanced even
further, and the large-scale integrated circuit (LSI) was developed. The technologies
continue to advance. As IC progresses toward high performance and multiple functions, its
field of application is expanding broadly. Semiconductors are now used in every corner of
our society and support everyday life [5].

The key inventions that laid the foundation of today's information technology (IT) had already
emerged by the end of the19th century, including the light bulb by Thomas Alva Edison,
telephone and telegraph by Alexander Graham Bell, wireless telegraphy by Guglielmo Marconi,
and cathode ray tube by Karl Ferdinand Braun. These basic technologies have made remarkable
progress since then, due in large part to the development of semiconductors [6].

The history of magnetism dates back to the 600BCE, where we find mention of Lodestone in the
work of Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus Early lodestone, found in the Greek region.

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 Magnesia, Anatolia’s where the modern name “magnet” is derived. The earliest Chinese
reference to “Lodestone “occurs in the 400 BCE in “The Book of the Devil Valley Master.
“In this writing, LushiChunqiu, from these Cond century BC stated that Lodestone makes
iron come to introit “attracts “it. By the12th century, the Chinese were using Lode stone
compasses to navigate [7].

In 1600 English Scientist William Gilbert was the first to investigate magnetism using scientific
methods. Gilbert conducted many experiments with his model of the Earth (called the Terrell).
From his experiments, he argued that the center of the Earth was iron and that the Earth was, in
fact, a magnet and this was the reason that compasses point north, and not due to Polaris (the
polestar) or large magnetic island. Early the original investigations in to the Earth’s magnetism
were studied by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The modern understanding of the relationship between
magnets and electricity began with Hans Christian Ornstein 1819.Orsted, a Professor at the
University of Copenhagen, discovered by accident that an electric current could influence a
compass needle [7].

By the1930s scientists had produced the first Alnico magnet. By 1966 the first Samarium-Cobalt
magnets were produced with energy capable of 18MGOe and were refined to be able to achieve
30MGOeby1972.In 1983 joint research between General Motors, Sumi to mo. Special Metals
and the Chinese Academy of Sciences developed the first 35 MGOe magnets out of Neodymium,
Iron and Boron which also comprise the body of today’s 52MGOe magnets. Todays are earth
magnets are used in almost every technologically advanced device [7].

The research on ferromagnetic semiconductors began in the 1960's with the goal of combining
electrical transport and magnetism. Typical materials used were EuO, GdN, CuCrTiS 4. A special
feature of these magnetic semiconductors is that carriers (s electrons) interact strongly with the
moments of partly filled d or f shells of magnetic ions. Therefore, magnetic order affects strongly
the carrier motion and the carriers themselves may exert a strong influence on the magnetic order.
Many properties of magnetic semiconductors can be explained by the fact that the electron energy
is minimal in the case of complete ferromagnetic order and that it increases on deviation from this
order. Therefore, conduction electrons tend to establish and maintain the

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Ferromagnetic order. At low densities, electrons cannot influence the state of a crystal as a whole.
However, electrons may be localized in some part of a crystal and they can then establish there a
sufficiently high degree of ferromagnetic order to achieve a strong reduction in their energy. The
main problem with these types of magnetic semiconductors is their very low Curie Point T c
(typically less than 100K), which makes them impractical for commercial use [8].

The second generation of magnetic semiconductors were developed starting in the late 1980s.
These are based on traditional semiconductor materials like Si and GaAs which are then doped
with transition metal elements instead of, or in addition to, electronically active elements to provide
the magnetic properties. Examples of these so-called dilute magnetic semiconductors include Ga1-
x Mnx as, Mn and Co doped ZnO, etc. Even though these show higher Curie temperatures above
100K, they still fall below room temperature and thus remain impractical for commercial use.
Quite recently, Mn- and Fe-doped indium oxide, Co- doped titanium dioxide, Mn- and Fe-doped
tin dioxide and many similar materials have brought the Curie temperature up to room temperature
or higher. The process involved in making these materials depends largely on the thermal
equilibrium solubility of the dopants in the base material. In some materials, the low solubility limit
forces the use of thin film techniques along with laser deposition to produce the desired dopant
concentrations and high Curie temperature properties (largely determined by hole concentration)
[8].

In recent years, there has been a lot of excitement generated by materials called magnetic
semiconductors due to their potential application to spintronic devices. These materials not only
exhibit ferromagnetism, but also several useful semiconductor properties as well. Spintronic
devices introduce a new type of conduction, by controlling the quantum spin state, as opposed to
the charged carriers in conventional electronic semiconductors. In theory, this will enable almost
total spin polarization, allowing the development of spin transistors which may then replace the
current standard silicon transistors [9].

Hopping conduction in semiconductors was first associated with the observation that the activation
energy of the conductivity in doped Ge exhibits a break at low temperatures T. This observation
was first made by Hung and Glassman (1950) who attributed it to a distinct
Mechanism of conduction at low values of T. Mott (1956) and Conwell (1956) proposed a model of
conduction in which electrons conduct by thermally activated tunneling from a filled site to a vacant
one, a process that is usually called phonon assisted hopping. This model was modified and
extended by several researchers. The best-known extension is perhaps the model of Miller and
Abrahams (1960). They developed a model consisting of two parts, the quantum mechanical theory
of the wave functions and of the transition rates Wij from a localized state I to a localized state j, and
a statistical mechanical theory of transport that employs such transition rates. They also showed how
their model can be reduced to a random resistor network and be used for computing the hopping
conductivity of disordered solids. It took researchers over a decade to discover certain deficiencies
of the Miller-Abrahams resistor network model. Moreover, it was realized independently by
Ambegaokar, Halperin, and Langer (1971), Shklovskii and Efros (1971), and Pollak (1972) that
hopping conduction in semiconductors can be modeled successfully by using the concepts of
percolation theory. Since their seminal papers, several electronic properties of semiconductors have
been successfully predicted by percolation theory [10].

A theory of hopping conductivity of semiconductors in strong magnetic fields is developed. As is

well known, calculation of hopping conductivity reduces to the problem of the conductivity of a
three-dimensional random network each element of which corresponds to a certain impurity pair.
The problem was solved by a percolation-theory approach [4].
Interest in semiconductors doped with transition-metal elements is concerned with the spin-
polarized electron transport, making them attractive, e.g. for application Spintronics [11]. Progress
in this rapidly developing are a suggests search for new diluted magnetic semiconductor systems.
Recently a family of such materials has been enriched by cadmium antimonite doped with Ni (p-
CdSb: Ni) [12].

Special interest in this system is related to strong an isotropic transport in the group II–V

Semiconductor p- CdSb [13].

9
In un doped material the activated conductivity is governed by acceptor bands with energies _3 and
6 MeV. Fe and Ni substituting for Sb in the lattice act as acceptors, whereas doping with Ag induces
the metal–insulator transition (MIT) [13].

An isotropic quantum transport revealed by Shubnikov–de Ha as effect [14] and negative magneto
resistance(MR) [15] are observed on the metallic side of the MIT, whereas an isotropic hopping
conductivity is realized on the insulating side of the MIT [16].

The presence of these clusters leads to considerably an isotropic magnetic properties of p-Cd Sb: Ni,
as well as to frustrated ground state and spin-freezing starting at the room temperature [12], making
p-Cd Sb: Ni a perspective Spintronics material. Investigations of hopping transport in p-CdSb: Ni in
zero and weak magnetic fields (B<6 T) reveal interesting behavior, un- common of conventional
(non-magnetic) semiconductors. Namely the variable-range hopping (VRH) conductivity at B =0
transforms in to the nearest-neighbor hopping (NNH) conductivity in non- zero field. This transition
is accompanied with the expansion of the temperature interval of the hopping conductivity already
in weak magnetic fields, in line with presence of magnetic disorder or strongly in homogeneous
magnetization due to Ni-rich Nano clusters [17], which is damped when B is increased.

Magnetic semiconductors (MSs) hold a very special position in the field of Spintronics because they
allow effective manipulation of both charge and spin. This feature is important in devices combining
logic functionalities and information storage capabilities. The existing technology to obtain diluted
MSs (DMSs) is to dope magnetic elements into traditional semiconductors. A successful example is
the manganese-doped GA as system, which shows a relatively high Curie temperature up to
200K.Although ferromagnetism of DMSs at or above room temperature has been reported in various
systems. The distribution of magnetization is usually heterogeneous and the obtained
ferromagnetism is too weak to be comparable to that of the conventional ferromagnetic materials.
The lack of MSs with strong magnetism above room temperature becomes, therefore, a bottleneck of
the fundamental development of MS-based Spintronics/electronic devices [18]. IN a semiconductor
having such a low impurity density that the overlap of the impurity wave functions is small, the
contribution of the impurities to the conductivity is determined by two mechanisms. At relatively
high temperatures, the conductivity is due to electrons thrown from the impurity levels into the
conduction band. (For concreteness we shall speak of donors.) With increasing temperature, the
10
number of electrons in the band decreases sharply, and the principal role in the conductivity is
assumed by hops of the electron from donor to donor, due to the exponentially small overlap of the
wave functions of the two states. (Free donors are usually present as a result of compensation.) This
is called hopping conductivity. The random potential produced by the charged donors and acceptors
causes the levels of different donors to differ somewhat. Therefore, hopping of an electron can occur
only with participation of phonons, and the dependence of the hopping resistance on the temperature
T has an activation character:
The strong magnetic field squeezes the wave functions, decreasing still further the overlap of their
exponential tails. Therefore, the resistance ps should increase exponentially under the influence of
the magnetic field. The present paper is devoted to this phenomenon. The first to observe the
exponential increase of the hopping resistance in a magnetic field was Slaked [19].
In the n-In Sb crystals investigated by him, the impurity concentration was so large that in the
absence of a magnetic field the impurity band overlapped the conduction band and the conduction
was metallic in character. Under the influence of a magnetic field, however, the overlap of the wave
functions decreased, the impurity band became separated from the conduction band, and at
temperatures below 2°K the conductivity became of the hopping type. Further increase of the
magnetic field led to an exponential growth of the hopping resistance, for which an increase of 105
times was attained [20]

CHAPTER THREE
3. Methodology

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The methodology contains design of project, data type and sources and project model.
3.1 Project Design
To achieve the purpose of the study a theoretical research method will be used because the project
work will be reviewing hopping conductivity in magnetic semiconductor based on the published
articles. The information gathered will be analyzed theoretically, mathematically, pictorially and by
comparison in such a way that the information supposed to be significance for the research will be
collected from different source.

The well collected data can be organized accordingly (data classification). The data for introduction
part, for literature review part and for main body part will identified. The data organized will
process. Meaning, very useful information will be picked out and taken to analysis scenario so that
the formal document will be written.

3.2. Sources of information

The project will use both primary and secondary sources of information. The primary
sources include watching and listening videos about the hopping conductivity in magnetic
semiconductor Secondary sources of information will use from published article internet
text books, journal and news.

3.3 Methods of data gathering

. The information for this project will be gathered in different ways. Primarily, by
watching and listening video about the hopping conductivity in magnetic
semiconductors and by reading different written document related with the topic.

3.4 Mathematical models

After developing a conceptual model of a physical system it is natural to develop a
mathematical model that will allow one to estimate the quantitative behavior of the system.
A quantitative result from mathematical models can easily be compared with observational
data to identify a model’s strength and weaknesses.
A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and
languages. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical
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 modeling. A model may help to explain a system and to study the effect of different
components and to make prediction about behavior. In this research we will consider the
theory of hoping conductivity to describe the phenomenon of hoping conductivity in
magnetic semiconductor.
3.1 Theory of hoping conductivity

ni = C e – (E – Eave)/kT   3.1

ni = C e – Eg/2kT 3.2
So even though mobility decreases, the exponential increase in the number of charge
carriers will dominate. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor will
increase exponentially with an increase in temperature!
−−E g

σ =c e KT 3.3

We can graph this equation on log vs. 1/T axes to get a linear plot (as with all Arrhenius type
equations):
Let’s consider the effect of increasing the temperature on the conductivity of semiconductors.
                                     
Let's look at the factors that go into conductivity of a semiconductor and consider how each of these
are affected

σ = ni q (me + mh) 3.4

Where ni is impurity concentración, q is charge, m eis effective mass of electron, m h is effective mass
of hole.
First let's consider q. As with conductors, as temperature increases, the charge on each carrier will
not change.     
Now consider mobility. The effect of an increase in temperature on mobility is the same as it was for
conductors. With the same reasoning, we see that the drift velocity will decrease causing the
mobility to decrease      
Lastly, let's consider what will happen to ni for semiconductors as temperature increases. The
electrons in the valance band will gain energy and go into the higher energy levels in the conduction
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band where they become charge carriers! So this term will increase. Not only will it increase, but it
will increase exponentially! (Promoting electrons from the valance band into the conduction band is
a thermally activated process.) 
ni = C e – (E – Eave)/kT   3.5
ni = C e – Eg/2kT 3.6

So even though mobility decreases, the exponential increase in the number of charge carriers will
dominate.
The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor will increase exponentially with an increase in
temperature!

−−E g
KT 3.7
σ =c e

We can graph this equation on log vs. 1/T axes to get a linear plot (as with all Arrhenius type
equations)

CHAPTER FOUR

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RESULT and DISCUSSION
In this section, we will present the relationship between three different parameters
determining conductivity. That is temperature, field emission, dopant density ofsemiconductor on
metal semiconductor interfaces.
3.1 Relation between hoping conductivity and temperature
As seen in equation 3.7 conductivity and temperature have exponential relation. We
can graph this relation on log vs. 1/T axes to get a linear plot as with all Arrhenius type equations.

Figure 4.1 the relation between hoping conductivity and temperature

4.2 Relation magneto resistance and magnetic field
Magneto resistance is the observation that current flows differently across a multilayer stack
consisting of alternating metallic FM/metal bi layers if the magnetization of adjacent ferromagnetic
layers is aligned or anti-aligned.
A magnetic field is a vector field that describes the magnetic influence on moving electric
charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials. A moving charge in a magnetic field experiences
a force perpendicular to its own velocity and to the magnetic field. A permanent magnet′s magnetic
field pulls on ferromagnetic materials such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets. In addition,
a magnetic field that varies with location will exert a force on a range of non-magnetic materials by
affecting the motion of their outer atomic electrons. Magnetic fields surround magnetized materials,

15
and are created by electric currents such as those used in electromagnets, and by electric
fields varying in time. Since both strength and direction of a magnetic field may vary with location,
they are described as a map assigning a vector to each point of space or, more precisely because of
the way the magnetic field transforms under mirror reflection as a field of pseudo vectors.

16
 Magnetic field

4.2 Relation between hall resistance and magnetic field

4.3 Conductivity and Mobility of Carriers

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Conductivity is the opposite of resistivity, and it refers to the ability of the material to allow current
to flow when a potential difference is applied.
In solid-state physics, the electron mobility characterizes how quickly
an electron can move through a metal or semiconductor, when pulled by an electric field.
There is an analogous quantity for holes, called hole mobility. The term carrier
mobility refers in general to both electron and hole mobility.
Electron and hole mobility are special cases of electrical mobility of charged particles in a fluid
under an applied electric field.
When an electric field E is applied across a piece of material, the electrons respond by moving with

an average velocity called the drift velocity, . Then the electron mobility μ is defined as .
Electron mobility is almost always specified in units of cm2/(V⋅s). This is different from the SI unit of
mobility, m2/(V⋅s). They are related by 1 m2/(V⋅s) = 104 cm2/(V⋅s).
Conductivity is proportional to the product of mobility and carrier concentration. For example, the
same conductivity could come from a small number of electrons with high mobility for each, or a
large number of electrons with a small mobility for each. For metals, it would not typically matter
which of these is the case, since most metal electrical behavior depends on conductivity alone.
Therefore, mobility is relatively unimportant in metal physics. On the other hand, for
semiconductors, the behavior of transistors and other devices can be very different depending on
whether there are many electrons with low mobility or few electrons with high mobility. Therefore,
mobility is a very important parameter for semiconductor materials. Almost always, higher mobility
leads to better device performance, with other things equal.
Semiconductor mobility depends on the impurity concentrations (including donor and acceptor
concentrations), defect concentration, temperature, and electron and hole concentrations. It also
depends on the electric field, particularly at high fields when velocity saturation occurs. It can be
determined by the Hall Effect, or inferred from transistor behavior.
In solid-state physics, the electron mobility characterizes how quickly an electron can
move through a metal or semiconductor, when pulled by an electric field. There is an
analogous quantity for holes, called whole mobility. The term carrier mobility refers in
general to both electron and hole mobility.
Electron and whole mobility are special cases of electrical mobility of charged particles in a fluid
under an applied electric field.
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4.4 Hall effect
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across
an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to an
applied magnetic field perpendicular to the current.

Figure 4.3 Hall Effect

Anomalous Hall Effect

The Anomalous Hall effect describes the fact that when an electrical current flows in a
ferromagnetic metallic wire, an electrical current flows perpendicularly to the wire due to the
magnetization of the ferromagnetic wire. The effect is originated from a magnetic interaction of
orbital moment on conduction electrons with spin of localized electrons.

4.5 Giant magneto resistance and magnetic field

The current in semiconductors is carried by electrons and holes.
Carrier transport proceeds under external forces, resulting in drift, and under
internal quasi forces, resulting in diffusion. This may involve different charged
particles which contribute additively to the current or have an indirect effect when
it involves neutral particles, e.g., Exciton.
Exciton diffusion plays a major role in devices fabricated from organic semiconductors; for a review
Carrier transport occurs in bands near the band edges, i.e., near Ec for electrons and near E
v for holes. For materials with a sufficiently large defect density, carrier transport may proceed also
via tunneling between trapping states. It may also involve carriers hopping from traps into the band
or hopping of self-trapped small polaron. Trapped carriers travel a short distance in the band and
19
later are recaptured, then reemitted, and so on; an analogous process occurs with small polaron –
Mikhnenko et al. [19]
All of these processes add up to produce the total current and usually have vastly different
magnitudes. Ordinarily, only one transport process predominates in homogeneous semiconductors.
In non-homogeneous materials, however, at least two and frequently four contributions are
important in different regions of the devices. These are drift and diffusion currents of electrons and
holes. Contributions are important in different regions of the devices. These are drift and diffusion
currents of electrons and holes.

Fig 1.3 Giant magneto resistance

4.6 Electron Mobility
is the electron mobility, since carriers are more mobile when they experience
less scattering, i.e., the time between collisions is larger, and when their effective
mass is smaller, i.e., they can be accelerated more easily. With -e for electrons and
+e for holes, the mobility is negative for electrons and positive for holes.

CHAPTER FIVE

5 Conclusion and recommendation

5.1 Conclusion

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In this project to describe conductivity of current in different conductors have different value of
voltages, and to achieve the flow of current in different factors such as temperature in curie, room
temperatures and applied fields. When we see in the semiconductors materials the current flow there
is also induced magnetic fields. The conductivity of semiconductors can be manipulated by varying
the concentration of impurities and the background of temperatures. As a temperature and
concentration of semiconductor increased its conductivity also increased. Thus the diffusivity of
dopant increases as the dopant density increase and then the location of the high density region is
linked to the shape of the external field. The conductivity of semiconductor is increased either at
high temperature or by introducing impurities to it.
Magnetic semiconductors semiconductor if implemented in devices; could provide a new type of
control of conduction. A theory of hopping conductivity in magnetic semiconductors serves as an
alternative means of harnessing power. On the other hand, electrical conductivity in amorphous
materials/ semiconductors is described as a sequence of hops in which an electronic charge moves
stochastically between localized states in presence of magnetic field.
In the future work, hoping conductivity in magnetic semiconductor will be studied from
computational and experimental point of view.

5.2 Recommendation
This proposal may limitation on proposing new outcome/physical phenomena but I strongly
recommended the coming researcher, the reader and all interesting body on this title to do enormous
scientific work by giving enough time, place and concentration on this interesting scientific event.
For the department of physics: in fact physics aimed to study about natural event to understand and
give solution about the problem of the society through studying nature. Although the influence of
COVID-19 limits the researcher to propose the study in very detail way, she will exert her maximum
effort for betterment of the study. Therefore, the department should consider the existing situation
and contribute whatever they can do.

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