Svensson 2005

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Testing soccer players

M Svensson & B Drust
a
Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University,
Liverpool, UK
b
Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, The
Henry Cotton Campus, 15 – 21 Webster Street, Liverpool, L3 2CT, UK E-mail:
Published online: 18 Feb 2007.
To cite this article: M Svensson & B Drust (2005) Testing soccer players, Journal of Sports Sciences, 23:6, 601-618, DOI:
10.1080/02640410400021294
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410400021294
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Journal of Sports Sciences, June 2005; 23(6): 601 – 618
Testing soccer players
M. SVENSSON & B. DRUST
Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
(Accepted 24 July 2004)
Abstract
Downloaded by [Lulea University of Technology] at 11:11 10 August 2013
To cope with the physiological demands of soccer, players must be competent across several fitness components. The use of
fitness tests in the laboratory and field assist in examining soccer players’ capabilities for performance both at the amateur
and elite levels. Laboratory tests provide a useful indication of players’ general fitness. Accurate test results can be obtained
with the use of a thorough methodology and reliable equipment. Laboratory tests are used sparingly during the season
because of the time-consuming nature of the tests. Instead, tests are generally carried out at the start and end of the pre-
season period to evaluate the effectiveness of specific training interventions. Field tests provide results that are specific to the
sport and are therefore more valid than laboratory tests. The reduced cost, use of minimal equipment and the ease with
which tests can be conducted make them more convenient for extensive use throughout the season. Although data from
laboratory and field tests provide a good indication of general and soccer-specific fitness, individual test results cannot be
used to predict performance in match-play conclusively because of the complex nature of performance in competition.
Fitness tests in conjunction with physiological data should be used for monitoring changes in players’ fitness and for guiding
their training prescription.
Keywords: Field tests, fitness profile, intermittent exercise, laboratory tests
as to how the information derived can be used to

Introduction
optimize the performance of players.
Soccer incorporates periods of high-intensity exer-
cise interspersed with periods of lower-intensity
Purpose of physiological testing
exercise. The physiological demands of soccer
require players to be competent in several aspects Performance in most sports is the result of a blend of
of fitness, which include aerobic and anaerobic several factors, including genetic endowment, train-
power, muscle strength, flexibility and agility (Ek- ing and health status of the individual athlete
blom, 1986; Reilly & Doran, 2003; Reilly & Thomas, (MacDougall & Wenger, 1991; Viru & Viru, 2001).
1976). These fitness components often vary with the The sports scientist can, through physiological
individual player, the positional role in the team and testing of the participants, analyse these factors and
the team’s style of play (Bangsbo, 1994; Ekblom, use the information to provide individual profiles of
1986; Reilly, 2003). It is important that the player their respective strengths and weaknesses. These
and coach obtain objective information about the data can form the basis for the development of
players’ physical performances to clarify the objec- optimal training strategies. Further tests can then be
tives of training, plan short- and long-term training used to evaluate the impact of these interventions on
programmes, provide objective feedback and moti- the physical fitness profile of individual players,
vate the player to train harder (Bangsbo, 1994). Such thereby evaluating the effectiveness of the pro-
information can be obtained by using tests that gramme.
evaluate physical performance capacity. The aim of
this review is to present a rationale for testing soccer
Determine individual strengths and weaknesses
players. The review includes a description and
evaluation of several laboratory and field tests used If individuals have weaknesses in any particular
by practitioners and sports scientists, with guidelines fitness component relative to their sport, they can
Correspondence: B. Drust, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, The Henry Cotton Campus, 15 – 21 Webster
Street, Liverpool L3 2CT, UK. E-mail: b.drust@livjm.ac.uk
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online ª 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/02640410400021294
602 M. Svensson & B. Drust
be detected during the completion of fitness tests The validity of a test has been commonly
and subsequently remedied by employing appro- determined by assessing the relationship using
priate training programmes. In soccer, specific correlation analysis between performances on the
training regimens in particular training periods test and physical performance in the actual event. If
(e.g. pre-season) can then be designed to correct the correlation is high, the usual perception is that
for each individual player’s weaknesses. Training the test is valid. Hopkins et al. (1999) provided a
prescription should also be based on the specific useful critique of such analytical procedures for the
requirements of the playing position. Position- determination of the validity of tests. Such criticisms
specific training programmes result in improve- require practitioners to consider carefully the issue of
ments in the most relevant fitness measures for each validity in the planning of any programme of testing
playing position, thereby ensuring players are better (George, Batterham, & Sullivan, 2000) and subse-
able to fulfil their tactical responsibilities during the quently to use appropriate analytical techniques to
game. These improvements may not, however, determine the usefulness of the data (see Hopkins et
overcome individual deficiencies in genetic potential al., 1999).
for the physiological characteristics required for the Post-programme assessment should be specific to
position. This makes physical performance an the aims of the intervention. For example, if a
important consideration in player selection at the specific sprint-training programme is performed,
top level. the assessment should be anaerobic in nature. The
specificity of the test should also include an
assessment of the relevant energy system(s) that
Study the effectiveness of a training programme
predominate in the support of the specific activity.
Objective data are required on changes in perfor- This may be difficult to identify when the
mance over time in order to study the effectiveness of contributions to energy provision include both
a training programme and the readiness of the anaerobic (e.g. high-energy phosphates and/or
individual to return to normal training and match- glycolytic) and aerobic pathways as observed in
play following rehabilitation (Balsom, 1994). Results intermittent exercise patterns. This task may
from a fitness test provide valuable feedback to the necessitate the use of tests that attempt to replicate
coach both on the usefulness of the intervention the intensity and exercise pattern of soccer match-
programme and on the responses of each individual play. Training programmes should be between 8
athlete (MacDougall & Wenger, 1991). The coach and 12 weeks in duration to allow structural and
must therefore ensure that any changes in perfor- functional physiological adaptations to the training
mance on a fitness test following training are ‘‘real’’, stimulus to occur (Das & Banerjee, 1992; Islegen
that is to say a reflection of altered physical capability & Akgun, 1988; Viru, 1995), as shorter pro-
rather than the result of variation between or within grammes (6 – 8 weeks) do not always produce
subjects (Atkinson & Nevill, 1998). It is also significant physiological improvements (Maughan,
important that performance on the test mimics the Gleeson, & Greenhaff, 1997). It is also recom-
physical performance in the real event (Hopkins, mended to wait until the residual fatigue associated
Hawley, & Burke, 1999). These issues are addressed with the training programme has subsided before
by determining the reliability and the validity of the post-test evaluations. Verkhoshanski (1985) and
test concerned (Boddington, Lambert, St Clair Jeukendrup, Hesselink, Snyder, Kuipers and Keizer
Gibson, & Noakes, 2001; Hopkins, 2000). The (1992) have clearly demonstrated enhanced perfor-
reliability of the test procedures can be determined mance following periods of reduced training in
by controlled repeated performances that are then systematically designed training programmes com-
analysed using carefully selected statistical methods. pared with programmes that do not facilitate so-
Statistical methods should provide a meaningful called regeneration. These super-compensations
quantification of both systematic and random error that accompany the recovery of the body’s adapt-
and relate these values to the requirements of the test ability are crucial to prevent erroneous conclusions
for effective practical use (Atkinson & Nevill, 2001). regarding the effectiveness of the intervention being
This may involve the use of several reliability conducted (Hoffman, 2002). It is therefore im-
statistics (see Atkinson & Nevill, 1998). Tests must portant that the coach employs taper strategies in
also be able to measure the minimum percentage training before evaluation (1 – 2 weeks) to ensure
increase that is needed for an enhancement of that the athletes are not in a state of chronic
performance. Such differences may be very small fatigue when being assessed (Viru & Viru, 2001).
for elite athletes (coefficients of variation of as low as Such tapers should be carefully structured to
0.3 – 0.4 %; Hopkins et al., 1999), thereby necessi- ensure that the training stimulus is sufficient to
tating test methodologies that are very sensitive to maintain fitness while still allowing the required
change. recovery.
Testing soccer players 603
the attainment of V_ O2max during continuous ex-

Physiological tests for soccer players
ercise tests on the basis of the measurement error for
Several tests have been designed either to be part of V_ O2, the achievement of higher values for V_ O2 after
an overall physiological assessment or to measure the plateau criteria have been met and the application
specific components of soccer-specific fitness. The of plateau standards to all populations. The evalua-
following subsections provide examples of some of tion of heart rate to age-predicted maximum is also a
the common tests used in the laboratory and the field poor indicator of any maximal effort to establish
for evaluating different fitness components of soccer V_ O2max. As a result of these difficulties, careful
players. The relevance and usefulness to soccer of consideration should be given to the terminology and
each test are described and a brief evaluation of each methodologies used to determine an individual’s
test is also outlined. V_ O2max. These considerations would include an
orientation session to ensure reliable results, suitable
warm-up procedures and relevant protocols (with
Laboratory tests
associated gas collection procedures), and appro-
Test for determination of maximal aerobic power priate criteria for the verification of the achievement
Maximal aerobic power (V_ O2max) is the highest of V_ O2max (Howley et al., 1995).
amount of oxygen that the body can utilize during Interpretation of V_ O2max data is partly dependent
exhaustive exercise while breathing air at sea level on the way the values are expressed. Such issues are
(Åstrand & Rodahl, 1986). Maximal oxygen uptake important if comparisons are to be made between
is one of the most commonly used indicators of individuals between or within squads. In sports
aerobic metabolism and power, as it provides an where the body mass is not supported, V_ O2max is
indication of the functional limit of the oxygen expressed in relation to an individual’s body weight
transport system in individuals (Howley, Bassett, & (Katch, 1972; Nevill et al., 2003). The negative
Welch, 1995; Sutton, 1992). During soccer match- correlation between V_ O2max and body mass will
play, the majority of energy provision is derived from affect the test result and bias the data to favour
the aerobic energy system (Bangsbo, 1994). The lighter individuals (Sjödin & Svedenhag, 1992).
determination of a soccer player’s maximal aerobic Dimensional scaling has been used to avoid any
power is therefore important, as the oxygen transport such problems in comparing data (Åstrand &
system underpins the ability to play for 90 min Rodahl, 1986; Nevill, Ramsbottom, & Williams,
(Bangsbo, 1993a) and to recover between short 1992). During running, any comparisons of V_ O2max
bouts of high-intensity exercise (Balsom, Ekblom, & should be expressed relative to lean body mass raised
Sjödin, 1994a; Balsom, Gaitanos, Ekblom, & Sjödin, to the power of 0.67 (von Döbeln, 1956) or 0.75
1994b; Tomlin & Wenger, 2001). When maximal (Bergh, Sjödin, Forsberg, & Svedenhag, 1991;
aerobic power is evaluated in athletes, it is important Sjödin & Svedenhag, 1992). Thus when dimensional
that the test resembles the activity pattern of the scaling is used, it would appear that V_ O2max can be
specific sport (Strømme, Ingjer, & Meen, 1977). compared more accurately between individuals
Therefore, V_ O2max tests for soccer players should be differing in body mass.
performed on a treadmill as opposed to a cycle Table I summarizes some of the data reported in
ergometer to enhance the specificity of the active the literature for the V_ O2max of elite soccer players.
musculature to that used in activity patterns in These data suggest that V_ O2max may be useful in
soccer. Such procedures will ensure valid assess- differentiating between successful and unsuccessful
ments of V_ O2max (Hermansen & Saltin, 1969). teams, as teams who perform better in a specific
Standardized laboratory protocols to establish league or at a higher standard possess higher V_ O2max
V_ O2max include continuous and discontinuous ex- (Apor, 1988; Wislöff, Helgerud, & Hoff, 1998).
ercise modes, both of which are used extensively in Maximal oxygen uptake also varies with playing
the assessment of V_ O2max (Duncan, Howley, & position, the quality of training and standard of
Johnson, 1997). The primary criterion for confirm- competition (Tumilty, 1993) and is sensitive to
ing the attainment of O2max is the achievement of a soccer-specific endurance training programmes
plateau in V_ O2 (Shephard, 1984). In the absence of (Helgerud, Engen, Wislöff, & Hoff, 2001). Maximal
a plateau in V_ O2, there are several secondary criteria oxygen uptake also seems to be related to the total
used to quantify a maximal effort, including: a rise in amount of work done during match-play (Hoff,
the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) above 1.15; a Wislöff, Engen, Kemi, & Helgerud, 2002), with
blood lactate concentration above 8 mmol × l71, improvements in V_ O2max corresponding to increases
which reflects onset of anaerobic metabolism; and in the total distance covered during a match
the elevation of heart rate to age-predicted maximum (Helgerud et al., 2001).
(Åstrand & Rodahl, 1986). Howley et al. (1995) Analysis of this information would suggest that
raised doubts about the use of all of these criteria for V_ O2max is a useful tool in the assessment of soccer
Table I. Selected data on the maximal oxygen uptake of soccer Maximal oxygen uptake appears to differentiate
players. players of different abilities and playing positions and
V_ O2max also detect improvements with training. It is not,
Study Players (ml × kg71 × min71) however, viewed as the best indicator of the ability to
perform soccer-specific intermittent exercise as
Apor (1988) Hungarian elite youth 63.2 + 8.1 required in a game. Therefore, V_ O2max may be
(n = 13)
Faina et al. (1988) Italian amateur (n = 6) 64.1 + 7.2
useful for describing players in relation to different
Green (1992) Australian National 57.6 + 3.5 populations and/or for evaluating changes in fitness
League (n = 10) when such alterations are expected to be large (e.g.
Puga et al. (1993) Portuguese First Divi- 59.6 + 7.7 pre-season). Maximal oxygen uptake is not a
sion (n = 19) sensitive enough indicator of fitness for regular use
Raastad, Höst- Norwegian First-Third 62.8 + 4.1
mark, & Strømme Division (n = 13)
within the competitive season when changes in
(1997) performance will be small and may reflect peripheral
Wislöff et al. (1998) Norwegian First Divi- 63.7 + 5.0 rather than central adaptations.
sion (n = 29)
Aziz et al. (2000) Singapore national 58.2 + 3.7
Lactate threshold test The concept of a ‘‘lactate

threshold’’ can be defined as the V_ O2 above which
team (n = 23)
Al-Hazzaa et al. Saudi national team 56.8 + 4.8
(2001) (n = 23) blood lactate exceeds resting concentrations during
Casajũs (2001) Spanish First Division 66.4 + 7.6 incremental exercise (Wasserman, Whipp, Koyal, &
(n = 12) Beaver, 1973) and so marks the transition between
moderate and heavy exercise. The determination of
the lactate threshold is important, as this reference
point indicates the onset of lactate accumulation in
the blood. Such a transition may also mark the
players. However, V_ O2max does not always appear change between the predominance of aerobic and
to be a sensitive measure of performance in anaerobic metabolism (Davis, 1985; Jones & Doust,
important aspects of soccer match-play (Bangsbo 2001). The lactate threshold and the 4 mmol × l71
& Lindqvist, 1992) or in the detection of detraining reference points, also known as the onset of blood
(Bangsbo & Mizuno 1988). This deficiency may be lactate accumulation (OBLA), are determined from
due to discrepancies in the activity patterns, and the responses during a graded treadmill test. The
underlying physiology, associated with soccer 4 mmol × l71 OBLA reference point was introduced
match-play and that incorporated in a V_ O2max test. as a more objective means of analysing lactate data
Limitations to V_ O2max have been the subject of (Sjödin & Jacobs, 1981; Sjödin, Jacobs, & Sveden-
much debate, although the available evidence hag, 1982), as the lactate threshold inflection point
appears to suggest a predominantly central limita- requires a subjective interpretation of the threshold
tion (Hoppeler & Weibel, 2000; Sutton, 1992). The unless complicated mathematical formulae are used
intermittent exercise pattern, as observed in soccer (Beaver, Wasserman, & Whipp, 1985; Williams,
match-play, often necessitates performance at ex- 1990).
ercise intensities in excess of those achieved during In endurance sports, the lactate threshold is a more
a V_ O2max test (Bangsbo, 1994). As a result, energy useful indicator of aerobic endurance performance
must be derived at the onset of exercise from than V_ O2max (Allen, Seals, Hurley, Ehsani, &
substrates and oxygen supplies within the active Hagberg, 1985). The lactate threshold appears to
musculature (Bangsbo, Gibala, Krustrup, González- be sensitive to changes in training, with the threshold
Alonso, & Saltin, 2002; Edwards et al., 1973). Such occurring at higher running speeds during a graded
evidence would indicate that the oxidative potential exercise test following a training intervention for both
of muscle is important for the performance of healthy college students (Yoshida, Takeucki, &
intense bouts of intermittent exercise. Peripheral Suda, 1983) and track athletes (Jones & Doust,
adaptations do not, however, appear to be crucial 2001) as well as soccer players (Edwards, Clark, &
for V_ O2max, as Henriksson and Reitman (1977) MacFayden, 2003a; Helgerud et al., 2001). The
demonstrated similar values of aerobic power lactate threshold can also be used to provide
despite reductions in succinate dehydrogenase and information to athletes about the intensity of training.
cytochrome oxidase following a period of de- By monitoring physiological variables such as heart
training. These data would suggest that V_ O2max rate during graded exercise tests, training intensities
may not be a sensitive enough indicator of the can be pre-selected according to the discrete aims of
ability to perform soccer-specific exercise despite the training sessions (Grant & McMillan, 2001).
observations of a positive relationship with standard Such procedures may help to ensure the effectiveness
of play and distance covered in a match. of the isolated stimulus and any intervention.
A number of methodological issues can affect the The lactate threshold does not appear to be
validity and reliability of the determination of the strongly related to physical performance during
lactate threshold (Davis, 1985; Yeh, Gardner, match-play or performance during an intermittent
Adams, Yanowitz, & Crapo, 1983). Nutritional field test for soccer (Bangsbo & Lindqvist, 1992).
status and training/recovery state may affect an However, a positive relationship has been observed
individual’s lactate kinetics and thus the running between running velocity at the 4 mmol × l71 refer-
speed at which the lactate threshold occurs (Goll- ence point, when using a multi-stage protocol in the
nick, Bayly, & Hodgson, 1988; Hughson & Green, field, and the distance covered during two matches in
1982). It is therefore important to control the pre- eight Italian Serie A referees (Castagna, Abt, &
test conditions before any laboratory assessment. D’Ottavio, 2002). The work rate associated with
The exercise protocol is also critical in the determi- soccer match-play and refereeing are subtly different
nation of the lactate threshold. If the initial exercise (Krustrup & Bangsbo, 2001; Mohr, Krustrup, &
intensity is too high, the immediate increase in blood Bangsbo, 2003a). This difference may partly explain
lactate will prevent the establishment of a suitable the conflicting findings in the relationship between
curve for identifying an inflection point (Ferry, the lactate threshold and match performance. Evi-
Duvallet, & Rieu, 1988). The breakpoint in the dence for the usefulness of the lactate threshold as a
curve may therefore be difficult if not impossible to predictor of intermittent exercise performance dur-
establish (Hagberg, 1984). Such methodological ing a match is therefore not clear. It is probably
issues may require each athlete to undergo several advisable to use the lactate threshold as an objective
tests to ensure an accurate determination of the indicator of a player’s endurance capacity following
lactate threshold. Consequently, the lack of consis- training interventions (Grant & McMillan, 2001)
tency in using a standard treadmill protocol and rather than as a predictor of physical performance
difficulties in the identification of a standardized during a match.
method for determination of the threshold from the Careful considerations of methodology and the use
curve can limit the comparison of data from different of repeated assessments may help in the application
laboratories and between individuals. of the lactate threshold in fitness assessment.
During intermittent exercise, the physiological However, its suitability for training intensity pre-
response is dependent on the type of activity and/or scription may not extend beyond steady-state
the exercise protocol that is performed (Ballor & exercise as a result of changes in the physiological
Volvosek, 1992; Bangsbo, 2000; Christensen, Hed- response to exercise when the exercise pattern is
man, & Saltin, 1960; Drust, Reilly, & Cable, 2000; intermittent. This includes situations where the
Saltin, Essèn, & Pedersen, 1976). The manipulation exercise intensity is both above and below the lactate
of these variables can induce more physiological threshold. Its failure to be sensitive enough to be
stress than those associated with steady-state ex- related to specific indications of match performance
ercise, leading to occasions when blood lactate suggests that the lactate threshold is at best a general
concentrations are above the lactate threshold. For descriptor of fitness rather than a specific indicator of
example, a 2:1 exercise – rest ratio at an intensity of physiological potential for match performance. Thus,
110% V_ O2max will produce higher (10.7 mmol × the lactate threshold may be limited to periods of
l71) blood lactate concentrations than a 1:2 assessment when gross changes in aerobic fitness are
exercise – rest ratio performed at the same intensity expected (e.g. pre-season, following prolonged per-
(2.7 mmol × l71) on a cycle ergometer (Ballor & iods of injury).
Volvosek, 1992). Conversely, other intermittent
exercise patterns can produce physiological stresses Test for determination of muscle strength Muscle
equal to or lower than steady-state exercise (Ås- strength is defined as the amount of force or tension
trand, Christensen, & Hedman, 1960; Ballor, a muscle or muscle group exerts against a resistance
Becque, Marks, Nau, & Katch, 1989; Christensen at a specified velocity during a maximal voluntary
et al., 1960). The relationship between the lactate contraction (Bell & Wenger, 1992). In the labora-
threshold and other physiological variables (e.g. tory, isokinetic apparatus can be used in the
heart rate) is therefore altered under such condi- assessment of the muscle strength of performers
tions compared with those associated with steady- across most sports. Isokinetic dynamometry provides
state exercise (Williams, 1990). This dissociation a controlled environment in which the neuromus-
between physiological parameters during intermit- cular performance of the joint system can be stressed
tent exercise when compared with steady-state (Baltzopoulos & Gleeson, 2001; Sapega, Nicholas,
exercise will therefore affect the usefulness of the Solokow, & Saraniti, 1982). The muscular force
lactate threshold to predict and monitor optimal against the motor-driven lever arm, or the torque, is
training intensity when the exercise pattern is measured with the angular velocity controlled when
intermittent, as in soccer. performing movements in the vertical plane such as
knee flexion and extension (Gransberg & Knutsson, between elite athletes for a training intervention.
1983; Sale, 1991). Force production during ec- Several trials may be needed to familiarize the
centric and concentric actions can also be assessed participants and to overcome any reliability problems
(Seger, Westing, Hansson, Karlsson, & Ekblom, during isokinetic measurement (Gleeson & Mercer,
1988). 1992). Both internal (e.g. positioning of participant,
One of the main advantages of isokinetic dyna- gravitational forces, calibration of dynanometer) and
mometry is the accuracy in assessment provided by external (e.g. time of day, participant’s limb dom-
the constant pre-selected velocity of movement inance, participant’s motivation) factors may affect
(Iossifidou & Baltzopoulos, 1998). It is also relatively test results, so attention must be made to create
sensitive in detecting changes in muscle strength standardized conditions (Kannus, 1994).
during a rehabilitation programme, which supports The activity pattern during a soccer match
the use of isokinetic dynamometry in rehabilitation includes rapid turns, accelerations, tackling, side-
assessment (Baltzopoulos & Brodie, 1989; Kaufman, stepping and game-specific technical skills (Bangsbo,
An, Litchy, Morrey, & Chao, 1991; Östenberg, 1994; Ekblom, 1986; Reilly & Thomas, 1976;
Roos, Ekdahl, & Roos, 1988). Isokinetic systems Tumilty, 1993). These activities place great stress
also permit muscle function tests to be completed on the lower limbs and so the development of
across a variety of different angular velocities and strength in soccer players is very important (Reilly &
joint angles. Such procedures are flexible as assess- Doran, 2003). Strength training has been reported to
ment tools but can make inter-individual improve kicking performance as a result of a
comparisons difficult (Wislöff et al., 1998). Appro- resistance training programme (De Proft, Cabri,
priate filters are, however, needed for the correction Dufour, & Clarys, 1988; Dutta & Subramanium,
for gravity and inertial effects to eliminate errors 2002), highlighting the importance of muscle
(Aagaard, Simonsen, Trolle, Bangsbo, & Klausen, strength for match-specific actions. Muscle strength
1995; Drouin, Valovich-McLeod, Shultz, Gansne- can also differentiate between age categories, levels
der, & Perrin, 2004; Sapega et al., 1982), although of play and playing positions. Öberg, Möller,
such standardized protocols are now commonplace Gillqvist and Ekstrand (1986) reported that players
in computerized systems such as the BioDex and on the Swedish national team and in the Swedish
Lido devices (Baltzopoulos & Gleeson, 2001). First Division had a higher torque value at fast- and
There are some methodological limitations asso- slow-speeds for knee flexors and extensors than
ciated with isokinetic assessment. During the players from Fourth Division clubs. Similar findings
assessment, the relevant muscle group is isolated were reported by Togari, Ohashi and Ohgushi
(e.g. quadriceps), which restricts any assessment to (1988) between Japanese elite (national team and J-
the specific joint being examined (Herzog, 1988). league) players and university players. Gissis, Niko-
The isolation of muscle groups will reduce the laidis, Papadopoulos and Papanikolaou (2003)
validity of the measurements to functional perfor- found that maximal strength about the knee joint
mance, as the multi-joint movements involved in was significantly greater for young Greek elite players
most sports will not be re-created (Kannus, 1994). than young Greek amateur players of a similar age.
As a result, isokinetic dynamometry does not fully Rochcongar, Morvan, Dassonville and Belliot (1988)
reflect performance in specific movement patterns of and Gür, Akova, Pündük and Kücükoğlu (1999)
the limbs associated with sports such as soccer have reported differences in strength of the quad-
(Cometti, Maffiuletti, Pousson, Chatard, & Maffulli, riceps and hamstrings muscles in young and adult
2001). Assessment involving free weights may be soccer players, with muscle strength increasing with
more accurate in determining the functional strength age. Goalkeepers and defenders were reported to
in a soccer context (Wislöff et al., 1998), as the have a higher knee extension torque than midfielders
individual has a greater freedom of movement, and forwards but differences for most players were
though such procedures may not be easy to control. attributed to body size (Öberg, Ekstrand, Möller, &
The use of free weights may be less safe than Gillqvist, 1984). These findings suggest that high
isokinetic dynamometry assessment, thereby consti- absolute muscle strength in the lower limbs is an
tuting an increased risk of injury to the individual. important component of fitness for successful soccer
Despite the application of standardized assessment play and muscle strength increases with progressive
protocols, data from one trial may not be represen- standards of play.
tative of an individual’s maximal isokinetic leg Isokinetic dynamometry can be used to assess the
strength, making the validity of key variables an balance of strength between the hamstrings (H) and
important consideration when investigating muscle quadriceps (Q) muscle groups about the knee joint,
performance. If data from a single trial are used, calculated as either the conventional or functional H/
gross changes in muscle function may be detected in Q ratio (Aagaard et al., 1995; Aagaard, Simonsen,
the general population but may not discriminate Magnusson, Larsson, & Dyhre-Poulsen, 1998). The
conventional H/Q ratio is calculated by dividing French elite players had a higher H/Q ratio than sub-
maximal knee flexion strength by maximal knee elite players at several angular velocities between –
extension strength. However, this ratio is calculated 2.09 and 5.23 rad × s71, except at 5.23 rad × s71.
at the same angular velocity and contraction mode Similar findings have also been reported for English
(eccentric, concentric or isometric), which does not players (Rahnama et al., 2003b). A likely explanation
provide adequate information on agonist – antagonist for the higher H/Q ratios in elite players compared
muscle contraction. Therefore, the functional H/Q with amateur players is an increased training load
ratio or dynamic control ratio (DCR) was introduced and specialized strength training programmes, which
as a descriptor of the agonist – antagonist balance of result in better strength balances.
strength during knee flexion or extension (Aagaard et It is clear that the data from the assessment of
al., 1995). Moreover, the functional H/Q ratio can muscle strength in soccer players using isokinetic
provide an assessment of potential injury risk. It is dynamometers can be employed to assess general
calculated as maximal eccentric hamstring strength muscle strength, compare positional differences in
divided by maximal concentric quadriceps strength strength and evaluate the effect of resistance training.
during extension, or vice versa during flexion It is recommended that data for both conventional
(Aagaard et al., 1998). The ideal functional H/Q and functional H/Q ratios are combined to provide a
ratio should be 1.0, which indicates that the ham- thorough evaluation of knee joint stability and
strings can resist as much force as the quadriceps can subsequent risk of injury in individuals. Test criteria
produce (Graham-Smith & Lees, 2002). The ratio may be improved by taking the angle of occurrence
can vary with joint angle and, moreover, the value of peak torque into account. Due to the expensive
1.0 may be derived from peaks at different angles for and time-consuming nature of accommodating a
concentric and eccentric actions. The ratio may, whole squad for isokinetic assessment, tests should
however, have limited practical application in reha- be performed at strategic intervals pre-, in- and off-
bilitation settings, as H/Q ratios can be identical for season, especially when monitoring rehabilitation of
both injured and healthy individuals (Kannus, 1994). muscle strength in injured players. Individuals
This may make it difficult to determine optimal H/Q should be tested over multiple trials so that a true
ratios that can be used with injured individuals indication of the performance capacity of the
undergoing rehabilitation programmes. individual player may be established.
Nevertheless, both the conventional and func-
tional H/Q ratios, but in particular the latter, may be Evaluation of laboratory tests Laboratory tests are
helpful in identifying the functional muscle balance performed in a controlled environment to reduce the
and stability at the knee joint in soccer players impact of extraneous variables (MacDougall &
(Reilly, 1994; Zakas, Mandroukas, Vamvakoudis, Wenger, 1991). In general, data from a laboratory
Christoulas, & Aggelopoulou, 1995). A high muscle test provide accurate information that is very
strength relative to the functional H/Q ratio to detailed, although care should be taken with respect
stabilize the knee joint is important in the prevention to the reliability of the equipment. It is recom-
of injury (Orchard, Marsden, Lord, & Garlick, mended that several trials of the same test are
1997), with the H/Q ratio ranging between 41 and performed to increase the reliability of the data.
81% in soccer players depending on the angular Physical trainers and sports scientists can therefore
velocity of movement (Rahnama, Reilly, Lees, & obtain an accurate general physical profile of the
Graham-Smith, 2003b). An ideal H/Q ratio of 60% individual soccer player if extensive testing is
has been suggested (Ekstrand & Gillqvist, 1982). conducted. Accurate information on a player’s
Also, it would appear that H/Q ratio deficits may be aerobic power, lactate threshold and muscle strength
more accurately determined at lower than faster in the lower limbs can help in the setting of
speeds (Orchard et al., 1997). individual training programmes or form part of a
There is evidence to suggest that players have a player selection strategy. Access to laboratory facil-
lower H/Q ratio towards the end of matches as a ities may be difficult for some soccer clubs and tests
result of the fatigue associated with prolonged are also expensive to administer. Testing can also be
exercise: Rahnama, Reilly and Lees (2003a) reported time-consuming, as numerous visits to the laboratory
a reduced H/Q ratio in amateur soccer players at the may be required to obtain reliable results. Such tests
end of a simulated match compared with pre-match are also sensitive enough to allow the detection of
values, which may indicate that the H/Q ratio is significant changes in the fitness of players. As a
sensitive to fatigue. The H/Q ratio is also sensitive to result, such test procedures may be most effective
detect changes in muscle strength following pre- during specific periods of the season. Pre-season may
season training (Kayatekin, 1995). It seems that the be the time when administration of laboratory tests is
H/Q ratio can also differentiate between different most important, as the fitness of players needs to be
levels of play, as Cometti et al. (2001) reported that established during this period following de-condi-
Table II. Examples of some selected soccer-specific field tests
Predominantly on
Author Name of test Description Duration of test component
Ekblom (1989) Interval field test Four laps of a soccer pitch 16.5 min Aerobic
performing forward, back-
ward, sideways and slalom
running, including turning
and jumping movements
Balsom (1990) Repeated sprint test 20 repeated 10 6 10 6 Self-paced sprints Anaerobic
10 m sprints with 42 s active
recovery
Malomski (1993) Two-step interval test 15 6 30 m sprints with 5 s Self-paced sprints Anaerobic
recovery performed in two
blocks separated by 30 min
Rico-Sanz, Zehnder, Bu- JRS fatigue test Repeated shuttle running Until volitional exhaustion Aerobic
chli, Dambach, & Boutellier at three different velocities
(1999)
Nicholas, Nuttall, & Loughborough Running between two lines 90 min Aerobic
Williams (2000) Intermittent Shuttle 20 m apart at various speeds
Test (LIST)
Kemi, Hoff, Engen, Field test (specifically to Laps of a course including Until volitional exhaustion Aerobic
Helgerud, & Wislöff establish maximal oxygen dribbling, backwards run-
(2003) uptake) ning, turning, jumping
Ohasi, Miyagi, Yasumatsu, Field test 1 or 5 min set exercise 90 min Aerobic
& Ishizaki (2003) periods with standing,
walking, jogging or sprinting
in squares (30 6 20 m)
Psotta and Bunc (2003) Repeated sprint test 10 6 20 m sprints with 20 s Self-paced sprints Anaerobic
recovery
tioning in the off-season. In the competitive season, tests are provided in detail in Table II. Many of these
the administration of such tests may be more difficult tests, however, have not been used widely in the
due to their time-consuming nature and the limita- literature and have not been comprehensively eval-
tions associated with the data provided. Laboratory uated in terms of their reliability and validity. As a
tests should, therefore, be used in the assessment of result, they are not discussed in detail below. The
general fitness rather than soccer-specific fitness. tests included represent those tests that are the most
Examples of specialized tests designed for soccer are commonly represented in the literature base.
described in the next subsection.
Multi-stage fitness test The multi-stage fitness test (20-
m shuttle run) was originally designed by Leger and
Field tests
Lambert (1982) and modified by Leger, Mercier,
Fitness tests that are performed in the field enhance Gadoury and Lambert (1988) to estimate V_ O2max,
the specificity of the evaluation. This greater and was later validated by Ramsbottom, Brewer and
specificity increases the validity of these tests Williams (1988). The test is based on the completion
(Balsom, 1994; MacDougall & Wenger, 1991). This of repeated shuttle runs between two lines 20 m
subsection provides some examples of field tests used apart. The running speed is incremental and dictated
to evaluate the aerobic and anaerobic fitness of by audio signals from a tape recorder. The aim of the
soccer players. The assessment of muscle strength in test is to complete as many shuttles as possible. The
the field is difficult as a result of problems in 20-m shuttle run has the advantage of evaluating
obtaining objective data. Some useful information more than one individual at any time, can be
can, however, be collected using resistance equip- performed with relative ease and needs minimal
ment (both free weights and machines) if the equipment. Performance on the test only provides an
methods are carefully controlled. Despite high estimate of V_ O2max, unlike laboratory tests in which
ecological validity, it is important to remember that a precise measurement of oxygen consumption is
no field test will determine performance during recorded, as expired air is not usually collected in the
soccer match-play, as it is difficult to isolate the field.
importance of individual physical parameters when An individual’s V_ O2max is based on the level and
the overall demands of the sport are so complex. shuttle reached by him or her during the test
Examples of the wide range of soccer-specific field and predicted from the regression equation
V_ O2max = (5.857 6 speed on the last stage) - 19.458 intermittent activity profile of soccer or soccer-
(Leger & Lambert, 1982). This equation is based on specific endurance per se, as discussed previously.
the relationship between V_ O2max and the maximal The difficulties in the application of V_ O2max in
speed achieved during the last stage. Significant soccer have been highlighted in previous subsections.
correlations between V_ O2max established by direct Regular application of the 20-m shuttle test for
measurements on the treadmill and performance on prediction of V_ O2max in the assessment of players
the 20-m shuttle test were reported by Ramsbottom may therefore not be warranted, irrespective of the
et al. (1988) (r = 0.92) and Paliczka, Nichols and methodological limitations discussed above.
Boreham (1987) (r = 0.93). The standard deviation
from the regression line was 3.5 ml × kg71 × min71,
The Yo-Yo tests
which indicates that predictions of V_ O2max may be
either overestimated or underestimated by up to The concept of shuttle running was used by Bangsbo
3.5 ml × kg71 × min71. (1993b) to devise a more soccer-specific assessment.
Initial inspection of such evidence would appear to The Yo-Yo tests were designed to measure the
indicate a strong relationship between a direct and ability to perform bouts of repeated intense inter-
predicted V_ O2max using the 20-m shuttle test. Such
mittent exercise (Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test)

approaches to evaluating the validity of tests have, and the ability to recover from intense exercise (Yo-
however, already been criticized from a methodolo- Yo intermittent recovery test) (Bangsbo, 1993b).
gical perspective (see Hopkins et al., 1999, for a full The difference between the multi-stage fitness test
discussion). Such methodological concerns are also and the Yo-Yo tests is the intermittent exercise
supported by evidence that indicates a lack of pattern used in the Yo-Yo tests. In both of the Yo-
consistency in correlations of test performance with Yo tests, a recovery period is incorporated after each
V_ O2max. Sproule, Kunalan, McNeil and Wright pair of 20-m shuttle runs. This activity profile clearly
(1993) observed that the V_ O2max predicted from provides a defined intermittent exercise pattern.
performance in the 20-m shuttle test was lower than Performance in the Yo-Yo tests is similar to that
that obtained in direct evaluations performed on the for the multistage fitness test with the level and
treadmill in 75% of participants. Similar findings number of shuttles completed being recorded. The
were reported by St Clair-Gibson, Broomhead, Yo-Yo test can also be performed with limited
Lambert and Hawley (1998): V_ O2max was under- equipment and be conducted in most applied
predicted in squash players and runners with average settings, although standardized test conditions (in-
values of 61 ml × kg71 × min71 on the 20-m shuttle cluding surface) are important for reliability.
run and 66.5 ml × kg71 × min71 on the treadmill. The The validity and reliability of the Yo-Yo inter-
underestimations may be greater for individuals with mittent recovery test were established by Krustrup et
higher V_ O2max and be partly dependent on the al. (2003) in a study of elite Danish soccer players.
specific sport participated in. They reported no difference in performance
Despite the problems associated with predicting (1867 + 72 versus 1880 + 89 m) between a first
V_ O2max, the 20-m shuttle run has been used and second Yo-Yo test conducted within a week of
extensively to test players of English football clubs each other. The authors found significant correla-
(Davis, Brewer, & Atkin, 1992; Strudwick, Reilly, & tions between performance on the Yo-Yo
Doran, 2002) and the Australian Olympic squad intermittent recovery test and the amount of high-
(Tumilty, 2000). The 20-m shuttle run does not intensity exercise performed during soccer match-
appear to be sensitive to training interventions or to play. There was also a significant improvement (25%)
differentiate between playing standards in soccer. in test performance just before the season started
Odetoyinbo and Ramsbottom (1997) found that compared with before the pre-season phase. It would
there was no significant improvement in 20-m appear that the test simulates both aerobic and
shuttle run performance following 8 weeks of high- anaerobic glycolysis, as the players’ heart rates and
intensity training in soccer players. No significant blood lactate concentrations were elevated at the end
difference in 20-m shuttle run performance was of the test. There was a high breakdown of
found between English academy scholars and recrea- phosphocreatine at the end of the test (51% lower
tional soccer players (Edwards, MacFayden, & compared with rest), which suggests that the phos-
Clark, 2003b). This information suggests that the phagen energy system was also taxed during the test.
20-m shuttle run may not be suitable for the These energy outlays are similar to those that support
estimation of changes in V_ O2max in soccer players soccer match-play. Taken together, these results
or to assess the effects of a training intervention, suggest that the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery tess
especially for high-level performers. This may be the provides a more valid indication of soccer-specific
result of the continuous activity pattern of the 20-m aerobic fitness and activity patterns during a match
shuttle run, which does not truly represent the than direct assessment or field predictions of V_ O2max.
The Yo-Yo tests have been used extensively in the ments for players. Typically, 10-, 20- or 30-m sprints
assessment of the soccer-specific endurance capacity are used in the assessment of a player’s ability to
of players and referees (Krustrup & Bangsbo, 2001; sprint (Kollath & Quade, 1993; Strudwick et al.,
Krustrup et al., 2003; Mohr et al., 2003a). The 2002). Test methodologies incorporate both stand-
intermittent endurance test and the intermittent ing and ‘‘flying’’ starts (Dawson, 2003). More
recovery test have also been used to differentiate realistic representations of sprint performance will
playing positions (Bangsbo & Michalsik, 2002) and be obtained if players perform a sprint from a flying
to differentiate between top-class and moderate- start (walk, jog or a stride) as the ecological validity
ability soccer players (Mohr et al., 2003a). Full-backs will be enhanced, since very few sprints are
and midfielders performed significantly better than commenced from a stationary start during a match.
defenders and forwards, with top-class players Single-sprint tests can differentiate between dif-
performing significantly better (2.26 + 0.08 km) ferent standards of play and between different
than moderate-ability players (2.04 + 0.06 km). positional roles within the team (Kollath & Quade,
Krustrup and Bangsbo (2001) also reported that 1993). Such tests can also allow the physical trainer
performance on the intermittent recovery test im- to set individual programmes for players in order to
proved by 31% in elite soccer referees following a 12- improve their ability to accelerate and/or increase
week intermittent training programme. These results their maximal velocity during sprints. Such pro-
indicate that the Yo-Yo tests are sensitive to training grammes may require guidance with respect to
interventions and can differentiate between different running technique in addition to development of
standards of play and between playing positions. relevant energy systems. These observations make
Due to the soccer-specific nature and easy admin- such tests an important element in the evaluation of
istration of the Yo-Yo test, it would be a useful form soccer players.
of evaluation throughout the season to monitor
changes in soccer-specific fitness. The major dis-
Tests for the determination of agility
advantage of the test is that players have to turn
frequently at 1808, which can be demanding to the Agility is the ability to change the direction of the
joint musculature. An alternative submaximal ver- body rapidly and is a result of a combination of
sion of the Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test has strength, speed, balance and coordination (Draper &
recently been described by Mohr, Krustrup and Lancaster, 1985). The fast pace of elite competitive
Bangsbo (2003b), which uses heart rate measure- soccer requires players to possess good agility. Agility
ments to predict maximal performance in a 6-min tests incorporate rapid and frequent changes in
test. Such test procedures may enhance the effec- direction. Since agility is a result of a number of
tiveness of the Yo-Yo test within the competitive neurophysiological factors, it is difficult to determine
season, as energy-demanding maximal efforts are not exactly which factors contribute to a changed result
required. on a test (Buttifant, Graham, & Cross, 2002). Some
agility tests correlate strongly with velocity (Illinois
agility run), whereas others correlate well with
Single-sprint tests
acceleration (505 test) (Draper & Lancaster, 1985).
Speed is a very important component in soccer, as These different relationships may affect the type of
the ability to accelerate can decide important out- agility test chosen. The physical trainer or sport
comes of the game. Players have to possess the ability scientist should therefore choose a test that addresses
to accelerate to meet the physical, tactical and the physical components of agility they consider most
technical demands of the game. During a match, important for the soccer performance of the indivi-
players sprint over distances of 10 – 30 m for average dual to be tested. The coach or trainer should also
durations of less than 6 s (Reilly & Thomas, 1976). use agility tests in conjunction with single-sprint tests
The energy required for a single sprint of short to obtain a thorough indication of players’ speed
duration ( 5 10 s) is derived via anaerobic pathways capacity (Little & Williams, 2003). The contribution
by means of the breakdown of intramuscular of extrinsic environmental influences to test perfor-
phosphocreatine and glycogenolysis with lactate as mance must also be considered. A good example of
an end-product (Gaitanos, Williams, Boobis, & an agility test was described by Balsom (1994) and is
Brooks, 1993). It should also be noted that anaerobic illustrated in Figure 1. The test requires a player to
glycolysis is activated before phosphocreatine stores perform two turns and several changes in direction.
are depleted (Serresse, Lortie, Bouchard, & Boulay, Performance on the test is determined by the time
1988). The energy provision during a single sprint is taken to complete the test course, with faster times
therefore different to that in repeated sprints signifying better performances.
performed in an intermittent exercise pattern. This Despite the difficulty in assessing the relative
necessitates both single- and repeated-sprint assess- contribution of a number of physiological factors to
Multiple-sprint tests
During a soccer match, players must be able to
recover rapidly between sprints, as the exercise
pattern in a match involves multiple sprints (Bangs-
bo, 1994; Ekblom, 1986; Reilly & Thomas, 1976;
Tumilty, 1993). For example, failure to recover after
a sprint when attacking may lead to a delay in re-
assuming a tactical defensive position, thereby
leaving the team vulnerable defensively (Bangsbo,
2003). There is an increased physiological demand
during multiple sprints as opposed to single sprints,
as muscle pH, phosphocreatine and subsequently
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) must be resynthesized
between sprints (Balsom, Seger, Sjödin, & Ekblom,
1992b). At the onset of exercise, anaerobic glycolysis

is activated and probably remains active in the
recovery periods, thus also contributing to the
resynthesis of ATP (Balsom, Seger, Sjödin, &
Ekblom, 1992a). If phosphocreatine concentrations
Figure 1. Test course of the agility test. Players start at A, sprint to are reduced following a sprint, this reduction will
the cones at B, turn at B, back through A, through C and turn at lead to inadequate resynthesis of ATP and perfor-
D, then through C and B to finish. Reproduced from Balsom mance on subsequent exercise bouts will be impaired
(1994) with the permission of Blackwell publishers. (Cheetham, Boobis, Brooks, & Williams, 1986). The
aerobic energy system also plays a very important
test performance, the outcome of an agility test can role in the recovery periods between sprints (Daw-
discriminate elite soccer players from the general son, Fitzsimmons, & Ward, 1993), as aerobic
population better than any other field test for glycolysis is used predominantly to resynthesize
strength, power or flexibility (Raven, Gettman, phosphocreatine stores and remove blood lactate
Pollock, Cooper, 1976; Reilly, Williams, Nevill, & within muscle (Balsom et al., 1994a,b) during
Franks, 2000). These results indicate that agility tests recovery from repeated bouts of high-intensity
may be the best indicator of performance for soccer intermittent exercise.
and provide the clearest differentiation between non- Based on these principles, various multiple-sprint
players, elite and recreational performers. Since there tests have been developed (Aziz, Chia, & Teh, 2000;
is no single ‘‘gold standard’’ agility test for use in the Boddington et al., 2001; Fitzsimmons, Dawson,
assessment of soccer players, it is difficult to compare Ward, & Wilkinson, 1993; Mujika, Padilla, Ibañez,
results between tests, as different tests may examine Izquierdo, & Gorostiaga, 2000). One of the most
different factors associated with agility. If a compo- common tests of repeated sprint performance was
nent such as acceleration is isolated, several different designed by Bangsbo (1994) to assess players’ sprint
agility tests may need to be included if a compre- endurance and the ability to recover between sprints.
hensive evaluation of an individual’s agility is The reliability of the test was established by Wragg,
required. Maxwell and Doust (2000). Seven male soccer
Agility performance is an important component of players performed the multiple-sprint test over six
physiological assessment in soccer. The results from trials with a coefficient of variation of 1.82% between
such evaluations should be used in conjunction with trials. Significant differences occurred between trials
data from single sprints to provide an overall 1 and 2, indicating the presence of a learning effect.
indication of a player’s ability to sprint and change This would highlight the need for several familiariza-
direction rapidly. Assessment of agility is easy to tion sessions before assessment to ensure accurate
administer and could be performed in conjunction results. The test consists of 7 6 35-m sprints
with sprint tests throughout the season following separated by 25 s recovery. The test results include
periods of specific sprint training. However, it may best sprint time, mean sprint time and a fatigue
be difficult to relate results from a single agility test to index. The best sprint time is defined as the fastest of
physical performance during a match, since agility is the seven sprints and the mean sprint time is the
a result of several neurophysiological factors. This average time taken to complete the seven sprints.
may necessitate careful consideration of appropriate Both of these indices should be low: the latter
procedures for testing in order to provide data for the expresses the player’s ability to perform several
relevant component. sprints and the former the ability to perform
‘‘explosive’’ actions within a short time during for successful physical performance in a soccer
match-play. The fatigue index is calculated by match (Bangsbo, 1994; Ekblom, 1986; Fitzsimmons
subtracting the fastest time of the first two sprints et al., 1993). The design of appropriate assessment
from the slowest time for the last two sprints. A high protocols to examine this capability in players should
fatigue index suggests that the player shows incon- therefore be a priority for coaches and sports
sistency in sprint performance and has a poor ability scientists. Recently, research has been performed
to recover between sprints. A high fatigue index may on a protocol that examines the ability to recover
be due to the inability to replenish phosphocreatine from and reproduce bouts of high-intensity exercise
stores and remove blood lactate between sprints (M. Svensson et al., unpublished data). It is intended
(Tomlin & Wenger, 2001). A low fatigue index is that the high-intensity intermittent sprint protocol
therefore advantageous as it indicates the ability to can be used by physical trainers and sport scientists
recover rapidly between high-intensity exercise in the assessment of repeated sprint ability. This
bouts. test is distinguished from the multiple-sprint test
Evidence that the multiple-sprint test stimulates (Bangsbo, 1994) and other repeated sprint tests
the anaerobic pathways was provided by Bangsbo (Fitzsimmons et al., 1993; Mujika et al., 2000) in that
(1994). Blood lactate concentrations of 9 – the time for each sprint is controlled, the distance of
14 mmol × l71 were reported immediately after the each sprint is varied and total test duration is longer.
seventh sprint in elite Danish players, highlighting These alterations in protocol are important, as sprint
the role of glycogenolysis for ATP resynthesis. It distance (Balsom et al., 1992a) and length of
would appear that the multiple-sprint test is suffi- recovery period between sprints (Balsom et al.,
ciently sensitive to discriminate between different 1992b) are important factors in determining the
standards of players and be used as an indicator of physiological responses to intermittent exercise.
changes in physical performance during match-play Balsom et al. (1992a,b) observed higher lactate
in soccer. Reilly et al. (2000) reported that perfor- concentrations when the long sprint distance was
mance on the multiple-sprint test was significantly combined with the shortest recovery time. The
better for elite than sub-elite youth soccer players, protocols consisted of 40 6 15-m, 20 6 30-m or
with elite players recording lower mean velocities and 15 6 40-m sprints with a 30-s recovery period
higher fatigue indices than the sub-elite players. between sprints (Balsom et al., 1992a), or 15 6 40-
Similar findings were reported by Sampaio and m sprints with a 3-, 60- or 120-s recovery period
Macas (2003) in elite and amateur Portuguese (Balsom et al., 1992b). Oxygen uptake was also
players. Rebelo, Krustrup, Soares and Bangsbo elevated when recovery periods of 30 s were com-
(1998) also observed that performance on the pared with recovery periods of 60 and 20 s in a 15 6
multiple-sprint test in elite Portuguese youth players 40-m protocol. Both sprint distances and recovery
was significantly better in the first than the second periods are highly variable in soccer match-play. The
half of a friendly match. If the multiple-sprint test alterations in the physiological responses to changes
can discriminate different standards of players and in these parameters may require specific tests to be
detect changes in physical performance during developed that alternate the length of sprints and the
match-play, the test has potential for inclusion in recovery periods. Such tests may provide higher
soccer-specific assessments. ecological validity and hence give a better indication
A major disadvantage of multiple-sprint tests is of the ability to perform repeated high-intensity
that individuals may develop ‘‘pacing’’ strategies efforts than tests that use set distances and identical
throughout the test and therefore not exert maximal recovery periods.
effort in the sprints. As a result, the data obtained Research on the high-intensity intermittent sprint
from the test may not reflect a player’s true speed- protocol has focused on the physiological and
endurance capability. Nevertheless, assessment of metabolic responses to performing short (2 6 13-
repeated sprint ability should be a priority for m) and long (30-m) sprints with different recovery
coaches, as the test can distinguish between stan- periods. The shorter distances for the sprints (see
dards of play and is sensitive to changes in physical Figure 2) were chosen because the participants were
performance during a match. Therefore, the test may amateur players. Longer distances may be more
provide important information for the coach in terms appropriate for more experienced or elite players.
of player selection throughout the season. One exercise set consisted of four short and four long
sprints. Running speed was dictated via a series of
pre-recorded audio signals from a tape recorder with
High-intensity intermittent sprint protocol
a player required to keep to the pace of the ‘‘beeps’’.
As has been discussed elsewhere in this review, the In between the exercise sets, a 90-s rest period was
ability to recover from and produce high-intensity included. During this time a blood sample was taken
exercise over a prolonged period of time is important for the evaluation of blood lactate concentration.
Figure 2. Illustration of the test course for the high-intensity sprint protocol (elite course). (A1 – A2 (turn) – A1, short rest, B1 – B2, long rest,
A3 – A2 (turn) – A3, short rest, B2 – B1, long rest).
Performance in the protocol shown in Table III is Table III. Distance covered, blood lactate and heart rate in the
intermittent sprint test.
indicated by the total distance covered in all the
completed sprints. The high mean blood lactate for Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
the three tests (15.0 + 3.9, 14.9 + 3.3 and
15.9 + 3.7 mmol × l71, respectively) corresponded Distance 1111 + 426* 1596 + 674 1860 + 677
covered (m)
well with the blood lactate concentrations reported
Blood lactate 15.0 + 3.9 14.9 + 3.3 15.9 + 3.7
during repeated intermittent sprints, as described (mmol × l71)
earlier (Balsom et al., 1992a,b). This indicates that Heart rate 179 + 10 181 + 10 180 + 11
the anaerobic energy system was highly taxed during (beats × min71)
the test. The heart rate responses during the tests in
* Significant difference between test 1 and 3 (P 5 0.05).
Table III also demonstrated high levels of stress on
the aerobic energy system (179 + 10 beats × min71 or
93 + 4% of maximal heart rate, 181 + 10 beats × -
min71 or 94 + 3% of maximal heart rate, and
180 + 11 beats × min71 or 94 + 4% of maximal heart have greater specificity (Balsom, 1994; MacDougall
rate, respectively). & Wenger, 1991). Sport science support workers can
Initial results from the high-intensity intermittent therefore use field tests to evaluate specific aspects of
sprint protocol indicate that the test produces soccer performance, which may provide a better
physiological responses that are associated with indication of the ability to perform in a soccer match
high-intensity exercise. The consistency of the than laboratory-based evaluations. The tests that
physiological data over the three trials suggests that have been described do, however, require minimal
the high-intensity intermittent sprint protocol may be equipment and can be carried out anywhere. It is
used to track major changes in fitness over time. The recommended that testing should be performed in
protocol must, however, be validated in terms of the standardized conditions to ensure repeatability of the
high-intensity exercise performed during soccer data. These considerations will include standardiza-
match-play and other related forms of assessment. tion of the surface and where possible similar
The high-intensity intermittent sprint protocol environmental conditions (e.g. wind speed or tem-
tests may prove useful in the determination of the perature). During tests that involve the recording of
ability to perform and recover from high-intensity the time to complete a set distance, there may be
exercise in soccer players. Results from heart rate specific issues relating to equipment (Balsom, 1994).
responses and blood lactate measurements in pilot For example, if stopwatches are used in recording
studies have indicated that the test produces physio- sprint times, there can be an element of human error
logical responses associated with high-intensity which may affect the accuracy of the data. Such
intermittent exercise. Thus, it would appear that problems can be avoided by the use of electronic
both aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis are highly timing gates. The difficulty with performance tests is
taxed during the test. Future research should be that there are no problems associated with these
tailored around professional soccer players to estab- when players are performing to their standards.
lish whether the same physiological responses are When players start to underperform, one needs a
produced as in the pilot studies described. physiological interpretation but performance tests
yield no physiological data. Performance assessment
with field tests may be most effective when the tests
Evaluation of field tests
are carried out at regular intervals throughout the
Fitness tests performed in the field may provide less season to monitor changes in soccer-specific perfor-
accurate measurements than laboratory tests but they mance.
Apor, P. (1988). Successful formulae for fitness training. In T.

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This article was downloaded by: [Lulea University of Technology]

On: 10 August 2013, At: 11:11

Journal of Sports Sciences

Testing soccer players

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410400021294

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Testing soccer players

M. SVENSSON & B. DRUST

(Accepted 24 July 2004)

Keywords: Field tests, ﬁtness proﬁle, intermittent exercise, laboratory tests

as to how the information derived can be used to

the attainment of V_ O2max during continuous ex-

Lactate threshold test The concept of a ‘‘lactate

Table II. Examples of some selected soccer-speciﬁc ﬁeld tests

mittent exercise (Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test)

1992b). At the onset of exercise, anaerobic glycolysis

Apor, P. (1988). Successful formulae for ﬁtness training. In T.

Applied Physiology, 42, 833 – 837. 83, 77 – 83.

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