9 ---- um .

- - --~---c-, 01 uq uid sho uld--- - ~raaua11 - c,-• •'-'l

- Backlasbg :the_Ol agn eti c fie ld. be y.
reacti ... __
or m the m1 cro sco tak en 2 - 3 mi nu tes aft er
Jo . ~•YJ
'".L ~ - b
pe s ou ld be avoided while
.ag net ic fie f t ... 1.. ·
<:arefun d at the ce ntr e f h - GA.Ing the
Y Wll¼i the he lp of o
~ g J us~ -mrete
e po lc• pie ces sho uld b"'" m
r . · ~.asu red
"" "
Q. . . Q U ES TI O N S FO R VIVA
Oi JJe ,,- ~- -
[
j
Q. ~ ~ ~ -eea d iam qa etl"' a ra .
Q. ~ C ~ ~ tl o •~-. pH ic na.! tib m• gn ~tk s hd ftr rom a1 ne
Aas. A ~ s 1.. _ nta ,pe tj tks .
cc on fin g to C ia
. p IU t), ma1atttc pe rm eab ilit y.
is 1· - s111.
'I d1rect1 . un e law int ens ·ry f
. ·
to the y Pro po nro naJ lo ma'gn eti
o ma gn eti sat ion / of
c ind .
te0 1p era tur e T, i.e . a paramc1gnet1c materia l
2 uct,on 8 and (11) inv ers e ly prv pcm
,,,. ,onal
/ oc B
T
oc H
T
wh ich o-ives ., oc I
~
e· ~ A. - or x= -C
Q \\- a • T T
·· t laappet15 " llen a di 1

fie ld ? ·
· a.m ag ne tic su b stanc e is placed ·.
ia a va ryi ng magnetic
Aa s. lt ten
Q Wlla L.-ds to mo ve from str . o
.
. t ~p pe as w•e■ a pa ra ng er field to we ak er field.
ma g ti · ·
fie ld ? . b . . .
ne c su sta nc-e is .p lac ed ID a "·arying ma gn eti c
A u. ft ten<h to
mo ve uhoom we ak er field to str
Q. ffowv do es th e m ag ne tk on ge r field.
, _ 5 _ tib ili f
als ~ary w1tb tem pe ra tu reus ee p ty o para, d1.a an d fer ro- ma gn
? eti c ma ter i-

Aa s. fo r pa ram ag ne tic ma ter ial

s X a ; where Ti s the absolute
temperature .
Fo r dia ma gn eti c materials x ~
ind ep en de nt of temperature
"
For ,er romagnen-c maten.als X a I
- - - where Tc is Curie tempe
T- Tc ralure and T > T~
•
,. W lty does tlle su sc ep tib ili
ty va ry inversely with tem pe rat ur e for
w• ile it is independent for diama paramagnetics
gnetics?
m - A high temperature tends
to disrupt the allignment of magn
paramagnetics and henc etic moments in
e the magnetisation a'i-td the susce
Diamagnetics, on the other hand ptibility decrease.
, do not have magnetic moments
susceptibility remains ~f fe ct and so their
ed due to the random thermal
molecules at high temperatures motion of the
.
I
 350 B.Sc. Practical Physics

Q. What are the dlmem lom of mapet Jc susceptlbUUy?

Am. It is a dimensionless quantity.
Q. What u the S.I. unit of permeabJJJty?
Am. Weber/ampere-metre or Henry/metre. .
Q. What 1s the underlyfng princJple for measu remen t of susceptlbHJt
y of 8 para-
m.a petlc JJquJd by Qufncke's method?
Q. h Jt necess ary to have a non-unJform magne tic field for measu
remen t or
smceptlbfJJty for UquJd by Qufnc ke's metho d? Why?
Ans. This mr-thod is based on the fact that paramagnetics move in the
direction of
increasing field. If the field is uniform, the liquid would noC rise in the
capillary•
Q. How Is the magne tic susceptJbUity of cUama~netics differ ent
from thal of
para-magnetJcs?
Ans. ·The magnetic sus~eptibility is positive for paramagnetics whereas
it is nega-
tive for diamagnetics.
Q. How Is relative permeabiUty of a magnetic substance related
with it magn etic
susceptJbJJity? · ·
Ans. Relative penneability µ, = .1 + X·
Q. How Js the permeability of a material related with its relatlv~ perme
ability ?

Ans. µ,= .E:._

J1o
whereµ., andµ are respectively the relative permeability and the permeability
of the substance and JJo is the permeability of free space.
Q. What Js die magnetic susceptibility of aJr?

. .
=
Am. Since µ• µ0, the relative permeability of airµ, = µair = 1
µo
:. Xau = ltr - 1 =0
(If we take the accurate values of µau and µ , Xau = - 0.037 x 10-5 but
0 for all
practical purposes, it is taken as zero
Q. WhJdl of the three effects para, dJa and ferro-magnetJsm Is a
universal
phenomenon? ·
Am. Diamagnetism.
Q. What J, t.barelation between the magnetic Jnductlon (B), magnetizat
ion (I) and
tht magnetic fteJd JntensHy (H)?
Am. 1J • llo (H +I).
Q. Wbat JI the relation between the permeability and susceptibil
ity of a
,ubstance?
Au. 1'•~ (1 +X). '
Q. What It die lllleeptfbWty ~ permeability of a perfectly dlamapeti
c
1ub1tance?
Au. For a perfectly diamagnetic substance,
 A .fa gnet ic P ro pe rt
ie s o f So li ds

... I= - H an d so th e su sc I
ep ti bi li ty X = H =- 1
A ls o, th e pe rm ea bi li ty
Q . W h en do es a fe rr
o m ag n et ic su b st an ce
A ns . A bo ve th e C u ri e' b eh av e li k e a p a ra m
s te m pe ra tu re , i. e. , fo r ag n et ic ?
Q . G iv e ex pa es si on T > Tc
fo r th e fo rc e ac ti n g o
u n if o rm m ag n et ic fi el n a m ag n et ic m a te ri
d. a l k e p t in a l'l ltX r-"

A ns . -1 ~ A X H 2 -w he
2 re H is th e m ax im um m
ag n et ic fi el d an dA is th e ar ea o f cr-cs.-~
se ct io n o f th e m ag ne ti
c m at er ia l o f su sc ep ti
Q-: W h at w il l h ap p en to th bi li ty x,.
e le ve l o f li q u id in th e Q
p o le s o f a n el ec tr o m ag u in ck e' s U -t u b e k e p t
n et , if th e li q u id h ap p b e tw e e n th e
A ns . T he le ve l o f li qu en s to b e a d ia m a g n e
id w il l fa ll . ti c ?
 • ur no fi - -, un of B . ,, w · h -• •11..: 1ent va . .... .o on the
H It B du et ,
th e ei ec leJct re ad in ~s na tio n of V .
o the dif fic ult ies a~ s~ th
7. Th e 01 tro rn ag ne
8. 1b ag ne tic fi . w en SW
h
t . ca re sh ou ld b
g
. I is pr efe rre d
•n the ac cu rat e
he e. cu rre nt thi ef ct it h e tak en tha t
,11 , sh ou ld be c <;d off.
n- ea k p . at in g . ro ug f h no rem an en t field exist s in
me
1 t c sa m pl eas ur ed
oi nt s , . ca ref ull y.
n-..,.,.
Tb sh ould not be
• e rneas lar ge cnoun1-.
.... ~n t in th urernent f 61
be tw ee n the ex pe ru ne nt ' to ca us e
o th e fie ld W ith
g a 1va no -r n e 1-IaJ l an
th e H au ag ne tic an Pr ob es d. m ig h t in . a ga us s-m et .
tro du ce
d th er ts the lea st ac
Voltage dP ro be s. In add· ts no t generally thsomc er ro r. Al so the ~urate rnca~
t~rrnoniagnetic ef~ e Ha urc -
by ta ki n ue to tra ns ve rs I to n IR d ll- vo lta ge alone voThta gc
ap Pc
tw o b g fo ur re ad in e th rop du e ,ec to r
ts Whi h
c . ca ~ pr
. ere ar
arin g
h
enna1 gr ad ie nt od uc e vo lta e ot er
. y re ve rs in g~ of VH, tw o b p ob e mi sa lig nm en t an d h
ge
~h~
readmgs Would gl m a~ be present. All be tw ee n
di re ct io n of th ey revers t cr moelectric
ag e. e inunate all the b _mg
the current !: ~ ;a n be
eliminated
m ag ne tic field. Takin
h the
co nd
Exercise• T d a ov e effects an d would
? t e average saofmple and
the four
t · 0
et er m · . give th e co rre ct Ha ll- vo \t-
uc or from the Hall in ·
W e ca n ge t e th e co nd uc tiv ity o and
. a -m ea su re m en ts
Se lll Jc on du ct or from th ro ug h . • th e m ob ili ty µ of a sem
es tim at e of the conductiv i-
F or this, pl ot a e ~a ll- m i
th e vo lta ge V .
line ob ta . gr ap be
ea su re m en ts done in E';
tw ee n the current I
~c ro ss th e le ng th of
. cr
p. . .
3:i
the mobility µ of a

in ed gi ve s the re si st an ce the sam I I through ~he sample al on g x- ax is an d

R of the p e a
ong y-axis. The slope of
IU sample. Then the conductiv the straight
cr = - ity is given by ,
h = - - x ./_
w ere /, w an d t ar e re sp Vwt sl op e w t
fh e mobility µ is obta1·ne ec ti vel th I .
' d fr yt h e eln~th, width and the th
om er e at to n . ·
.
ickness of the sample.
'
a
µ = -= R cr
ne H

I QUESTIONS FOR VIVA

Q . D if fe re nt ~a te be tw ee
n co nd uc to rs , semicondu
Q. G iv e tw o ex am pl es ea ctors and insulators.
ch of (i) conductors, (ii) se
A m . (i) C op pe r, silver, (ii miconductors and (iii) insu
) ge rm an iu m , silicon, (iii) lators.
Q. What is th e di ff er en corbon, diamond.
ce be tw ee n in tr in si c an d
Q. W ha t is th e d_iff er en extrinsic semiconductors?
ce ·between p- ty pe an d n-
Q. How does-·a no n- co nd type semiconductors?
uc tin g cr ys ta l becomes co
nducting when impurities
doped in to it? are
Ans. Son e in1purity atoms . .
1 ~ave extra electrons which m
akes it conductmg. Agam,
 502 B . .Jl',
C" Practical Physics

. t j c have holes which also

some impurity atoms are short o t c 1cc ro 115 · ·• 111akes
the material conducting. G ?
Q. Which impurities are added to make 118nd P type e. •.
. . • d' gallium boron or a 1ummmm are d
Ans. 111e trivalent impunt1es such as rn ium, '. . . a ded
b
tom ak e p-type Ge, w 1 e.1 tile .
p eiltavalent impunt1cs such as arsenic, antirno
G ny,
bismuth or phosphorous is added to make ,Hype e.
Q. How does the conductivity of a semiconductor_ vary wi th te~perature?
Q. Are n-type and p-type semiconductors electrically neutral·
Ans. Yes.
Q. For the same order of doping, which type of semico nd uctor (n or p-type) has
more conductivity and why? . . .
Ans. n-type semiconductors exhibit larger conductivity. ~ ThIS is because the
mobility of electrons is greater than that of holes.
Q. Define the 'energy-gap' in a semiconductor.
Ans. The energy gap is the region between the valence band and the conduction
band where no electrons can stay as it has no allowed energy levels.
Q. What is a 'hole'?
Ans. It is a vacancy left in an atom when an electron leaves it. In tem1s of the energy-
bands, a hole is a vacancy left in the valence-band when an electron jumps from
valence to conduction-band. -
Q~ In which band do the movement of electrons and holes take place?
Ans. Free electrons move in the conduction-band while holes move in the valence-
band
Q. Why are Si and Ge widely used?
Ans. Because they have small band-gaps. The band-gap is 1.leV for Si and 0.72 eV for
~ ~
Q. Which out of Si and Ge, has larger conductivity and why ?
Ans. Ge has larger conductivity as it has smaller band-gap.
Q. Com pa.;e Si and Ge.
Ans. See Q's at the end of chapter-36.
Q. When does a semiconductor behave as an insulator ?
Ans. At absolute zero of temperature.

Fo11r-Prohe-Metltod
Q. What is the advantage of using four-probe method for measuring resistivity
over the other conventional methods?
Q. Why is a constant current source necessary for determination of resistivity of
a semicon~uctor sample by four-probe method at different tempertures?
Ans. In four probe method, the voltage across the inner two probes at different
temperatures is recorded. This voltage is an indication . of resistance or
res·istivity only if Va R or / is constant. This is why, a constant current source
is necessary.
Q. How does·the conducti~ity of a metal and a semiconductor vary with tempera-
ture?
. Ans. The .conductivity of a metal decreases with increasing temperature whereas
that of a ·semiconductor increases with increase in temperature.
Q. Write the equation giving the variation of conductivity/resistivity of a semicon-
ductor with temperature.
 Ans. C . Semic·
J d
on 11ctor.1·
onduct1vit 503
.R . Y, cr == cro e - l:".!,.l2kT
es1stivit
Q· For caJc • Y, p ::: po C +E,1/2kT
u1attng ti .
necess ary t le band gap f.
Ans It . o heat the sampJc t • om the resistivity measurements, why Is It
• IS because at low O more than rnooc?
Whatever . er temperature • · .· .·
1·r conductivity w , . . s, mtr lllsic earners .
any or b e get ts either d t I
arc not excited and
· • .
in th . ecause of the incrcas d .~e o t 1e exc1tat1on of unpunt. y earners
.
- is Eteml J?erature range ·11c mobility of carriers . The observations
P- p taken
Q. What 1· oteh
g 2kr
and can not be used
s e value of ba
f~;
w1 the · ti h
tol11e·c ds tow _de~iation from the relation
e ermmatton of the band gap.
Q. How does the b nd gap for Ge and Si?
A and gap of a se .
ns. The band gap f . m1conductor vary with temperature?
tu F . . o a semiconductor d . . .
re. or silicon E (T) _ ecreases slightly with mcrease in tempera-
21
O. 785 - 2.23 x 10-4gT Tl - 1. - 3-60 x I0-:-4 T and_for Germanium Eg(T)
=
eVfor germanium. · ms at room temp. (JOOK)Eg= 1.1 eVforsiliconand0.72
Hall Measurements
Q. Define Loren
tz force Stat .
Q. What is H ll f"' . e the rule which gives the direction of this force.
a e ,ect?
Q. How is Hall's coeffi Expla
.
in.
· icient related with carrier concentration?
1
Ans. RH= -
ne

Q. On what factors does the sign of the Hall's coefficient depend?

Ans. It depends on the majority charge carriers in the semiconductor. It is negativ
e
for n-type and positive for p-type semiconductors. ·
Q. What is the sign of Hall coefficient for an intrinsic semiconductor.
Ans. It is negative.
Q. Can we measure Hall's coefficient for metals?
Ans. No, as its magnitude is many orders smaller in metals.
Q. Why is the Hall coefficient ·of semiconductors many orders of magnitude
greater than that of metals?
Ans. Because the carrier concentration in semiconductors is much less than
that in
metals.
Q. How is Hall's coefficient related to tbc Hall's voltage (VH) and the thickn
ess
(t)? Why should the sample be thin?
VH I
Ans. RH= B
1
As the Hall voltage VH a f, . .

a small I would give a large and measurable value

of VH.
Q. What are the units of Hall's coefficient?
Ans. m3 cou ,-1 •
 'lJ. Sc. Practica l Physics

Q. Define car·ric,· conce11trntio11, electrica l conduct ivity ~nd mobility of ch

carriers. How n.-c they related? arge
Q. What are the ,·cquisite .
s of a sample used fo.- the determination of.Hau coerr, ~~~
. . .
·
Ans. 1. 1t should be a semiconductor.
2. it 's thicknes s (t) should be vc1y small.
3. it's length should be more than three times its w idth i.e., I> 3 w.
Q. ln Hall measur ements ' why does tl1e .-esistan ce of the sampJe increase ~~ .
inc.-easing magnetic field?
Ans. On increasing the magneti c field, the Hall volt_age -~' increases. As rnor
ca1Tiers move in a direction perpend icular t~ the_d1rectwn of the applied Paten~
tial V. less number. of carriers move in the d1rect10n of V and less current fl ows
' .
for a given V. Hence resistance of the sample mcreases.
Q. Give expressions for Hall electric field (E0 ). How is it related to the electric
field across the sample length (E)?

E = VH = RHJB
Ans. tw
H w

where w is the width of the specimen.

V IR I
E=-=-=-
1 I crwt
where I is the length of the specimen.

EH = RglB x awt =R Bcr= CJB

E tw I H ne

E = aB E
H ne

or E9 =µBE
Q. Why is it desirable to have the length of the specimen much larger as compared
to its width?
Ans. This is to reduce the end-effects and to make the electric field uniform through-

out the body of the specimen~Also, since tan ~ = ~ · ~ and VH « V, a large

1/w is desirable to make the hall angle q, measurable.