Ed. by Prof. W.

Chu

Often, a rectangular weir has end contractions (that is, the ends of the weir project inward from the sides of the channel).
These can be accounted for by subtracting 0.1H from L for each end contraction. The equation for a rectangular weir
with a contraction on each end follows:
Q
H ( ) 0.67
Cw ( L  0.2 H )

Open Channel Head Loss

Three other basic formulas for calculating head loss in open channels are
- The channel water surface elevation from a side overflow weir, such as a clarifier weir effluent launder;
- The head loss resulting from a partially open gate or port; and
- The head loss resulting from a bar screen.

1) Side overflow weir

- The side overflow can be estimated by a differential equation for flow with increasing discharge, however, the
procedure is tedious and time consuming. Most designers prefer to use a computer program to solve this equation
- An approximate solution for flumes with level inverts and parallel sides; channel friction is neglected; and the draw-
down curve is assumed parabolic.
2(q ' LN ) 2
y1  y22 
gb 2 y2
where
y1 = water depth at the upstream end, m
y2 = water depth in the trough at a distance L from the upstream end, m
q’ = discharge per unit length of the weir, m3/s·m
b = width of the launder, m
N = number of sides the weir receives the flow (one or two)
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

Usually allow 6~16% additional depth to account for frictional losses, and add 15~25 cm to ensure a free fall, so
yu = ay1 + b
yu = designed water depth at the upstream end, m; a = 1.06~1.16; b = 0.15~0.25

* Other equations for varied flow that usually used in treatment plant:
 From the standpoint of the designer, it usually suffices to know what depth of water to expect in the upper end of
the channel under a particular set of conditions. It is seldom necessary in conventional design to compute the entire
profile of the water surface. By neglecting channel friction and assuming that the shape of the water surface
approximates a parabola, for a rectangular channel: (Thomas, 1940)

SL 2 2SL
yu  2 yc2  ( yc  ) 
3 3
where
yu = depth at the upstream end of the channel, m
L = total length of the channel, m
S = slope of channel bottom, m/m
yc = critical depth at downstream (free fall) as based on the total discharge, m
Q2
yc  [ 2 ]1 / 3
gb
Q = total flow discharged from the lauder with a width of b, m3/s

For the case of zero slope (S = 0), above equation reduces to the form
yu  1.73 yc

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

 For the situation where the depth of flow at the lower end of the channel is fixed at upper stage by a downstream
control point (e.g. submerged discharge), the depth of flow at the upstream end of the channel:

2 yc3 SL 2SL
yu   ( yd  ) 2 
yd 3 3
yd = the measured or expected depth of water at the downstream end of the channel, m

For the case of zero slope (S = 0), above equation reduces to the form
2 yc3  yd3
yu 
yd

 For many situations encountered in treatment plant design, outflow from a component such as a sedimentation basin
is controlled by a series of evenly spaced weirs (or branches) discharging into a lateral spillway channel. In this case:

(mq ) 2 SL 2SL
yu  2 2
 ( yd  ) 2 
y d gb 3 3
m = the number of weirs between the upstream and downstream end of the channel
q = the discharge per weir (branch), m3/s

When the channel is placed on a zero slope, above equation reduces to the form
(mq) 2
yu  2  yd2
y d gb 2

2) Ports or gates
- Ports or gates are used to evenly distribute flow to each parallel basin or across a basin
- Properly designed inlets and outlets assist in the reduction of short-circuiting and are very important for short basins
with low velocities.
- The velocity in the basin must be reduced to less than 1% of the velocity in the influent conduit.
- The suspension may be distributed across the width of the basins by:
1) bringing it in through several pipes at intervals across the width
2) bringing it in through a single conduit to a transverse influent flume through orifices or sluice gates
- Baffle should be placed in front of each inlet pipe or orifice in order to help dissipate the kinetic energy of the jet
- Equal division of flow to all the basins is most readily approached if the water level is the same in all outlets.
- the head loss relationship along a channel where the outflow is continuous or nearly so along the length of the channel:

h
hp 
1  m2
where
hp = head loss through port, m or ft;
h = hydraulic grade line differential along the channel to the ports, m or ft; and
m = ratio of the flow in the first port to that through the end port. ( 0.9)

Above equation is used to determine the minimum head loss that must be allowed in the design of an inlet gate or port to
ensure uniform distribution to all basins from a common inlet or distribution channel. To keep the flow to each basin within
5% of that to another basin, the head loss through the gate should be about 10 times the hydraulic grade line differential over
the entire length of the distribution channel. To determine the actual head loss through a gate or port, the following equation
applies:

H = Q2/(CA)22g
where
H = head loss through the gate, m or ft;
Q = flow, m3/s or ft3/s;
C = gate or orifice coefficient, dimensionless; ranged from 0.6 to less than 1 under varying port conditions
A = area of gate or port opening, m2 or ft2
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

The hydraulic grade differential (h) is influenced by velocity head and head loss along the upstream header pipe or channel
as shown by the following equation:

h = V02/2g - hL
where
h = hydraulic grade differential, m or ft;
V0 = header inlet velocity, m/s or ft/sec;
hL = header head loss, m or ft.

When the outlet flow from a pressurized header approximates a uniform continuous outflow along the length of the header,
the head loss along the header (hL) can be estimated by calculating the head loss as if the inlet flow to the header were to be
conveyed along the entire length of header and dividing the result by three. This estimation procedure is valid for m values
greater than 0.9.

3) Bar screen (due to the friction and turbulence of the wastewater flowing through the screen)

- head losses through clean or partly clogged bars:

V 2  vv2 1
hL  ( )
2g 0.7

- head loss through clean screen:

W 4
hL   ( ) 3 hv sin 
b

- head loss through fine screens:

1 Q 2
hL  ( )
2 g CA
where
hL = head loss through the rack, m
V, v = velocity through the rack and in the channel upstream of the rack, m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
W = maximum cross-sectional width of the bars facing the direction of flow, m
b = minimum clear spacing of bars, m
hv = velocity head of the flow approaching the bars, m
 = angle of bars with horizontal
Q = discharge through screen, m3/s
A = effective submerged open area, m2
C = coefficient of discharge = 0.60 for clean rack
 = bar shape factor.

The values of bar shape factors for clean rack

Bar type 
Sharp-edged rectangular 2.42
Rectangular with semicircular upstream face 1.83
Circular 1.79
Rectangular with semicircular upstream and 1.67
downstream faces
Tear shape 0.76

- Typical head loss range for bar screens are 0.15 to 0.8m
- Typical head loss range for comminutor and grinder are 0.05 to 0.3m

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

FLOW MEASUREMENT

- Flow measurement is the most important variable measured in a treatment plant.

- Various flow meters commonly used in the water treatment are the Venturi type meter, orifice meter, propeller type
meter, magnetic flow meter, ultrasonic flow meter, vortex meter, rotameter (variable-area meter), flumes, and weirs.
- Liquid chemical flow is almost exclusively measured by positive displacement pumps rather than flow meters
- Wastewater stream typically measured include: influent, primary clarifier sludge, return activated sludge, · Waste
activated sludge, digested sludge, digester supernatant, return and recycle flows (for example, trickling filter recycle),
disinfection process influent, and effluent.
- Devices used to measure influent, sludges, and certain recycle flows are designed to minimize problems associated with
grease, grit, snails, rags, and solid materials. Final clarifier effluent and plant effluent contain much smaller quantities of
these problem materials.
- All flow meters perform two functions:
a) Controlling the waste stream in a manner that causes a known relationship between flow rate and a measurable
parameter such as depth, velocity, or pressure drop, and
b) Measuring ("sensing") the parameter (pressure, gravity) related to flow rate.
Sensing devices summary:
Device Typica Advantages Limitations
l
accura
cy
Gravity
Mechanical 1% Simplicity of Requires frequent
float operation. cleaning.
Bubbler 0.5% Relatively Less accurate in low head
maintenance free. applications.
High degree of
accuracy.
Capacitance 2% Low cost. Requires frequent
Probe cleaning.

Ultrasonic 2% Easy to calibrate. Affected by high winds,

sensor Non-fouling. temperature, relative
humidity, and foam.
Pressure
Ultrasonic 1% Simple to install. Requires periodic
velocity Low cost. cleaning. Suspended
solids, grease, or gas
bubbles may affect
readings.
Ultrasonic 1% Simple to install. Suspended solids must be
Doppler Low cost. Available present in flow. Pipe
as clamp-on device linings can affect results.
for existing pipes.
Magnetic 1% Available with wide Requires proper
range of lining grounding. High cost.
materials. High Requires periodic
accuracy over wide cleaning.
range.

- Flow meters are divided into two broad categories:

a) Those that operate under open channel flow conditions, and
b) Those that operate under pressure or full-pipe flows.
- The following considerations apply to design devices for flow measurement:
a) Flow condition (that is, pressure or open channel);
b) Available head loss;
c) Physical characteristics of the measured stream;
d) Required accuracy and repeatability;
e) Spatial requirements and configuration;
f) Peak to minimum flow rates (if the peak:minimum flow ratio is greater than 6:1 and the meter is sized for peak
flow, the meter may not accurately measure low flows);
g) Capital and operating costs; and

13
 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

h) Maintenance requirements.

- Types of flow measurement devices available for determining liquid discharges

1. For pressure pipes
Flow Measurement Principle of Flow Measurement
Devices
Venturi meter The differential pressure is measured
Flow nozzle meter The differential pressure is measured
Orifice meter The differential pressure is measured
Pitot tube The differential pressure is measured
Electromagnetic Magnetic field is induced and voltage is measured
meter
Rotameter The rise of float in a tapered tube is measured
Turbine meter Uses a velocity driven rotational element (turbine,
vane. wheel)
Acoustic meter The sound waves are used to measure the velocity
and liquid level
Elbow meter The differential pressure is measured around a bend

2. For open channels

Flow Measurement Principle of Flow Measurement
Devices
Flumes (Parshall, Critical depth is measured at the flume
Palmer-Bowlus)
Weirs Head is measured over a barrier (weir)
Current meter Rotational element is used to measure velocity
Pitot tube The differential pressure is measured
Depth Float is used to obtain the depth of flow
measurement
Acoustic meter Uses sound waves to measure velocity and depth

3. Computing flow from freely discharging pipes

Flow Measurement Principle of Flow Measurement
Devices
Nozzles and The water jet data is recorded
orifices (full flow)
Vertical open-end The vertical height of water jet is recorded
flow(full flow)
Horizontal sloped The dimensions of free falling water jet are obtained
open-end pipe
(partly flow)
Open flow nozzle The depth of flow at free falling end is determined
(Kennison nozzle)
(partly flow)

4. Miscellaneous method
Flow Measurement Principle of Flow Measurement
Devices
Dilution method A constant flow of a dye tracer is used
Bucket and A calibrated bucket is used and time to fill is noted
stopwatch
Measuring level Change in level in a given time is obtained
change in tank
Calculation from Total water meter readings over a given time period
water meter give average wastewater flow
readings
Pumping rate Constant pump rate and pumping duration

Parshall Flume
- Flumes are capable of accuracy in the 3 to 5% ranges.
Advantages

14
 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

a) Self-cleaning with respect to solids,

b) Moderate head loss,
c) Calibration can be checked with manual measurements.
Disadvantages
a) High cost,
b) Less accuracy when compared to pressure meters,
c) Relatively long and straight approach channel required.
- General requirements for the design of flume installations:
a) Locate a flume in a straight section of the open channel, without bends immediately upstream. Avoid any bends or
other flow disturbances within 10 throat widths of the entrance to the flume.
b) Ensure uniform approach velocity across the approach channel and avoid channel turbulence and waves.
c) Avoid upstream solids deposition, which can occur if the flume approach velocity is less than 0.6 m/s.
d) Account for head loss in overall plant hydraulic design.
e) Consider the impact on accuracy of submergence due to downstream backwater. Avoid submergence of the flume if
possible.

- Parshall flumes have throat widths ranging from 25 mm to 15 m (1 in. to 50 ft).

- For permanent installations, the manufactured flume can be used as the interior form for a cast-in-place concrete
structure.
- The ratio Hb:Ha (expressed as a percentage) is called submergence and may be used to define free flow conditions. In
cases where flumes are designed for free flow, the flow rate is proportional to the depth at a single point (Ha), which is
inside the flume.

Free flow conditions for Parshall flume

Throat width, cm Maximum
submergence Ha/Hb
x 100 for free flow
condition, %
 7.6 50
15.2 60
22.9 60
Between 22.9 and 70
30.5
 30.5 67

- Free flow designs are preferable to submerged designs since depth measurement is required at only one point. (Ha)
- In submerged designs, where available head loss is limited, depth must be measured at two locations, Ha and Hb. Rating
curves and submergence correction factors are required.

Palmer-Bowlus Flume

- The constriction of Palmer-Bowlus flume causes the flow to achieve critical depth. Critical depth can then be related to
the flow rate.
- Palmer-Bowlus flume is easily adaptable to the circular cross section of pipelines at manholes.
- Rating curves should be offered by manufacturer
- Typical peak:minimum flow ratios for a Palmer-Bowlus flume ranged from 6:1 to 8:1.

Venturi Tube
- To relate flow rate to pressure drop across a constriction in the pipe.
- General design considerations:
a) Accurate measurements can only be obtained when the flow tube is full of liquid.  Install flow tubes in vertical
piping runs to ensure full flow and to minimize buildup of entrained air.
b) Provide a straight run of pipe equal in length to at leas10 times the diameter of the flow tube immediately upstream
of the flow. Provide a length of straight downstream piping equal to at least five diameters.
c) Keep velocities through the flow tube in the range of 1.22 to 2.44 m/s (4 to 8 ft/sec) to minimize buildup of grease
and solids.
d) Provide for bypass piping to allow removal of the flow tube for maintenance, cleaning, or calibration.
e) Maintain velocities through the flow tube of over 0.7 m/s (2 ft/sec) for accurate results.
- Venturi tubes in clean water systems can measure flow rates with accuracy 0.75%. Accuracies for wastewater or
sludges will generally depend on keeping the pressure connections clean.
- Venturi tubes for any wastewater applications should be equipped with water purge systems, manual tap cleaners, or
pressure sensors isolated from the liquid flow.

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

- Design equation for Venturi meter:

1
Q  C1KA2 2 gh and K 
1  ( D2 / D1 ) 4
where
Q = pipe flow, m3/s
H1 = upstream piezometric head, m
H2 = throat piezometric head, m
D1, D2 = diameter of the pipe and the throat, m (for standard Venturi: D1/D2 = 2 to 3)
Al = force main area, m2
A2 = throat area, m2
h = (H1 – H2), m
C1 = velocity, friction, or discharge coefficient (dimensionless) = 0.97 to 0.99 provided by the manufacturer
K = coefficient (dimensionless) = usually between 1.0062 to 1 .0328

- Head loss through Venturi meter

hm = Km(v22/2g)
where
hm = minor head loss, m
v22/2g = velocity head at throat, m
Km = minor loss coefficient, 0.14 for angles of divergence of 5

Magnetic Flow Meter

- Magnetic sensing device relies on liquid velocity through flow tubes to measure flow rate.
- The magnetic flow meter operates based on the principle that any conductor that passes through the fixed magnetic field
will generate an voltage directly proportional to the rate of the conductor's movement through the field.
- The meter must always run full. It can be installed in any orientation but must be sized for a minimum velocity of 1.5 to
2.4 m/s (5 to 8 ft/sec) for sludges to ensure scouring.
- The system accuracy is usually stated to be 0.5% of meter scale for a velocity range of 0.9 to 9.1 m/s (3 to 30 ft/sec).
Below 0.9 m/s (3 ft/sec), the system accuracy deteriorates to 3% of scale at 0.3 m/s(l ft/sec).
- Magnetic flow tubes in wastewater service should be lined to protect the tube from corrosion and abrasion. Typical
lining materials for wastewater service include polytetrafluorethylene, neoprene, rubber, and polyurethane.
- Grease and solids in the liquid flow frequently foul electrodes. Most magnetic flow meters can be furnished with
ultrasonic cleaning devices. Electrode designs must always provide for convenient removal and replacement for periodic
inspection and cleaning.

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

PUMPING

Hydraulics of Pumping

Terminology:

- Capacity: the flowrate of a pump, l/s or m3/s

- Head: the elevation of a free surface of water above or below a reference datum, m.
i) static suction head (hs): the difference in elevation between the suction level and the centerline of the pump impeller.
ii) static discharge head (hd): the difference in elevation between the discharge level and the centerline of the pump
impeller.
iii) static head (Hstat): hd - hs
iv) friction head (hfd, hfs): the head loss due to the flow of fluid in the piping system (compute w/ Darcy-Weibach eq.)
v) minor head loss (hmd, hms = Kv2/(2g)): the head loss due to the flow of fluid through the fittings and valves.
vi) velocity head = v2/(2g): the kinetic energy contained in the liquid being pumped at any point in the system.
vii) total dynamic head, TDH (Ht): the head against which pump must work when water is being pumping.

Ht = Hstat + hfs + hms + hfd + hmd

(Generally velocity head is considered to be a minor loss, however, in determining the head at any point in the system,
the velocity head must be added to the gage reading.)

Bernoulli eq can be used to determine Ht between suction and discharge nozzle within a pump

Ht = (Pd/ + Vd2/2g + zd) - (Ps/ + Vs2/2g + zs)

P = discharge/suction gage pressure, kN/m2 (lbf/in2)

 = specific weight of water, 9810 kN/m3 (lbf/in3)
V = velocity in discharge/suction nozzle, m/s (ft/s)
g = gravity acceleration, 9.81 m/s2 (32.2 ft/s2)
z = elevation of zero discharge/suction of gage above datum, m (ft)

Pumps

1) kinetic energy pump: centrifugal (radial flow, mixed flow, axial flow)
2) positive displacement pumps: screw pump

* centrifugal pumps: are consisted of impeller and casing

Impeller:
- the rotating element
- convert the velocity into pressure in casing
-
Enter Discharge Specific Characteristics
Speeds

Radial axial (single or double radial 10-80 low Q, high H (for wastewater, sludge)
flow suction)
Mixed axial between radial & 80-200 for untreated wastewater, storm water, H
flow axial < 15-18 m
Axial axial axial > 200 low H, high Q (for wastewater effluent or
flow storm water)

- nonclog impellers (design for wastewater, sludge, and scum): it is common practice to require that pump be able to
discharge a 75 mm (3 in) of solid. e.g. torque flow pumps, recessed impeller pumps, vortex pump.

* Screw Pump
two advantages over centrifugal pumps:
1) it can pump large solids without clogging
2) it operates at a constant speed over a wide range of flows w/ relatively good efficiencies.

17
 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

Size: 0.3 to 3 m in diameter

Capacity: 0.01 to 3.2 m3/s or larger from different manufacturer (Q  depth of the liquid entering the screw)
Angle of inclination: 30 (higher Q but more space) or 38
Total head: limit to a lift of 9 m (imposed by the structural requirements of the screw)
Speed: 30-50 RPM (by gear reducer)
Efficiency: 85% (at Qmax.) to 65% (at 25% Qmax.)
Application:
1) low-lift pumping of untreated wastewater
2) storm-water pumping
3) return-sludge pumping
4) effluent pumping

Pump Head-Capacity Curve and System Head-Capacity Curve

pump characteristic curves = pump head-capacity curve (at given speed) + power input + efficiency
(offered by manufacturer)

System Head-Capacity Curve: plot the Ht vs. various flowrate in a given piping system.

pump operation point = the intersection of pump head-capacity curve and system head-capacity curve

bep (best operation point): the radial load on the bearings are at a min. (the unbalanced radial load on the impeller is at a min.)
pump operation range = 60% ~ 120% bep

Multi-Pump Operation
- parallel operation: increase the Q
- series operation: increase the H

step 1: develop the modified pump head-capacity curve (due to the pump's fitting)
step 2: for parallel operation: Q = QA + QB
for series operation: H = HA + HB

Pump Design

- Specific Speed:
N Q
Ns=
H 3/4
where
Ns =Specific Speed
N = real speed of pump, RPM (for 60 Hz, 6 poles: 1160 RPM, 4 poles: 1750 RPM); lower speed is preferred for pumping
gritty wastewater.

Synchronous N = (120 x frequency) / no. of poles

Induction N = Synchronous N x 0.98~0.97

Q = real pumping capacity (flowrate), m3/min (1/2 for double suction)

H = total pumping head, m

- pump sizing
D = 146 (Q/V)1/2
where
D = suction size of pump, mm
Q = capacity, m3/min
V = velocity on suction end, m/s (Design values:1.5 to 3.0 m/s)

- Affinity Laws: For variable speed motor: (when N'/N = 0.8 to 1.2)

Q' = Q(N'/N)
H' = H(N'/N)2
Ps' = Ps(N'/N)3

18
 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

where
Q = pumping capacity at regular speed N, m3/min
H = total pumping head at regular speed N, m
Ps = shaft power at regular speed N, kW

- Seal water (lubrication for packing): 35 to 70 kN/m2 (5 to 10 psi) above the pump discharge pressure. For low head pump:
use grease for lubrication.

- Power Requirement:
0.163rQH
Ps =

where
Ps = shaft power of pump, kW (1 Hp = 0.764 kW)
Q = capacity, m3/min
H = total pumping head, m
r = density of fluid, (kg/L) (for wastewater  1 kg/L)
 = efficiency of pump, decimal

Pump efficiency ranged form 60 to 85%.

power loss =f(volumetric, mechanical, and hydraulic loss)
volumetric loss: due to small clearances between pump casing and impeller
mechanical loss: friction in the stuffing boxes and bearings
hydraulic loss: friction and eddy losses within the flow passages
P (1 +  )
P= s
t
where
P = power of motor, kW
 = safety factor (small H variation: 0.15 to high H variation: 0.35)
t = efficiency of transmission, decimal (direct = 1; belt = 0.95)

- Estimate the : (available from manufactures)

pump output Q H t
E p= = (SI units)
Pi Pi
pump output Q H t
E p= = (U.S. customary Unit)
bhp bhpx550
where
Ep = pump efficiency
Pi = power input, kW, kNm/s
 = specific weight of water, 9810 kN/m3 (lbf/in3)
Q = capacity, m3/s (ft3/s)
bhp = break horsepower
550 = conversion factor for horsepower to ftlbf/s

Cavitation

generated when pump operate at

- high speed
- a capacity greater than bep
- absolute pressure of inlet drops below the vapor pressure of the fluid being pumped

Reasons:
Vapor bubbles form at the inlet, and carried into a zone of high pressure, they collapse abruptly and the surrounding fluid
rushes to fill the void with such force that a hammering action occurred.

Results:
- reduce pump capacity
- reduce pump efficiency
- damage the pump

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

Preventions: NPSHA > NPSHR

NPSHA: net positive suction heads (m) available in the system at the eye of the impeller. (= total absolute suction head)

NPSHA = hs - hfs - hms - (V2s/2g) + Patm/ - Pvapor/= Hs + Patm/ - Pvapor/

where
Hs = hs - hfs - hms - (V2s/2g)
Patm = atmospheric pressure, N/m2
Pvapor = absolute vapor pressure, N/m2
 = specific weight of water, N/m3

NPSHR: net positive suction heads required at the pump to prevent cavitation.
- available from pump test: constant speed, rated capacity, variable suction head  observe the drop of efficiency when
reduce the head

- (Thoma's) cavitation constant:

At bep  = NPSHR/Ht = constant

KN 4/3
= s
6
10
where
K = 1210 (in SI units);
K = 6.3 (in US customary units)

Other than bep

NPSH R at operation point Q at operation point b
=( )
HPSH R at bep Q at bep
exponent b
b = 1.25 to 3.0 (depend on the design of impeller)
b = 1.8 to 2.8 for wastewater pump

Pumping Station

* Layout: Influent sewer (low head)  grit chamber  Screen (comminutor)  Wet well  pump (high head) 
Force mains  point of design
* Types:
1) conventional pumping station: capacity from 0.02 m3/s to more than 0.65 m3/s.
2) Factory-assembled pumping station: capacity up to 0.3 m3/s.

* Pumping Station Construction

- RC structure
- wet well: used to store the wastewater; exterior wall should coated with tar to prevent leakage
- dry well: used to house the pumps; the floor should have a min. pitch of 10 mm/m and slope to a gutter than a sump.

* Sizing of grit chamber:

- min. two tanks
- bottom slope 0.5%-1%
- avg. flow velocity = 0.3 m/s
- detention time = 30-60 sec
- grit mass = 0.005-0.05 m3/1000m3 sewerage

* Sizing of bar screen: parallel bars that is used to remove large objects. The spacing of the bars depend on the degree of
protection required.

- mechanical cleaning: at pumping station

- hand-cleaned bar racks: used in emergency by-pass channels
hand-cleaned bar mechanical
racks cleaning
Bar width, mm 5-15 5-15
Bar depth, mm 25-75 25-75
Bar spacing, mm 25-50 15-75

20
 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

Slope 30-45 0-30

Passing velocity, 0.3-0.6 0.6-1.0
m/s
Max. head loss, 150 150
mm

* Sizing of wet well:

- If constant speed operation is selected, the volume must be adequate to prevent the short cycling of the pumps; i.e.
frequent starting and stopping
Motor Size, kW < 15 15-75 75-200
Motor Size, hp < 20 20-100 100-250
Time between starts, 10 (recom.15 > 15 > 20-30
min min)

i) The volume of the wet well between start and stop elevation for a single pump or a single-speed control step for
multiple-speed operation is

V = q/4
where
V = required capacity, m3
 = minimum time of one pump pumping cycle, min
q = pump capacity, m3/min, or increment in pumping capacity where one pump is already operating and a second pump
is started, or where pump speed is increased.

ii) maximum retention time of 10 min (if conflict with (i)  use multiple pumps or multiple speed pumps)

- If variable speed operation is selected, the volume is smaller, the storage time can be less than 1 min (allow adequate
time for pump to change capacity)
- provide sufficient submergence of the pump suction inlet to prevent vortexing ( cavitation)
- all equipment and electrical work in the wet well must be explosive-proof (since the sewer gas may be volatile and
flammable)
- divide wet well into two or more sections for maintenance (controled by sluice gates or slide gates)
- bottom should sloped upward to the opposite wall (at least 1:1) to prevent silting and dead-spot

Design of sludge pumping:

- Grease has a tendency to coat the inside of piping used for transporting primary sludge and scum. Grease accumulation
is more of a problem in large plants than in small ones. The coating results in a decrease in the effective diameter and a
large increase in pumping head. For this reason, low-capacity positive-displacement pumps are designed for heads
greatly in excess of the theoretical head. Centrifugal pumps, with their larger capacity, are used to pump a more dilute
sludge, often containing some wastewater. Buildup of head due to grease accumulations appears to occur more slowly in
systems where more dilute sludges are pumped. In some plants, provisions have been made for melting the grease by
circulating hot water, steam, or digester supernatant through the main sludge lines.
- Sludges sometimes exhibit characteristics of thixotropy. In thixotropic behavior, flow resistance depends on the time at
rest, so high pressure is needed to start the fluid moving after it has been at rest. It is good practice to assume that
thixotropy may occur and, hence, raise the friction loss in suction piping. Suction piping should therefore be as short as
practical. After passing through a pump, thixotropic effects are unlikely to be important, except when restarting a
pipeline that has been shut down while full of concentrated sludge.
- Three types of pumps are commonly used for sludge transport: positive-displacement piston, positive-displacement
rotary, and centrifugal.
a) Piston pumps: used to transport sludges with high solids concentration. Piping distances over 120 m are
possible for dewatered sludges;
b) Rotary pumps: used in situations where a uniform, pulsation-free flow of sludge is required;
c) Centrifugal pumps: these pumps are generally used to transfer primary, return activated, and waste activated
sludges.
- For all sludge-pumping equipment, any external carbon steel material should be protected with an epoxy coating system.
All pump hardware should be stainless steel.
- Characteristics of sludge pumping:
a) At lower velocities, sludge friction decreases only slowly as velocity drops. With water, however, friction drops
sharply as velocity drops. Hence, the sludge/water head loss ratio increases as velocity decreases.

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

b) Above a critical velocity, sludge flows more like water and friction varies as velocity to an exponent of about 1.85.
Figure 19-4 includes a factor of 1.5 in this region. Headless also varies with solids content, especially at the lower
velocities.
c) Even if NPSHA appears to be adequate, long suction pipelines should not be allowed be cause of possible thixotropy.
d) Figures 19-4 and 19-5 are inadequate for highly accurate results. Accuracy is especially important when the pumped
distance is large or when significant variations in sludge are expected. A strongly suggested guideline is to conduct
a specific testing program whenever:
(1) the pipeline is more than 1.6 km long,
(2) the sludge is expected to be at or over 7% solids,
(3) a fluctuation in fluid characteristics of the sludge is likely to occur, or
(4) calculations based on Figure 19-4 indicate a friction head greater than 15 m.
- Simplified hydraulic design of sludge pumping:
a) Choose velocity and percent solids,
b) Calculate head loss for water for a selected pipe roughness (H-W C=140), and
c) Multiply the head loss by a selected sludge factor from Figure 19-4 (worst case) or Figure 19-5 (routine design).
d) Minor loss coefficients may be taken as roughly the same for sludge as for water.
e) Minimize the pumping distances (<1.6 km);
f) Sludge pipe  150 mm is preferable, never less than 100 mm;
g) Some sludges may exceed the "design worst-case" curves of Figure 19-4. For undigested activated sludge, primary
and secondary sludges that contain aluminum or iron salts the design worst-case should be raised by a factor of 1.5
(50%).

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION

- Money spent on primary treatment often provides the greatest return on the investment in terms of dollars per kg of
pollutant removed. For instance, primary treatment with anaerobic sludge stabilization may be more economical than
incremental capacities of downstream processes necessary to handle the increased load resulting from the omission of
primary treatment.

- Normal performance of primary settling tank:

o BOD5 removal rate: 25%-40%
o SS removal rate: 50%-70%
o Underflow rate: about 0.144% of influent (or calculated by mass balance)

Gravity sedimentation theory

- In discrete particle settling, the settling velocity of a particle is a function only of the fluid properties of the wastewater
and the characteristics of the solid particles. The terminal settling velocity of a discrete particle is represented by Stokes'
law:
gd 2
Vs  s  f
18
where Vs = terminal settling velocity, m/s; d = spherical particle diameter, m;
g = gravity acceleration, 9.8 m/s2; s = particle density, kg/m3;
f = water density, kg/m3;  = absolute dynamic viscosity of water, kg/m3

- Effluent discharges over a weir in the outlet zone. Camp determined the removal efficiency of discrete particles to be a
function of only the overflow rate. The overflow rate of the sedimentation basin can be expressed by the following
equation:
V0 = Q/A
where V0 = ideal basin overflow rate, m/s; Q = flow to sedimentation basin, m3/s
2
A = surface area of sedimentation basin, m
The overflow rate represents the minimum settling velocity necessary for sedimentation. Hence, all particles with a
terminal settling velocity (Vs) equal to or greater than the overflow rate (V0) will settle in the basin; only the fraction
(Vs/V0) of the particles with a velocity less than the overflow rate will settle in the basin.

- A settling column tests can be used for determining discrete particle removal efficiencies. In reality, the actual settling
performance cannot be adequately predicted because of the unrealistic assumptions regarding discrete particle settling.
o particle interaction (flocculation) and currents in the settling zone.
o Suspended solids in wastewater are not discrete particles and vary in size and other characteristics.
o Under quiescent settling conditions, large and heavy particles settle faster than small and light particles. As
these two types of particles pass each other and make contact, they agglomerate and grow in size in a
process known as flocculation.
o The flocculation process increases removal efficiency but cannot be adequately represented by equations.

Types of Sedimentation Tanks

- Rectangular, circular, square, and stacked are four types of sedimentation tanks.
- The selection of the type of sedimentation tank for a given application can be governed by the size of the plant, local
regulatory authorities, local site conditions, the experience and judgment of the design engineer, and the economics
involved.
- Rectangular and circular sedimentation tanks are commonly used for wastewater treatment.

1) Rectangular sedimentation tanks

- Typically, these tanks range from 15 to 90 m in length and 3 to 24 m in width.
- Depths typically should exceed 2 m.
- Large rectangular tanks seem to achieve better removal efficiencies than do comparably sized circular tanks, especially
if diameters exceed 38 m.
- Rectangular tanks with common-wall construction are advantageous for sites with space constraints.

2) Circular sedimentation tanks

- Diameters of these tanks vary from small, 3 m to over 90 m.
- Depths typically range between 2.4 and 4.0 m.
- Circular sedimentation tanks can use relatively trouble-free circular sludge removal equipment (drive bearings are not
under water).

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

- Walls of circular tanks act as tension rings, which permit thinner walls than those for rectangular tanks. As a result of
such advantages, circular tanks have a lower capital cost per unit surface area than that for rectangular tanks.
- For small facilities, circular tanks generally require more yard piping than rectangular tanks do.
3) Square Sedimentation Tanks.
- Square tanks are rarely used. Square sedimentation tanks are hydraulically similar to circular sedimentation tanks.
Because square tanks typically have the same sludge equipment as that of circular tanks, sludge removal from the
corners can cause problems.
- Square tanks may use common wall construction but require thicker walls than circular units.

4) Stacked Sedimentation Tanks.

- In areas where land for treatment facilities is not available or is extremely expensive, stacked sedimentation tanks (tray
clarifiers) can be used.
- Use of stacked sedimentation tanks for both primary and secondary facilities has resulted in plant area requirements
ranging from 0.13 to 0.5 m2 /m3d.
- Series flow and parallel flow are two types of stacked sedimentation tanks.
o In the series flow unit:
 wastewater enters the lower tray, flows to the opposite end, reverses direction in the upper tray,
and exits the effluent channel.
 Baffles straighten the flow paths and minimize turbulence at the influent point in the lower tray
and at the turnaround on the top tray.
o In the parallel flow unit:
 pipes convey wastewater from the influent channel to both the upper and lower trays.
 Influent baffles on each tray straighten the flow path and minimize turbulence.
 Effluent is removed from both trays by longitudinal launders along the top tray. The parallel tray
unit is the most common stacked configuration that has been used to date for primary
sedimentation.
- Chain and flight collectors are used for sludge collection and removal from stacked tanks. Scum is removed only from
the top tank. The inlet and outlet design is considered a weakness of stacked tanks because the wastewater flow patterns
might possibly intersect with those of sludge.
- The lower trays of stacked sedimentation tanks are confined spaces subject to confined space entry requirements.
- The underlying position of the lower tray makes its maintenance and operational observation particularly difficult.
- Treatment plants range in size from 95000 to 380000 CMD.
- Average overflow rates between 18 and 43 m3 /m2d.
- Weir loading rates between 84 and 174 m3 /md.

Design Considerations
- Sedimentation basin design has relied on empirically derived criteria such as basin overflow rate, depth, surface
geometry, hydraulic detention time, and weir rate.
- The effect of anticipated frequency and duration of extreme conditions (high and low flows) on sedimentation tank
performance should be evaluated during design. Sedimentation tanks sized at average flow conditions should be checked
at extreme flow conditions. Such as peak storm flows with recycle flows - from mass balance, and tanks out of service
to verify that operating parameters are acceptable.
- Recycle and WAS flows should be considered in sizing primary sedimentation tanks.
- Combined sewer systems are subject to wider flow variations than are separate sanitary systems.
- The ratio of peak dry weather flow to average flow is typically 1.5:1 to 3:1 or more. (Peak to low flow ratios may be 5:1
to 10:1 in extreme cases).
- The design of primary sedimentation tanks should be flexible enough to allow successful operation during low flow
start-up conditions.
- Recycled waste activated sludge or trickling filter underflow may cause surges in flow. These surges should be avoided
if possible or returned to the plant influent stream during low flow periods.
- Variable speed or multiple constant speed, are normally designed to provide a smooth gradual transition of flow to
primary sedimentation tanks.
- Depth: The opportunity for contact between particles and flocculation in-creases with depth. Hence, theoretically, the
removal efficiency should in-crease with depth.
o In actual practice, sedimentation tanks must be deep enough to accommodate mechanical sludge removal
equipment, store settled solids, prevent scour and re-suspension of settled solids, and avoid washout or
carry-over of solids with the effluent.
o Shallower depths may be acceptable with continuous sludge removal.
o Excessive depth is to be avoided if the solids detention time could cause anaerobic conditions
- Hydraulic Detention Time: Sufficient time for contact between solids particles is necessary for flocculation and effective
sedimentation. Design considerations should include:
o Effects of low flow periods to ensure that longer detention times will not cause septic conditions.

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

o Detention times of more than 1.5 hours without continuous sludge withdrawal may result in
resolubilization of organic matter.
- Weir Rate: Weir rates have little effect on the performance of primary sedimentation tanks, especially with sidewall
depths in excess of 3.7 m.
- Linear Flow-through Velocity: In practice, the linear flow-through velocity (scour velocity) has been limited to 1.2 to
1.5 m/min to avoid re-suspension of settled solids.
- Surface Geometry: To minimize scouring of settled solids, surface geometry is another design variable that has been
used in attempting to control scouring of solids from high linear flow-through velocities or wind. Although the length to
width ratio of rectangular tanks has historically been used as such a design tool, it is not considered to be reliable.
Common length-to-width ratios employed for design range from 3:1 to 5:1.

Design Criteria of Primary Sedimentation Tanks

Summary of overflow rates and side water depths recommended:

Metcalf and Eddy, Inc.

- For primary settling followed by secondary treatment--32 to 48 m3/m2·d at average flow, 80 to120 m3/m2·d at peak flow.
- For primary settling with waste activated sludge--24 to 32 m3/m2·d at average flow, 48 to 70 m3/m2·d at peak flow.
- Recommended side water depth:
a) 3 to 5 m for rectangular clarifiers, 3.6 m typical.
b) 3 to 5 m for circular clarifiers, 4.5 m typical.

Naval Facilities Design Manua1

- 49 m3/m2·d at max 24-hour flow with all units in service.
- 81 m3/m2·d at peak flow with all units in service.
- 163 m3/m2·d at peak flow with one unit out of service.
- Side water depth = 3 m.

Ten State Standards

- 41m3/m2·d at average design flow, minimum side water depth = 2.1 m.
- 61 m3/m2·d at peak hourly flow, minimum side water depth = 2.1 m.
- Area used is the larger of the two areas calculated using the criteria above.
- For intermediate tanks following fixed film processes: 61 m3/m2·d at peak hourly flow, minimum side water depth = 2.1
m.

EPA Process Design Manual “Suspended Solids Removal”

- For primary settling followed by secondary treatment:
a) 33 to 49 m3/m2·d at average flow,
b) 81 to122 m3/m2·d at peak flow
c) side water depth = 3 to 4 m.
- For primary settling with waste sludge:
a) 24 to 33 m3/m2·d at average flow,
b) 49 to 61 m3/m2·d at peak flow,
c) side water depth = 4 to 5 m.

U.S. Army
- Allowable overflow rate depends on plant design flow. Varies from 12 m3/m2·d for design flow not exceeding 38 m3/d to
41 m3/m2·d for design flow above 37850 m3/d.
- Side water depth is dependent on clarifier dimensions, between 2.5 and 4.5 m.

Steel and McGhee

- 24 to 60 m3/m2·d,
- side water depth = 1 to 5 m.

Guidelines for the Design of Wastewater Treatment Works

- Depth: The liquid depth of mechanically cleaned settling tanks shall be as shallow as practical, but not less than 2.1 m.
- Where activated sludge is returned to the settling tanks, the liquid depth of the tank shall not be less than 2.4 m.

Summary of hydraulic detention times recommended:

Metcalf and Eddy, Inc

- Primary settling followed by secondary treatment: range 1.5 to 2.5 hours, 2.0 hours typical.
- Primary settling receiving waste activated sludge: range 1.5 to 2.5 hours, 2.0 hours typical.

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

Steel and McGhee

- 1 to 2 hours based on peak flow.

Fair et al.
- Minimum detention period of 2.0 hours in 3-m side water depth.

Sunstrom and Klei

- 1 to 4 hours.

U.S. Army
- 2.5 hours except where clarifier precedes an activated sludge system.
- 1.5 hours where clarifier precedes an activated sludge system.
- Selection of optimum detention time depends on side water depth and overflow rate.

Summary of weir loading rates recommended:

Metcalf and Eddy, Inc.

- Primary settling followed by activated sludge:125 to 500 m3/m·d at average flow, 250 m3/m·d typical.
- Primary settling receiving waste activated sludge:125 to 500 m3/m·d at average flow, 250 m3/m·d typical.

Ten States Standards

- Not to exceed 124 m3/m·d for plant flow of 3785 m3/d or less,
- Higher loadings may be used for higher flows but should not exceed 186 m3/m·d.
- If pumping is required, weir loadings should be related to pump delivery rates to avoid short-circuiting.

Naval Facilities Design Manual

- For primary clarification:1240 m3/m·d at maximum 24-hour flow.
- For intermediate clarification--372 m3/m·d at maximum 24-hour flow.

U.S. Army
- Not to exceed 63 m3/m·d designed for plants designed for less than 379 m3/d.
- Not to exceed 126 m3/m·d for plants designed for between 379 and 3785 m3/d.
- Weir loadings for plants designed for in excess of 3785 m3/d may be higher, but must not exceed 149 m3/m·d.

Inlet Conditions
- Inlets should be designed to dissipate the inlet port velocity, distribute flow and solids equally across the cross-sectional
area of the tank, and prevent short circuiting in the settling tank.
- Concentration and density differences between the influent and the tank contents significantly affect the hydraulic
performance of the tank. Inertial currents and wind direction may also impact the hydraulic performance.
- Horizontal velocity variations across the width of rectangular tanks can adversely affect sedimentation efficiency.
- Vertical variations are thought to have little effect on sedimentation if scour is avoided.
- The minimum distance between the inlet and outlet should be 3 m (10 ft) unless the tank includes special provisions to
prevent short circuiting.
- Inlet channel velocities should be high enough to prevent solids deposition. The inlet channel design typically allows a
minimum velocity of 0.3 m/s at 50% of design flow. Other alternatives to high inlet velocities for prevention of solids
deposition are inlet channel aeration or water jet nozzles.
- Velocities are typically dissipated through some type of inlet baffle. Baffles are usually installed 0.6 to 0.9 m ahead of
the inlets and submerged 46 to 61 cm, depending on tank depth. The top of the baffle should be far enough below the
water surface to allow scum to pass over the top.
- Influent flow can be distributed by:
o Inlet weirs
o Submerged ports or orifices with velocities between 3 and 9 m/min, and
o Gate valves and perforated baffles.
- The flow pattern in a circular sedimentation tank: The flow pattern can be center-feed with center-withdrawal, center-
feed with peripheral-withdrawal, peripheral-feed with center-withdrawal, or peripheral-feed with peripheral-withdrawal.
Center-feed with peripheral-withdrawal is the most common type of flow pattern.
- Circular sedimentation tanks typically have a feedwell with a diameter 15 to 20% of the tank diameter, the feedwell has
typically been extended at least half of the tank depth.
- For center-feed circular sedimentation tank, the flow velocity within the inlet baffle should be limited below 0.045 m/s
at Qpeak.

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

Outlet Conditions
- Effluent should be uniformly withdrawn to prevent localized, high-velocity gradients and short circuiting.
- Typically, effluent is withdrawn from a sedimentation tank by an overflow weir into a launder or effluent channel.
- Weirs may be either straight edged or V-notched. V-notched weirs provide better lateral distribution of outlet flows than
straight-edged weirs that are imperfectly leveled.
- Submerged launders have also been used for effluent withdrawal. Collection pipes or launders with submerged orifices
are two types of submerged launders. Orifices should be sized for uniform flow distribution. Compared with overflow
weirs, submerged launders offer some advantages.
o The submerged launders avoid free fall of wastewater with the consequent release of entrained odorous
gases and allow surface skimming at the end of the tank.
o A disadvantage of submerged launders is that orifices sized for uniform flow distribution at average flows
will not be effective at peak flows. Thus, a separate modulating flow control device or primary effluent
pumps are required with submerged launders. These devices should be located and sized properly for
effective scum removal.

Weather Conditions
- Weather conditions can affect the performance of sedimentation tanks and must be considered in their design.
- Wind shelter is especially needed for circular sedimentation tanks to avoid nonuniform withdrawal rates and short
circuiting caused by wind created turbulence.
- Wind may cause the water surface on the leeward side to be higher than on the windward side. This may lead to
unbalanced weir rates, especially for large circular sedimentation tanks. Surface skimmers should be oriented so that
prevailing winds will push scum towards the collector. Design considerations for wind mitigation include orientation of
tanks, installation of windbreaks or covers, increase of tank freeboard, and reduction of circular tank diameters to 37 m
or less.

Sludge Collection and Removal

Sludge Collection
- Settled sludge is generally scraped into a hopper where it is removed by gravity or pumping. The sludge hopper for
rectangular tank is usually located at the inlet end of the tank to minimize the travel time of sludge particles to the
hopper. For circular tanks, the hopper is usually located in the center of the tank.
- The hopper, up to 3 m deep, generally has steep sides with a minimum slope of 1.7:1. Hopper wall surfaces should be
smooth with rounded corners to avoid any solids buildup. In practice, the hopper bottom has a maximum dimension of
0.6 m. Sedimentation tanks with steep sides and widths over 3 m often need more than one hopper to reduce its depth.
- Common sludge withdrawal pipes from two or more hoppers often remove sludge unequally from the hoppers.
Therefore, multiple tanks and hoppers need separate pipes and pumps or valves on each outlet.
- If sludge is not adequately removed from sedimentation tanks:
o It will contribute to septic conditions,
o Increased the fraction of soluble BOD5 in the raw wastewater, and
o Decreased the BOD5 removal efficiencies

1) Rectangular tanks
- Sludge collection equipment for generally includes chain and flights, or traveling bridge. Traveling bridges are generally
easier to maintain than chain and flight collection equipment. Traveling bridge collectors cannot be used if covers are
required on primary sedimentation tanks.
- Designers now select almost exclusively nonmetallic (plastic) chains and fiberglass flights. Chain and flights for a pair
of tanks usually move about 0.6 m/min, driven by a single-drive unit located on the wall between the two tanks.
- A traveling bridge consists of a sludge scraper blade mechanism mounted on a bridge or carriage that travels
approximately 1.8 m/min toward the sludge hopper on tracks or rails mounted on top of the tank. As it travels away
from the sludge hopper at approximately 3.7 m/min, the mechanism, largely out of the water, acts as a skimmer, pushing
floating material toward the scum removal mechanism. As it reaches the end of the tank, the mechanism drops to the
floor of the tank, reverses direction, and travels toward the hopper end of the tank, pushing settled sludge to a hopper.

2) Circular tanks
- Circular primary sedimentation tanks typically have plow-type sludge collection equipment, which consists of scrapers
that drag the tank floor at a tip speed of approximately 1.8 to 3.7 m/min.
- Plows are located at an angle to the radial axis to force sludge towards the hopper, normally at the center of the tank, as
the device rotates. The center hopper is normally a vertical-sided sump where the sludge is removed by pumping.
- The rotating element of the device can be driven from either the center or the outside tank wall. Torque must be
sufficient to move the densest sludge expected.
- The suction-type sludge collector should not be used for primary sedimentation because of the high sludge density and
the risk of clogging the suction arm orifices with items such as rags.

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

Sludge Quantity and Property

- Primary sludge production can be estimated from the following equation:

Q  TSS  E
SM 
1000
where SM = mass of sludge, kg/d; Q = primary influent flow, m3/d
TSS = primary influent total suspended solids, mg/L; E = removal efficiency, fraction

- TSS removal efficiencies in primary sedimentation tanks usually range between 50 and 65%. Many designers assume a
removal efficiency of 60% for estimating purposes.
- Enhanced primary sedimentation with chemical coagulation can increase primary sludge mass by 50 to 100%. Chemical
sludge quantities can be estimated by the stoichiometric relationship between raw wastewater and coagulants. The
stoichiometric quantity should be increased by approximately 35% for aluminum and iron salts to account for increased
BOD5.

Sludge Thickening
- Primary sludge is thickened in primary sedimentation tanks, sludge stabilization facilities, or separate thickening units.
- Primary sedimentation tanks can be operated to produce a thickened sludge of 6% solids or more by allowing a blanket
of solids to build up and compact the sludge. Typical solids concentrations for primary sedimentation sludge range from
4 to 12%. Higher concentrations can be achieved but often cause problems in the conveyance system.
- Sedimentation tanks are sometimes operated with continuous withdrawal of dilute primary sludge to minimize
thickening, maximize removal, and prevent anaerobic decomposition of settled sludge.
- Anaerobic or septic conditions will result in the resolubilization of BOD5. Removal efficiencies for raw wastewater with
a large fraction of soluble BOD5 will be considerably lower than those for the same wastewater with a smaller fraction
of soluble BOD5.
- Solubilization and septicity are especially troublesome in hot climates such as in HK and where collection systems have
long detention times.
- In general, thickening of sludge should not be attempted with overflow rates greater than 100 m3/m2d. Such rates call
for separate thickener facilities.

Sludge Transport and Handling

- The sludge drawoff system should be designed with the capacity to allow either continuous withdrawal or intermittent
withdrawal at a rate that will control the sludge blanket depth.
- If primary sedimentation tanks are to be operated to achieve additional primary sludge thickening, drawoff piping and
pumps must be designed to handle the more concentrated sludge.
- Sludge withdrawal lines should be at least 100 mm in diameter. As the sludge solids content increases to more than 6%,
risk of plugging increases due to the increased viscosity of the thickened sludge and its tendency to clog the piping.
- The shortest and straightest possible lengths of suction piping should be provided along with access to the suction piping
for rodding, pigging, or flushing to clear obstructions.
- A sight glass or sludge density meter is necessary on the suction side of the primary sludge pump. The primary sludge
line should include a sampling port and flowmeter. Primary sludge pumps should be positioned to maintain a net
positive suction head. Where practical, standby pumps should be provided for sludge pumping instead of interconnected
piping that could become clogged.

BIOLOGICAL WASTE TREATMENT

- The purpose of secondary treatment is to remove the soluble organics that escape the primary treatment and to provide
further removal of suspended solids. These removals are typically achieved by using biological treatment processes.
- Secondary treatment may remove more than 85 percent of the BOD5 and SS, however, it does not remove significant
amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals, nonbiodegradable organics, bacteria, and viruses.
- The microorganisms in the presence of oxygen convert the biodegradable organics into carbon dioxide, water, more cell
material, and other inert products.

Suspended Growth Treatment Systems (Activated Sludge)

- The principal types of biological reactors (aeration basins) are plug flow, complete mix, and arbitrary flow.
o In a plug-flow reactor the particles pass through the tank and are discharged in the same sequence in which
they enter. This type of flow is achieved in a long narrow basin.
o In a complete-mix reactor, the entering particles are dispersed immediately throughout the entire basin.
Complete mix flow is achieved in circular or square basins.

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

Arbitrary-flow reactors exhibit partial mixing somewhere between the plug-flow and complete-mix
o
reactors.
- In the past the designs of activated sludge plants were based on empirical parameters developed by experience. Many of
these empirical parameters included organic loading, hydraulic loading, aeration period, etc. Today, however, the design
utilizes empirical as well as rational parameters based on biological kinetic equations. These equations express
biological (sludge) growth and substrate utilization rates in terms of biological kinetic coefficients, F/M ratio, the mean
cell residence time (sludge age), etc.
- Using these equations the design parameters, such as volume of aeration basin, effluent quality, rates of return sludge
and waste sludge, aeration period, and oxygen utilization rates, can be calculated. Many important design relationships
for completely mixed reactors are listed below:

Activated sludge process:

Q (CMD ) BOD5 ( mg / L ) VX
BOD5 ( kg / d )  Q wr 
1000 ( g / kg ) X r c
Q ( CMD ) SS ( mg / L ) Q wa 
V
SS ( kg / d )  c
1000( g / kg )
Yobs Q (CMD )( S 0  S )( mg / L )  
V
Px ( vss ) ( kg / d )  Q
1000 ( g / kg )
Y Q c ( S 0  S ) F/M 
S0
V  X
X (1 k d c )
Y
Yobs 
1 k d c

Y = maximum yield coefficient measured during any finite period of logarithmic growth, and defined as the ratio of the mass
of cells formed to the mass of substrate consumed, mass/mass (0.4 ~ 0.8 gVSS/g BOD5 for domestic wastes)
kd = endogenous decay coefficient, d-1 (0.02 ~ 0.1 d-1 for domestic wastes)
F/M = food-to-microorganism ratio, d-1
 = hydraulic detention time of the aeration tank
V = aeration tank volume, m3
Q = influent wastewater flowrate, m3/d
X = concentration of volatile suspended solids in the aeration tank, mg/L
Px(vss) = net waste activated sludge produced each day, in terms of VSS, kg/d
Yobs = observed yield
c = sludge age, d
Qwa = waste sludge flowrate from the aeration tank, m3/d
Qwr = waste sludge flowrate from the sludge return line, m3/d
Xr = concentration of volatile suspended solids in the return line, mg/L
S0 = influent (settled) BOD5 concentration to the aerator, mg/L
S = effluent (soluble) BOD5 concentration, mg/L

Estimate the concentration of soluble BOD5 (S) in the effluent:

Effluent BOD5 = effluent soluble BOD5 escaping treatment + BOD5 of effluent suspended solids
Assume:
1. Influent volatile suspended solids to reactor are negligible.
2. Effluent standard of BOD5 is 20 mg/L.
3. Ratio of mixed-liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) to mixed-liquor suspended solids (MLSS) is 0.8.
4. Effluent contains 22 mg/L of biological solids, of which 65 percent is biodegradable.
5. The value of the BOD5 can be obtained by multiplying the value of BODL by a factor of 0.68 (corresponds to first order
decay constant K of 0.1 d-1)
6. BODL = 1.42 (mass of cell), i.e. 1.42 kg of oxygen are needed to oxidize 1 kg of biodegradable solid

Determine the BOD5 of the effluent suspended solids

i. Biodegradable portion of effluent biological solids = 0.65(22 mg/L) = 14.3 mg/L
ii. Ultimate BODL of the biodegradable effluent solids = [0.65(22 mg/L)(1.42 mg/mg)] = 20.3 mg/L
iii. BOD5 of effluent suspended solids = 20.3 mg/L (0.68) = 13.8 mg/L

Solve for the effluent soluble BOD5 escaping treatment

20 mg/L = S + 13.8 mg/L
S = 6.2mg/L

- The values of kinetic coefficients such as Y and kd greatly influence the design of the activated sludge process. These
values depend on the characteristics of the wastewater and therefore must be determined for industrial wastes from

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bench or pilot plant studies. (Suggested reference: Adams, Ford, Eckenfelder, "Development of design and operational
criteria for wastewater treatment, CBI Pub. Co. Inc., 1981)

Process Modifications. The major process modifications of activated sludge process are briefly described below:

- Conventional: The influent and returned sludge enter the tank at the head end of the basin and are mixed by the aeration
system.
- Complete mix aeration: The influent and the returned sludge are mixed and applied at several points along the length
and width of the basin. The contents are mixed and the MLSS flows across the tank to the effluent channel. The oxygen
demand and organic loading are uniform along the entire length of the basin.
- Step-feed (Step aeration): The returned sludge is applied at several points in the aeration basin. Generally, the tank is
subdivided into three or more parallel channels with around-the-end baffles and the sludge is applied at separate
channels or steps. The oxygen demand is uniformly distributed.
- Tapered aeration: The tapered aeration system is similar to the conventional activated sludge process. The major
difference is in arrangement of the diffusers. The diffusers are close together at the influent end where more oxygen is
needed. The spacing of diffusers is increased toward the other end of the aeration basin.
- Contact stabilization: The activated sludge is mixed with influent in the contact tank in which the organics are absorbed
by MLSS. The MLSS is settled in the clarifier. The returned sludge is aerated in the reaeration basin to stabilize the
organics. The process requires approximately 50 percent less tank volume.
- Extended aeration: The extended aeration process utilizes large aeration basin where high population of MLSS is
maintained. It is used for small flows from subdivisions, schools, etc. Prefabricated package plants utilize this process
extensively. Oxidation ditch is a variation of extended aeration process. It has channel in shape of a race track. Rotors
are used to supply oxygen and maintain circulation.
- Pure oxygen: Oxygen is diffused into covered aeration tanks. A portion of gas is wasted from the tank to reduce the
concentration of CO2. The process is suitable for high strength wastes where space may be limited. Special equipment
for generation of oxygen is needed.

Design Parameters for Activated-Sludge Processes

Process Sludge age F/M ratio (kg Volumetric MLSS V/Q Qr/Q
modification (d) BOD5 applied Loading, (mg/L) (h)
per day per kg (kgBOD5/m3d)
of MLVSS)
Conventional 5-15 0.2-0.4 0.3-0.6 1,500-3,000 4-8 0.25-0.75
Complete-mix 5-15 0.2-0.6 0.8-1.9 2,500-4,000 3-5 0.25-1.0
Step-feed 5-15 0.2-0.4 0.6-1.0 2,000-3,500 3-5 0.25-0.75
Tapered
aeration 5-15 0.2-0.4 0.3-0.6 1,500-3,000 4-8 0.25-0.5
Contact (1,000~3,000)a (0.5-1.0)a
stabilization 5-15 0.2-0.6 1.0-1.2 (4,000~10,000)b (3-6)b 0.5-1.50
Extended
aeration 20-30 0.05-0.15 0.2-0.4 3,000-6,000 18-36 0.5-1.50
Oxidation
ditch 10-30 0.05-0.30 0.1-0.5 3,000-6,000 8-36 0.75-1.50
High-purity
oxygen 3-10 0.25-1.0 1.6-3.2 2,000-5,000 1-3 0.25-0.5
Kraus process 5-15 0.3-0.8 0.6-1.6 2,000-3,000 4-8 0.5-1.0
High-rate
aeration 5-10 0.4-1.5 1.6-16 4,000-10,000 2-4 1.0-5.0
Sequencing
batch reactor N/A 0.05-0.30 0.1-0.24 1,500-5,000d 12-50 N/A
Deep shaft
reactor NI 0.5-5.0 NI NI 0.5-5 NI
Single-stage 0.10-0.25
nitrification 8-20 (0.02-0.15)C 0.1-0.3 2,000-3,500 6-15 0.50-1.50
Separate stage 0.05-0.20
nitrification 15-100 (0.04-0.15)C 0.05-0.15 2,000-3,500 3-6 0.50-2.00

a. contact unit; b. Solids stabilization unit; C.TKN/MLVSS; d. MLSS varies depending on the portion of the operating cycle.

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Aeration System
Two major types of aeration systems are used in the activated sludge process.
(a) Diffused aeration
- Air is supplied through porous diffusers or through air nozzles near the bottom of the tank. Various components of the
diffused aeration system include (1) diffuser or air nozzles, (2) pipings, and (3) blower or compressor.
- The factors affecting the oxygen transfer are bubble size, diffuser air rate, diffuser placement, and velocity of the
surrounding medium.
- The type of air diffusers include the bubble diffuser, tubular diffuser, and jet diffuser.
- The air piping consists of header pipe, mains, valves, meters, and other fittings that transport compressed air from the
blower to the diffusers. The basic design considerations for piping systems are listed below:
o Piping is sized such that the head losses in the piping system are small in comparison to those in the
diffusers.
o Piping must be of corrosion resistant material (stainless steel, galvanized steel, Fiberglass, plastic, etc.).
o Valves should be provided for flow regulation.
o Piping losses should be calculated for maximum summer temperatures taking into account the theoretical
adiabatic temperature rise during compression.
o Friction loss in the piping is calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach or Hazen-Williams equation.
o With porous diffusers producing fine-to-medium size bubbles, it is important to have swing-lift piping to
permit maintenance without dewatering the tank.
o A detail air piping and blower design example referred to Qasim book.

(b) mechanical aeration

- The mechanical aerators fall into two major groups: surface impeller and submerged turbine aerators.

Aeration Basin
- Aeration basins are generally rectangular tanks constructed of reinforced concrete. Important design factors of aeration
basins are given below:
o The depth of aeration basin is 3-5 m, with 0.3-0.6 m freeboard.
o For spiral flow mixing the width-to-depth ratio is 1.0:1 to 2.2:1. This limits the width of a tank by 3-11 m.
o If the aeration tank volume exceeds 140 m3, two or more units should be provided. Each unit should be
capable of independent operation.
o Common-wall construction should be used for multiple basins.
o Exceptionally long tanks should utilize multiple channels using around-the-end-flow baffles.
o Avoid dead spots by providing baffles and fillets in the corners.
o The foundation should be designed to prevent settlement and prevent flotation when tank is empty.
o The inlet and outlet structures should be designed to permit removal of an individual tank from service for
routine maintenance.
o Suitable arrangement for draining the aeration basin should be made.
o Foam control system should be provided by installing effluent spray nozzle along the length on the
opposite side of the diffuser. Provision for adding antifoaming agent into the spray water is often made.

Sludge Removal System

- The mixed-liquor suspended solids must be settled in a sedimentation basin to produce well-clarified effluent.
- The secondary clarifier in general must perform two functions:
o Provide clarification to produce high-quality effluent and
o Provide thickening of settled solids.
Therefore, sufficient depth must be provided so that the solids are not lost in the effluent and at the same time
there is storage for the settled solids for thickening and maintaining adequate sludge blanket. If sufficient
sludge blanket is not maintained, un-thickened sludge will be returned to the aeration basin.
- The settled sludge is returned from the clarifier to the aeration basin to maintain the desired F/M ratio.
- The return sludge system is designed for a total capacity of 50-150 % of the average flow. Most common operational
range is 20-30 percent.
- The excess sludge is wasted either from the effluent line of the aeration basin or from the return sludge line.
- The waste sludge from the aeration basin is quite thin (0.2-0.6 percent solids). Thickening may be achieved by returning
it into the primary sedimentation basin or by installing the proper thickening device.
- The waste sludge from secondary clarifier is considerably thicker (0.5-1.2 percent solids). The waste activated sludge
may be thickened separately or may be mixed with the primary sludge and the combined sludge may be thickened.
- For activated-sludge systems, suction system for removing settled sludge could be used. One mechanism separates the
sludge collected by the uptake pipes from the heavier solids that are plowed to a sludge hopper. The collected sludge is
returned as activated sludge while the solids scraped from the bottom are wasted.

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- The accumulated microbial floc in a final basin for separating activated sludge may be 0.3 to 0.6 m thick in a well-
operating plant. During peak loading periods, the sludge blanket may expand further to incorporate one third to one half
of the tank volume; this is particularly true in high-rate aeration systems. However, depth of accumulated sludge in a
trickling filter final is normally a few inches if recirculation flow is drawn from the tank bottom. Even if sludge is
drained only twice a day, the blanket of settled solids rarely exceeds 0.3 m.
- Compared to other wastewater sedimentation tanks, activated-sludge clarifiers are deeper to accommodate the greater
depth of settled solids, have a lower overflow rate to reduce carryover of light biological floe, and have longer weir
lengths by the installation of an inboard weir channel to reduce the approach velocity of the effluent.

Design Criteria of Secondary Clarifiers (Final Clarifiers)

Some typical design values used for secondary clarifiers are listed below:
- Overflow rate at average and peak design flows are 15-32 and 40-48 m3/m2d.
- Solids loading at average and peak design flows are 49-144 and 100-220 kg/m2d.
- The tanks can be circular, rectangular, or square. Circular tanks are 10-60 m in diameter (preferably not to exceed 5
times the side water depth). The desirable range of depth in circular and rectangular clarifiers is 3-6 m.
- The weir loading rate ranged from small to large treatment plant are 125 and 250 m3/md at maximum.
- Common criteria for final clarifiers of trickling filter plants are overflow rate not exceeding 33 m3/m2d, minimum side
water depth of 2.1 m.
- Typical overflow rates are 24 m3/m2d for plants smaller than 3785 CMD (1 mgd) and 33 m3/m2d for larger plants.
- During the peak hydraulic flow of the day, the overflow rate should not exceed 48 m3/m2d and 66 m3/m2d for small and
larger plants, respectively.
- The recommended minimum side water depth is 3.1 m with greater depths for larger diameter tanks, for example, 3.3 ft
for 15 m diameter and 3.6 m for 30 m diameter.
- Depending on the values selected for overflow rate and depth, detention time is in the range of 2 to 3 hr.

Fixed-Growth Biological Systems

- Wastewater contacts with microbial that attached to the surfaces of supporting media.
- Where the wastewater is sprayed over a bed of crushed rock, the unit is commonly referred to as a trickling filter (TF).
With the development of synthetic media to replace the use of stone, the term biological tower was introduced, since
these installations are often about 20 ft in depth rather than the traditional 6-ft stone-media filter.
- Another type of fixed-growth system is a rotating biological contactor (RBC), where a series of circular plates on a
common shaft are slowly rotated while partly submerged in wastewater. Microbes attached to the disks extract waste
organics. Although the physical structures differ, the biological process is essentially the same in all of these fixed-
growth systems.
- Domestic wastewater sprinkled over fixed media produces biological slimes that coat the surface. The films consist
primarily of bacteria, protozoa, and fungi that feed on waste organics. Sludge worms, fly larvae, rotifers, and other biota
are also found, and during warm weather sunlight promotes algal growth on the surface of a filter bed.
- As the wastewater flows over the slime layer, organic matter and dissolved oxygen are extracted, and metabolic end
products such as carbon dioxide are released. Dissolved oxygen in the liquid is replenished by absorption from the air in
the voids surrounding the filter media. Although very thin, the biological layer is anaerobic at the bottom. Therefore,
although biological filtration is commonly referred to as aerobic treatment, it is in fact a facultative system incorporating
both aerobic and anaerobic activity.
- Organisms attached to the media in the upper layer of a bed grow rapidly, feeding on the abundant food supply. As the
wastewater trickles downward, the organic content decreases to the point where microorganisms in the lower zone are in
a state of starvation. Thus, the majority of BOD is extracted in the upper 0.6 or 1 m of a 2-m filter. Excess microbial
growth sloughing off of the media is removed from the filter effluent by a final clarifier. Purging of a bed is necessary to
maintain voids for passage of wastewater and air. Organic overload of a stone-media filter, in combination with
insufficient hydraulic flow, can result in plugging of passages with biological growth causing ponding of wastewater on
the bed, reduced treatment efficiency, and foul odors from anaerobic conditions.

Stone-Media Trickling Filters

- The major components are a rotary distributor, underdrain system, and filter media. Influent wastewater is pumped up a
vertical riser to a rotary distributor for spreading uniformly over the filter surface. Rotary arms are driven by reaction of
the wastewater flowing out of the distributor nozzles. Bed underdrains carry away the effluent and permit circulation of
air.
- The most common media in existing filters are crushed rock, slag, or field stone that are durable, insoluble, and resistant
to spalling. The size range preferred for stone media is 7.5- to 12.5-cm. diameter. Although smaller stone provides
greater surface area for biological growth, the voids tend to plug and limit passage of liquid and air. Bed depths range

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from 1.5 to 2.1 m; greater depths do not materially improve BOD removal efficiency. Stone-media filters in the
treatment of municipal wastewaters are always preceded by primary settling to remove larger suspended solids.

- BOD load on a trickling filter is calculated using the raw BOD in the primary effluent applied to the filter, without regard to any BOD
contribution in the recirculated flow from the final clarifier.
Settled wastewater BOD
BOD loading 
Volume of filter media
where BOD loading = grams of BOD applied per cubic meter per day
Settled wastewater BOD = raw wastewater BOD remaining after primary sedimentation, grams per day
Volume of media = volume of stone in the filters, cubic meters

- Hydraulic loading (or surface loading) is the amount of liquid applied to the filter surface including both untreated
wastewater and recirculation flows. Recirculation ratio is the ratio of recirculated flow to the wastewater entering the
treatment plant.
Q  Qr Q
Hydraulic loading  and R  r
A Q
where Hydraulic loading = cubic meters per square meter per day
Q = raw wastewater flow, cubic meters per day
Qr = recirculation flow, cubic meters per day
A = surface area of filters, square meters
R = recirculation ratio

- Typical Loadings for Trickling Filters with a 1.5-to 2.1-m Depth of Stone or Slag Media

High Rate Two Stage

BOD loading, g/m3d 480 to 1,440 720 to 1,120

Hydraulic loading, m3/m2d 9 to 28 9 to 28

Recirculation ratio 0.5 to 3.0 0.5 to 4.0

- Filter plants return sufficient flow from the final clarifier hopper to the wet well:
o To remove accumulated settled solids.
o To prevent stalling of the distributor arm during low wastewater flow.
o Recirculation of wastewater increases liquid flow through the filter bed to allow greater organic loading
without filling the bed voids with biological growths that would inhibit aeration. Experience has shown
that BOD loadings in excess of about 400 g/m3d require a minimum hydraulic flushing of 9 m3/m2d to
keep a stone-filled bed open.
o BOD removal efficiency is enhanced by passing wastewater through a filter more than once.

- The most popular recirculation patterns are:

o Gravity return of underflow from the final clarifier to the wet well during periods of low wastewater flow.
It is generally limited to a recirculation ratio of about 0.5, since this is adequate to return settled solids for
removal in the primary clarifier and to maintain adequate flow for turning the distributor arm. Yet, by
limiting this return flow, the peak outflow rate of the primary clarifier is not increased.
o Direct recirculation by pumping filter discharge back to the influent. It has the advantage of influencing
neither the primary nor secondary settling tank; the disadvantage is that a separate pumping station is
required.

Two-stage Trickling Filter

- A two-stage trickling filter consists of two filter-clarifier units in series; sometimes the intermediate settling tank is
omitted.
- This type of system is needed to achieve an effluent BQD of 30 mg/l when processing a wastewater that is stronger than
average domestic wastewater. Both filters are normally constructed the same size for economy and optimum operation.
Generally, several options for recirculation are incorporated in design.
- Several mathematical equations have been developed for calculating BOD removal efficiency of biological filters based
on such factors as depth of bed, kind of media, temperature, recirculation, and organic loading. The exactness of these
formulas depends on the filter media having a uniform biological layer, and an evenly distributed hydraulic load. These
conditions rarely occur in stone-media filters that may develop unequal biological growths resulting in short-circuiting
of wastewater through the bed.
- Therefore, general practice has been to use empirical relationships based on operational data collected from existing
treatment plants. One of the most popular formulations evolved from National Research Council (NRC) data that were

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collected from filter plants at military installations in the United States during the early 1940s. The results are
considered applicable to single-stage stone-media trickling filters followed by a final settling tank and treating settled
domestic wastewater with a temperature of 20 C. (see Figure 11-20)
- A second-stage filter is less efficient than the first stage because of the decreased treatability of the waste fraction
applied to the second bed. In other words, the most available biological food is taken out first, passing the organics that
are more difficult to remove through to the second-stage filter. Based on NRC observations, this effect can be
incorporated by increasing the actual load to the second-stage filter. (see Figure 11-21)
- Overall treatment plant efficiency of a two-stage filter system can be calculated by:
 35  E1  E 
E  100  1001  1  1  2 
 100  100  100 
where F = treatment plant efficiency, percent
35 = percentage of BOD removed in primary settling
E1 = BOD efficiency of first-stage filter and intermediate clarifier corrected for temperature, percent
E2 = BOD efficiency of second-stage filter and final clarifier corrected for temperature, percent

- BOD removal in biological filtration is influenced significantly by wastewater temperature. Filters in northern climates
operate at efficiencies about 5 percent or more below the yearly average during winter months. The plot in Figure 11-22
can be used to adjust efficiencies from Figures 11-20 and 11-21 for temperatures above or below 20 C.
- Filter covers may be required in cold climates to achieve the effluent standard of 30 mg/l BOD or less. Positive
ventilation should be provided to maintain passage of air through the bed and to dissipate corrosive gases, hydrogen
sulfide.

Biological Towers
- Several forms of manufactured media are marketed for trickling filters. The advantages, relative to crushed stone:
o The high specific surface (sq m/cu m) with a corresponding high percentage of void volume that permits
substantial biological slime growth without inhibiting passage of air supplying oxygen.
o Uniform media for better liquid distribution, light weight facilitating construction of deeper beds, chemical
resistance, and the ability to handle high-strength wastewaters.
- The two common kinds of plastic media are vertical-sheet packing and random packing.
o Vertical-sheet packing is manufactured of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in modules approximately 0.6 m wide,
1.2 m long, and 0.6 m high. The corrugated sheets are bonded between flat sheets to prevent clear vertical
openings; therefore, the wastewater flowing down through the packing is distributed over the surfaces of
the media. The specific surface varies with the manufacturer from 85 to 140 m2/m3, and the void space is
about 95 percent. The strength of the modules is adequate to support the packing with attached biological
growths in towers of about 6 m in height. The media can be cut to fit in a circular tower equipped with a
rotary distributor, or the modules can be stacked in a rectangular tower and the wastewater sprayed on top
with fixed-nozzle distributors. The underdrain system consists of supporting block with drain troughs
leading to an effluent channel. Wastewater is pumped to the top of the bed and is spread by fixed
distributors. Piping is supported by horizontal beams that rest on vertical columns. The siding may be
corrugated metal, plastic, wood, or block; all of these permit architectural design to enhance the
appearance of a treatment plant.
o The typical random packing is composed of small (7.5 to 10 cm) cylinders with perforated walls and
internal ribs made of plastic placed unarranged in a trickling filter or biological tower. Because of the
random placement, the wastewater can be spread effectively over the surface of the bed in a circular tower
using a rotary distributor. The specific surface of packing is 100 to 130 m2/m3, and the void space is 91 to
94 percent.
- Efficiency equations have been developed for plastic-media filters since the uniformity of the packing can be defined by
the specific surface. Yet, no universal formulas exist that can precisely describe removal of organic matter, partially
because of the different geometric shapes of the media. Packing configuration influences residence time of the liquid in
the bed, which is in turn related to hydraulic loading and filter depth. Furthermore, removal of organic matter depends
directly on its solubility. In theoretical equations, the BOD is the filtered (soluble) BOD, not the total BOD as normally
measured.
- The efficiency equation based on soluble BOD removal by first-order kinetics is
 e  KD / Q
n

E  1  
 (1  R )  Re  KD / Q 
n

 
where F = efficiency, percent
K = reaction-rate constant, per hour
D = depth of packing, meters
Q = hydraulic loading of raw wastewater without recirculation, cubic meters per square meter per hour
n = constant related to the specific surface and configuration of the packing

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R = recirculation ratio
- The reaction-rate constant K is corrected for temperature by the equation
K  K 20 (1.035) T - 20
where K = reaction-rate constant at temperature T in degrees Celsius, per hour
K20 = reaction-rate constant at 20 C, per hour

- The values for n and K are determined by pilot-plant studies treating the wastewater being evaluated in a column filled
with the specific packing. After a biological growth on the media is established, experiments are conducted at several
recirculation rates to find out the influence of hydraulic loading on removal efficiency.
- Normally, wastewater samples are collected and analyzed at various depths in the column, as well as the influent and
effluent. In the case of a typical domestic wastewater, most manufacturers can recommend values for n and K based on
the performance of full-scale installations.

Operational Problems
- Two major problems of stone-media trickling filters are effluent quality and odors; both are associated with organic
loading, industrial wastes, and cold weather operation.
- The average BOD removal efficiency of a single-stage filter plant is about 85 percent. Therefore, to achieve an effluent
BOD of 30 mg/l, the raw wastewater must be essentially a domestic waste with a BOD not greater than 200 mg/I. If a
municipal wastewater contains significant industrial waste contributions, a two-stage filtration system is necessary to
meet the required effluent standards.
- In northern climates, the temperature of wastewater passing through the bed may be considerably lower in the winter
and may adversely influence BOD removal. Covers can be placed over trickling filters to help maintain temperature
during cold weather.
- The microbial zone immediately adjacent to the surface of the media is anaerobic and capable of producing metabolic
end products that have offensive odors. Reduced compounds formed in treating domestic wastewaters, such as hydrogen
sulfide, appear to be oxidized as they move through the aerobic zone with adequate aeration. However, if voids fill with
excess biological growth, foul odors can be emitted during spring and fall when air temperatures reduce natural air
circulation through the bed.
- Industrial wastes, particularly from food-processing industries, have characteristic odors that are not easily oxidized in a
trickling filter, and they can cause problems even when design loadings are not exceeded. Filter covers have been used
in some locations to reduce the spread of nuisance odors, but the installation must be carefully planned. For example,
forced air ventilation with an air scrubbing tower to remove the odors from exhausted air may be required to maintain
adequate air passage through the bed and to prevent a corrosive atmosphere under the dome.
- Biological towers using synthetic media do not appear to be as susceptible to operational difficulties of quality control
and odors as are stone-media beds. This is primarily attributed to improved aeration and hydraulic distribution of the
wastewater. Nevertheless, potential odor problems and the influence of cold weather must be considered in design and
operation of treatment systems that employ biological towers.
- Filter flies, Psychoda, are a nuisance problem near filters during warm weather. They breed in sheltered zones of the
media, and on the inside surfaces of the retaining walls. Although wind can carry these small flies considerable distances,
their greatest irritation is to operating personnel. Periodic spraying of the peripheral area and walls of the filter with an
insecticide is a common method of fly control.

Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)

- A RBC is constructed of bundles of plastic packing attached radially to a shaft, forming a cylinder of media. The shaft is
placed over a contour-bottomed tank so that the media are submerged approximately 40 percent.
- The contactor surfaces are spaced so that during submergence wastewater can enter the voids in the packing. When
rotated out of the tank, the liquid trickles out of the voids between the surfaces and is replaced by air. A fixed-film
biological growth adheres to the media surfaces.
- Excess biomass sloughs from the media and is carried out in the process effluent for gravity separation.
- A RBC treatment system normally consists of primary sedimentation preceding and final sedimentation following the
RBC. Recirculation through RBC units is not normally practiced, underflow from the final clarifier is returned to allow
the removal of excess biological solids in primary sedimentation. Waste sludge, similar in character to that from a
trickling filter plant, is withdrawn from the primary clarifiers for disposal.

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- In large plants, the RBC shafts are placed in a baffled tank perpendicular to the direction of wastewater flow. In small
plants, a common shaft is placed over a contoured tank with the wastewater flow parallel to the shaft. In this
arrangement, the bundles of media are spaced so that baffles can be placed between the stages.
- A series of four stages are normally installed in the treatment of domestic wastewater for BOD reduction; additional
stages may be added to initiate nitrification. Each stage acts as a completely mixed chamber and the movement of the
wastewater through the series of tanks simulates plug flow. Biological solids washed off of the media are transported
hydraulically under the baffles to be carried out with the effluent. RBC units are protected by installation either in a
building with adequate ventilation or under separate plastic covers lined with insulation.
- The efficiency of BOD removal in processing domestic wastewater is based on empirical data from operating RBC
plants. Mathematical equations have been developed, but their prediction of performance is not consistently reliable.
- For a municipal wastewater containing a significant quantity of industrial wastewater, pilot-plant studies are
recommended to determine design parameters. Preferably, the studies should be performed with a full-scale package
plant, nevertheless, smaller RBC units with a diameter of about 2 ft are often used.
- Typical recommendations for secondary treatment of domestic wastewater to produce an effluent of less than 30 mg/l of
BOD and 30 mg/l of suspended solids are:
o an average organic loading based on the total RBC surface of 7.5 g/m2d of soluble BOD, or 15 g/m2d of
total BOD
o a maximum loading on the first stage of 30 g/m2d of soluble BOD, or 60 g/m2d of total BOD
o a temperature correction for additional RBC surface area of 15 percent for each 2.8 C below a design
waste-water temperature of 13 C.

MASS BALANCE IN WWTP

- Sludge-processing facilities, such as thickening, digestion, and dewatering, produce waste streams that must be recycled
to the treatment process or to treatment facilities designed specifically for the purpose. When the flows are recycled to
the treatment process, they should be directed to the head of the plant and blended with the plant flow following
preliminary treatment.
- Equalization facilities can be provided for the recycled flows so that their reinjection into the plant flow will not cause a
shock loading on the subsequent treatment processes.
- The recycled flows impose incremental solids, hydraulic, and organic load on the wastewater treatment facilities that
must be considered in the plant design.

Basis for Preparation of Solid Mass Balances

- Mass balance design is an iterative process.

- Computed on the basis of average flow and average BOD and suspended-solids concentrations.
a) The maximum concentrations will not usually result in a proportional increase in the recycled BOD and
suspended solids, since that the storage capacity in the wastewater and sludge-handling facilities tends to
dampen peak solids loads to the plant.
b) Periods of maximum hydraulic loading typically do not correlate with periods of maximum BOD and
suspended solids. Therefore, coincident maximum hydraulic loadings should not be used in the preparation of a
mass balance for maximum organic loadings.

Performance Data for Sludge-Processing Facilities

TABLE Typical solid concentration and capture values for various solids-processing facilities

Operation Solid Solids capture, %

Concentration, %
Range Typical Range Typical
Gravity thickeners
Primary sludge only 4-10 6 85-92 90
Primary and waste 2-6 4 80-90 85
activated
Flotation thickeners
With chemicals 3-6 4 90-98 95
Without chemicals 3-6 4 80-95 90
Centrifuge thickeners
With chemicals 4-8 5 90-98 95

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 Ed. by Prof. W. Chu

Without chemicals 3-6 4 80-90 85

Vacuum filtration
With chemicals 15-30 20 90-98 95
Belt filter press
With chemicals 15-30 22 85-98 93
Filter press
With chemicals 20-50 36 90-98 95
Centrifuge dewatering
With chemicals 10-35 22 85-98 90
Without chemicals 10-30 18 55-90 80

TABLE Typical BOD and suspended-solids concentrations in the recycle flows from various sludge-processing facilities

Operation BOD, mg/L Suspended solids,

mg/L
Range Typica Range Typic
l al
Gravity thickening
Primary sludge 100-400 250 80-300 200
Primary sludge and waste activated 60-400 300 100-350 250
sludge
Flotation thickening 50-400 250 100-600 300
Centrifuge thickening
Air activated sludge 400-1,200 800 500-1,500 800
Oxygen activated sludge 1,200- 1,400 1,500- 1,600
1,600 2,000
Anaerobic digestion
Standard-rate type 500-1,000 800 1,000- 3,000
5,000
High-rate type 2,000- 4,000 1,000- 6,000
5,000 10,000
Aerobic digestion 200-5,000 500 1,000- 3,400
10,000
Heat treatment, top liquor or filtrate 3,000- 7,000 1,000- 2,000
15,000 5,000
Vacuum filtration
Undigested sludge 500-5,000 1,000 1,000- 2,000
5,000
Digested sludge 500-5,000 2,000 1,000- 4,000
20,000
Centrifugation
Undigested sludge 1,000- 5,000 2,000- 5,000
10,000 10,000
Digested sludge 1,000- 5,000 2,000- 5,000
10,000 15,000
Belt filter press
Undigested sludge 50-500 300 200-2,000 1,000
Digested sludge 50-500 300 200-2,000 1,000

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