chapter

2 Motion
section ●
2 Acceleration

Before You Read

What You’ll Learn
■ how acceleration, time, Describe what happens to the speed of a bicycle as it goes
and velocity are related uphill and downhill.
■ how positive and
negative acceleration
affect motion
■ how to calculate
acceleration

Study Coach
Read to Learn
Outlining As you read the
section, make an outline of
the important information in
Acceleration, Speed, and Velocity
each paragraph. A car sitting at a stoplight is not moving. When the light
turns green, the driver presses the gas pedal and the car starts
moving. The car moves faster and faster. Speed is the rate
of change of position. Acceleration is the rate of change of
velocity. When the velocity of an object changes, the object

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

is accelerating.
Remember that velocity is a measure that includes both speed
and direction. Because of this, a change in velocity can be either
a change in how fast something is moving or a change in the
direction it is moving. Acceleration means that an object
changes it speed, its direction, or both.
How are speeding up and slowing down
described?
●
C Construct a Venn Diagram When you think of something accelerating, you probably
Make the following trifold Fold-
able to compare and contrast the think of it as speeding up. But an object that is slowing down
characteristics of acceleration, is also accelerating. Remember that acceleration is a change in
speed, and velocity. speed. A car that is slowing down is decreasing its speed. It is
also accelerating, because its speed is changing.
Acceleration Imagine a car being driven down a road. If the speed is
increasing, the car has positive acceleration. When the car
Speed Velocity slows down, the speed decreases. The decreasing speed is called
negative acceleration. In both cases, the car is accelerating,
but one acceleration is positive and one is negative.

28 CHAPTER 2 Motion
 Acceleration has direction, just like velocity. In the figure
below, both cars are accelerating because their speeds are
changing. When a car’s acceleration and velocity are in the
same direction, the speed increases and the acceleration is pos-
itive. Car A has positive acceleration. When a car is slowing
down, the acceleration and velocity are in opposite directions.
The acceleration is negative. Car B has negative acceleration.

Picture This
1. Describe the acceleration of
the cars in each figure.

Does changing direction affect acceleration?

A change in velocity is either a change in an object’s speed
or its direction. When a moving object changes direction, its
velocity changes and it is accelerating. The speed of a horse
moving around on a carousel remains constant, but it is
constantly changing direction. So, the horse is accelerating.

Calculating Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity. To calculate 2. Use Variables Write what
acceleration, you first find the change in velocity. To find vf and vi mean.
Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

change in velocity subtract the beginning velocity of an object

from the velocity at the end of its movement. Beginning
velocity is called the initial velocity, or vi. Velocity at the end is
called the final velocity, or vf.
change in velocity ! final velocity " initial velocity
! vf " vi
If motion is in a straight line, the change in speed can be
used to calculate the change in velocity. The change in speed Applying Math
is the final speed minus the initial speed.
3. Calculate Suppose a bird
To find acceleration, divide the change in velocity by the takes off from a tree and
length of time during which the velocity changed. flies in a straight line.
change in velocity (vf " vi) It reaches a speed of 10 m/s.
acceleration (a) ! # #
time (t)
or a ! #t# What is the change in the
bird’s velocity?
The SI unit for velocity is meters per second (m/s). To find
acceleration, velocity is divided by the time in seconds (s).
So, the unit for acceleration is m/s2.

Reading Essentials 29
 How is positive acceleration calculated?
How is the acceleration of an object that is speeding up
different from that of an object that is slowing down? The accel-
eration of an object that is speeding up is always positive. The
acceleration of an object that is slowing down is always negative.
Suppose an airplane is sitting at the end of a runway. The
Applying Math plane takes off and moves down the runway. It takes 20 s for
the plane to travel from one end of the runway to the other.
4. Explain Why is the acceler-
When the airplane reaches the end of the runway, it is travel-
ation of an object moving
at a constant velocity ing 80 m/s. The airplane is traveling in a straight line. The ini-
always 0? tial velocity of the plane is 0 m/s and the final velocity of the
plane is 80 m/s. The time is 20 seconds. The acceleration for
the plane can be calculated as follows:
(vf " vi) (80 m/s " 0 m/s)
a ! #t# ! # # ! 4 m/s2
20 s
The airplane is speeding up as it goes down the runway.
The final speed is greater than the initial speed. The accelera-
tion is positive.
How is negative acceleration calculated?
Now imagine a skateboarder moving in a straight line. The
skateboarder is moving at a speed of 3 m/s. It takes the per-
son 2 s to come to a stop. The initial velocity is 3 m/s and the
final velocity is 0 m/s. The total time is 2 seconds. The calcu-
5. Think Critically A car that is lation for the skateboarder’s acceleration is as follows:
slowing down is still moving
(vf " vi) (0 m/s " 3 m/s)
forward. Why is this consid- a ! #t# ! # # ! "1.5 m/s2

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ered negative acceleration? 2s
The skateboarder is slowing down. The final speed is less
than the initial speed. The acceleration has a negative value.

Amusement Park Acceleration

Roller coasters are exciting rides. People who design roller
coasters use the laws of physics. The steep drops and loops of
steel roller coasters give the rider large accelerations. When
riders move down a steep hill, gravity will cause them to
accelerate toward the ground. When riders go around a sharp
turn, they are also accelerated. This acceleration makes them
feel as if a force were pushing them toward the side of the car.

30 CHAPTER 2 Motion
 After You Read
Mini Glossary
acceleration: the rate of change in velocity

1. Review the term and its definition in the Mini Glossary. Explain why a change in velocity
affects acceleration.

2. Complete the chart to organize information about how acceleration is calculated.

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3. As you read the section, you made an outline describing the points covered in each para-
graph. How did you decide what to write as the major points in your outline?

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games, and projects to help you learn more about acceleration. Section

Reading Essentials 31
 chapter
2 Motion
section ●
3 Motion and Forces

Before You Read

What You’ll Learn
■ how force and motion When you hit a baseball with a bat, you apply a force that
are related moves another object. Think of three more examples from
■ Newton’s first law sports in which force is used to move something. Write your
of motion examples on the lines below.
■ what forces and motion
are present during a
car crash

Study Coach
Read to Learn
Create a Quiz As you are reading
this section, write five questions
that could be used on a quiz.
What is force?
Be sure to include the answers. A force is a push or a pull. When you kick a soccer ball, it is
obvious that you have applied force to it. Sometimes, though,
a force is not as obvious. For example, do you feel the force of

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

gravity acting on your body? There are many forces that you
exert every day. Every time you sit, stand, stretch, bend, push,
or pull, you exert a force on another object.
How does force change motion?
Think about a tennis player hitting a ball. What happens to
the motion of the ball when the racket hits it? The force of
the racket hitting the ball makes the ball stop. Then the force
makes the ball move in a different direction.
What are balanced forces?
Not all forces change velocity. Suppose two students are
pushing on opposite sides of a box. As shown in the figure,
if both students are pushing with an equal force, the box does
not move. When two or more forces act on an object at the
same time, the forces combine. This is called a net force.
When two students are pushing with the same force, but in
opposite directions, the two forces cancel each other. The net
force on the box is zero. Forces on an object that are equal in
size and opposite in direction are called balanced forces.

32 CHAPTER 2 Motion
 Picture This
1. Describe Why are the
forces in the figure said
to be balanced?

What is the result of unbalanced forces?

Not all forces in opposite directions cancel each other. Think
about two students pushing on the opposite sides of a box.
What happens if one stu-
dent pushes harder than
the other as in the first fig-
ure? The box will move in Picture This
the direction of the larger 2. Draw in the space below an
example showing the result
force. The student who is
of unbalanced forces on
pushing harder will move opposite sides of an object.
the box in the direction of
the force. The net force
that moves the box is the
difference between the
two forces. They are
unbalanced forces.
Suppose both students
push on the same side
Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

of the box as in the

second figure. The students
are both exerting force in
the same direction. The forces are combined, or added
together, because they are exerted on the box in the same
direction. The net force is equal to both forces added together.

Inertia and Mass

Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist any change in ●
D Find Main Idea As you read,
its motion. If an object is moving, it will keep moving in a use quarter or half sheets of
paper to help you identify the
straight line at a constant speed until a force changes its direc- main ideas about inertia and
tion or speed. Inertia causes an object to resist changes in Newton’s first law of motion.
direction and speed. A dirt bike will move in a straight line
with a constant speed unless a force acts on it. A force can
turn the wheel and change the direction. Another force, fric-
tion, can slow the speed of the bike. An object that is not
moving also has inertia. It will remain motionless until an
unbalanced force causes it to move.

Reading Essentials 33
 Why can different objects have different inertia?
The inertia of an object is related to its mass. The greater
3. Compare the inertia of a car
to the inertia of a bicycle. the mass is of an object, the greater its inertia is. Remember,
mass is the amount of matter in an object. A bowling ball has
much greater mass than a table-tennis ball does. Therefore,
a bowling ball has greater inertia than a table-tennis ball.
Imagine hitting a bowling ball with a table-tennis paddle.
The bowling ball would not move very much. Imagine hitting
a table-tennis ball with the same amount of force. The table-
tennis ball would move quite easily.
What are Newton’s laws of motion?
You have seen many examples of how forces change the
motion of objects. Forces change the motion of objects in
specific ways. The British scientist Sir Isaac Newton stated
rules that describe the effects of forces on the motion of
objects. These rules are known as Newton’s laws of motion.
They apply to all objects in motion, from billiard balls to
planets orbiting the Sun.
What is Newton’s first law of motion?
Newton’s first law of motion states that an object moving at
a constant velocity keeps moving at that velocity unless an
4. Restate Newton’s first
law of motion in your unbalanced net force acts on it. An object at rest stays at rest
own words. unless a net force acts on it. Newton’s first law of motion is
sometimes called the law of inertia.
What happens in a crash?

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The law of inertia can explain what happens in a car crash.
Imagine that a car traveling at 50 km/h crashes head-on into
a stationary object. It crumples and comes to a stop within
0.1 s. Passengers who are not wearing safety belts continue to
move forward at the same speed the car was traveling. Within
about 0.02 s after the car stops, the unbelted passengers slam
into the dashboard, steering wheel, windshield, or the backs
of the front seats. They are still moving at the original speed
of 50 km/h. This is about the same speed they would reach
falling from a three-story building.
5. Think Critically Why do you
think you should wear your
How do safety belts help?
safety belt, even on short A person who is wearing a safety belt will be attached to
trips in your neighborhood? the car. The person will slow down as the car slows down.
Safety belts also prevent people from being thrown out of
cars. About half of the people who die in car crashes would
survive if they wore safety belts. Thousands of others would
suffer fewer serious injuries.

34 CHAPTER 2 Motion
 After You Read
Mini Glossary
balanced force: equal but opposite forces acting on an object inertia: the tendency of an object to resist a change in motion
force: a push or pull on an object net force: a combination of forces acting on an object

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose two terms that are
related and write a sentence using both terms.

2. Complete the chart below with information from this section.

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3. Think about what you have learned in this section. You wrote five quiz questions as you read
the section. How did writing these questions help you learn the content of this section?

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and projects to help you learn more about motion and forces. Section

Reading Essentials 35
 chapter
3 Forces
section ●
1 Weathering

Before You Read

What You’ll Learn
■ how force, mass, and Have you ever seen a paper cup fall from a high shelf to the
acceleration are related floor? This is a long distance for anything to fall. Yet, the
■ the three different types paper cup is seldom damaged. Why do you think this is?
of friction
■ how air resistance
affects falling objects

Study Coach
Read to Learn
State the Main Ideas As you
read this section, stop after each
paragraph and write the main
Force, Mass, and Acceleration
idea in your own words. You read about Newton’s first law of motion. The law says
that the motion of an object changes only if an unbalanced
force acts on it. Newton’s second law of motion describes the
relationship between the acceleration of an object, its mass,
and the forces exerted on it.
How are force and acceleration related?

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

How are throwing a ball as hard as you can and tossing it
gently different? When you throw the ball hard, you exert a
much greater force on the ball than when gently tossing it.
Therefore, the thrown ball has a greater velocity when it
leaves your hand than it does when you toss it. The ball you
throw hard has a greater change in velocity. And, the change
in velocity happens over a shorter period of time.
Remember that acceleration is the change in velocity
divided by the time it takes for the change to happen. So, the
●
A Compare Use the Foldable ball you throw harder has greater acceleration because it has
to help you understand how the
a greater change in velocity over a shorter period of time.
relationship of force and acceler-
ation compares to the relation- Are mass and acceleration related?
ship of mass and acceleration.
Imagine that you throw a softball and a baseball as hard as
Force and
Mass
you can. Will they have the same speed? No, they will not.
and
Acceleration
Acceleration They will have different speeds because a softball has more
mass than a baseball.

36 CHAPTER 3 Forces
 The softball has less velocity after it leaves your hand, even
though you applied the same amount of force. If it takes the
same amount of time to throw both balls, then the softball
would have less acceleration. This means that the acceleration
of an object depends on its mass, as well as the force placed on
it. As you can see, force, mass, and acceleration are all related.

Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s second law of motion states that the net force
acting on an object causes the object to accelerate in the
direction of the net force. To find the acceleration of an
object, you need to know its mass and the net force that is
acting on it. The acceleration of an object can be found using
the following equation.
net force (in neutrons) 1. Define What is Newton’s
acceleration (meters/second2) ! """
mass (in kilograms) second law of motion?
Fnet
a ! "m"

Suppose you are pushing a friend on a sled. The mass of

your friend and the sled together is 70 kg. The net force on
the sled is 35 N. Find the acceleration of the sled.
35N
a!" " ! 0.5 m/s2
70 k g
The acceleration of the sled is 0.5 m/s2.
How can the second law help find net force?
Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Applying Math
If you know an object’s mass and acceleration, you also can
2. Demonstrate Show how
use Newton’s second law to find the net force. Multiply both multiplying both sides of
sides of the above equation by m to get the following equation. the acceleration equation,
Fnet
Fnet ! ma a ! "", by m results in the
m
net forct equation Fnet ! ma.
Use this equation to find net force. For example, think
about a tennis serve. The tennis ball touches the racket for
only a few thousandths of a second. The ball’s velocity
changes over a very short time. Suppose the ball leaves the
racket with a speed of 100 km/h and has an acceleration of
5,000 m/s2. The ball’s mass is 0.06 kg. Here is how to find the
force placed on the ball by the racket.
Fnet ! ma
! (0.06 kg)(5,000 m/s2)
! 300 kg m/s2
! 300 N

Reading Essentials 37
 Friction
Suppose you give a skateboard a push with your hand.
Newton’s first law of motion states that if the net force acting
on an object is zero, the object will continue to move in a
straight line with a constant speed. Does the skateboard keep
moving with constant speed after it leaves your hand?
You know what happens. The skateboard slows down and
soon stops. Remember that when an object slows down, its
velocity is changing. If its velocity is changing, then it is accel-
erating. And if an object is accelerating, then a net force must
be acting on it. So, what force is acting on the skateboard?
The force that brings the skateboard to a stop is friction.
Friction is the force that opposes the sliding motion of two
surfaces that are touching each other. The amount of friction
3. Infer Which would have between two surfaces depends on two things. The first is the
more friction, a car travel- kinds of surfaces that are touching. The second is the amount
ing down a street or a toy
remote-control car travel-
of force pressing the surfaces together.
ing on the same street?
Why?
What causes friction?
Something that seems very smooth, like polished metal, may
actually be rough. You can see the dips and bumps on the sur-
face when you look at it under a microscope. If two surfaces
are pushed tightly together, welding, or sticking, happens
where the bumps touch each other. These places are called
microwelds. Micro- means “very small.” Friction is caused by
the microwelds that form where the surfaces are in contact.
What makes things stick together?

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The greater the force pushing two surfaces together, the
stronger the microwelds will be. More of the surface bumps
will be touching each other. You can see microwelds in the
figure below. To move one surface over another, a force must
be applied to break these microwelds.

More
Force
Picture This force

4. Observe Do surfaces touch

more when there is less
Surfaces Same two
force or greater force?
surfaces

More force presses the

Microwelds form where
bumps closer together.
bumps come into contact.

38 CHAPTER 3 Forces
 What is static friction?
Suppose you fill a cardboard box with books, but it is too
heavy to lift. You try to push it, but you cannot get it to move.
This means there must be a force that is working against you.
The force is friction caused by microwelds between the bot-
tom of the box and the floor. This is called static friction. 5. Complete the sentence:
Static friction is the force that keeps two surfaces at rest from The force that keeps
two surfaces at rest from
sliding across each other. In this case, your push is not large sliding over each other is
enough to break the microwelds between the box and floor.
So, the box will not start moving. .

What is sliding friction?

Suppose you ask your friend to help move the box. As you
and your friend push together, the box starts to move. The two
of you have applied enough force to break the microwelds
between the box and the floor. If you stop pushing, the box
will stop moving. Another force, sliding friction, is opposing
the motion of the box. Sliding friction is the force that works
against the motion of two surfaces that are sliding across each
other. Sliding friction is caused by the microwelds breaking
and then forming again as the box slides along the floor.
Have you ever seen a car’s wheels spinning in the mud or
snow? There is sliding friction between the spinning wheels
and the surface. Sand or gravel on the surface increases the 6. Compare and Contrast How
sliding friction, so the wheels will stop slipping. do static friction and sliding
friction differ?
What is rolling friction?
A wheel digs into the surface that it is rolling over. This
Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

causes both the wheel and the surface to be deformed. There

is static friction in the deformed area where the wheel and
surface are in contact. This makes a frictional force called
rolling friction. Rolling friction is the frictional force between
a rolling object and the surface it rolls on.

Air Resistance
Objects falling toward Earth are being pulled downward by
the force of gravity. Air resistance is a force that opposes the
movement of objects through the air. Air resistance is similar
to friction. You can feel air resistance on your face when you
ride your bike very fast.
Like friction, air resistance acts in the direction opposite to
the object’s motion. In the case of a falling object, air resist-
ance pushes up as gravity pulls down. If there were no air
resistance, only gravity would affect falling objects. All objects
would fall at the same rate.

Reading Essentials 39
 Air resistance causes different objects to fall with different
accelerations and different speeds. The amount of air resistance
depends on an object’s size and shape. Imagine dropping
two identical plastic bags. One is crumpled into a ball and the
other is spread out, resembling a parachute. When the bags are
dropped, the crumpled bag falls faster than the spread-out bag.
The downward force of gravity on both bags is the same. But,
the upward force of air resistance on the crumpled bag is less.
So, the net downward force on the crumpled bag is greater.
Picture This
7. Compare Measure the What is terminal velocity?
length of each arrow beside Imagine an object falling toward Earth. As the object falls,
the sky diver. Compare the gravity causes it to accelerate. This causes the upward force of
length of the gravity arrow to air resistance to increase. At some point, the upward force of
the lengths of the air resist-
ance and net force arrows.
air resistance becomes equal to the downward force of gravity.
This means that the net force is zero. So, from this point on,
the object will fall at a constant speed. This constant speed is
called terminal velocity. Terminal velocity is the highest speed
a falling object can reach. The terminal velocity of an object
depends on its size, shape, and mass.
Look at the figure below. The air resistance force on an open
parachute is much greater than the air resistance on the sky
diver with a closed parachute. With the parachute open, air
resistance increases. This makes the terminal velocity of the sky
diver become small enough that the sky diver can land safely.
Net
Gravity force

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Net
Gravity force
Air
resistance

Air
resistance
Gravity ! air resistance " net force

40 CHAPTER 3 Forces
 After You Read
Mini Glossary
air resistance: a force that opposes the movement of objects sliding friction: the force that opposes the motion of two sur-
through air faces sliding past each other
friction: the force that opposes the sliding motion of two sur- static friction: the force that keeps two surfaces at rest from
faces that are touching each other sliding over each other
Newton’s second law of motion: the net force acting on
an object causes the object to accelerate in the direction of
the net force

1. Review the definition of air resistance in the Mini Glossary. Give an example of air resistance.

2. Complete the chart below to organize the different kinds of friction.

Describe static friction. Give an example of static friction.

Describe sliding friction. Give an example of sliding friction.

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Describe rolling friction. Give an example of rolling friction.

3. As you read this section, you wrote the main idea of each paragraph in your own words.
How did you decide what the main idea of each paragraph was?

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projects to help you learn more about Newton’s second law of motion. Section

Reading Essentials 41
 chapter
3 Forces
section ●
2 Gravity

Before You Read

What You’ll Learn
■ how gravity and weight Think about what you know about gravity. Write what you
are related know about gravity on the lines below.
■ the difference between
mass and weight

Read to Learn
Identify the Main Point High-
light the main point in each What is gravity?
paragraph. Use a different color
to highlight details or examples You have learned that objects falling toward Earth are being
that help explain the main point. pulled downward by the force of gravity. There is also a gravi-
tational attraction between you and your desk, you and your
science book, and even between you and the planet Jupiter.
Everything that has mass is attracted by the force of gravity.
Gravity is an attractive force between two objects. Gravity
increases as the mass of either object increases, or as the

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

objects move closer to each other.

Picture This
1. Interpret Illustrations
What two things can cause
the gravitational force
between objects to
increase?

If the mass of either of the objects If the objects are closer together,
increases, the gravitational force the gravitational force between
between them increases. them increases.

You can’t feel any gravitational attraction between you and

your desk because the force is weak. Only Earth is both close
enough and has a large enough mass that you can feel its
gravitational attraction. The Sun has much more mass than
Earth. But it is too far away to exert a gravitational force that
you could notice. Your desk is close, but it doesn’t have
enough mass to exert an attraction you can feel.
42 CHAPTER 3 Forces
 The Law of Universal Gravitation
The law of universal gravitation lets us find the force of grav-
ity between any two objects if their masses and the distance 2. Determine What do the
1 and 2 in m1m2 mean?
between them are known. Here is an equation for the law:
(mass 1) # (mass 2)
gravitational force ! (constant) # ""
distance2
m1m2
F ! G "d"
2

In this equation, G is the constant called the universal gravita-

tional constant. A constant is an amount that never changes. The
variable d is the distance between the two masses, m1 and m2.
Why is gravity called a long-range force?
The law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational
force between two masses decreases as the distance between ●
B Organize Information Make
the following 6-tab Foldable to
them increases. Suppose the distance between two objects help you organize information
increases from 1 m to 2 m. Then the gravitational force about gravity.
between them becomes one fourth as large. If the distance
increases from 1 m to 10 m, the gravitational force between
the objects is one hundredth as large. No matter how far apart
two objects are, the gravitational force between them never
completely goes to zero. Gravity is called a long-range force.
No matter how long the distance is between two objects, grav-
ity never disappears.
How did gravity help astronomers find
other planets?
Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The motion of every planet in our solar system is affected by

the gravitational forces of the other planets. In the 1840s, the
farthest known planet was Uranus. Its motion could not com-
pletely be explained by the gravitational attraction of the other
known planets. Was another planet affecting its motion? Using
the law of universal gravitation and Newton’s laws of motion,
astronomers discovered another planet, Neptune.
3. Communicate On the lines
Earth’s Gravitational Acceleration below, write why some
astronomers thought
If you dropped a marble and a bowling ball at the same there might be a planet
time, which one would hit the ground first? Suppose the beyond Uranus.
effects of air resistance were small enough to be ignored.
When all forces except gravity can be ignored, a falling object
is said to be in free fall. If there were no air resistance, all
objects near Earth’s surface would fall with the same accelera-
tion. The marble and the bowling ball would hit the ground
at the same time.

Reading Essentials 43
 The acceleration of an object in free fall is about 9.8 m/s2.
This acceleration is sometimes called the acceleration of grav-
ity. It is given the symbol g. The force of Earth’s gravity on a
falling object is the object’s mass times the acceleration of
gravity. This can be expressed by the following equation.
force of gravity (N) ! mass (kg) # acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
F ! mg
You can use this equation to find the gravitational force on
a sky diver with a mass of 60 kg.
F ! mg ! (60 kg)(9.8 m/s2) ! 588 N
The gravitational force on the sky diver is 588 N.

Applying Math How is weight calculated?

Earth always exerts a gravitational force on objects. The
4. Calculate Find the weight
of a 50-kg person on Earth. gravitational force exerted on an object is its weight. Weight is
Remember, g ! 9.8m/s2. found using the following equation. The letter g represents
Show your work. the acceleration of gravity.
weight (N) ! mass (kg) # acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
W ! mg

Is there a difference between weight and mass?

Weight and mass are not the same. Weight is a force. Mass
is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. But weight
and mass are related. The greater an object’s mass, the

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

stronger the gravitational force between the object and Earth.
So, weight increases as mass increases. An object has the same
mass on Earth and as on the moon. However, the gravita-
tional force of Earth is greater than the moon’s. So an object
weighs more on Earth than on the moon.

Weightlessness and Free Fall

Suppose you are standing on a scale in an elevator that is
not moving. The scale would record your normal weight. But,
what would happen if you were standing on the scale and the
elevator were falling rapidly? If you and the scale were in free
5. Explain Why do astronauts fall, then you would no longer push down on the scale. The
in the space shuttle weigh
less?
dial would say you have zero weight, even though your weight
has not changed.
You may have seen pictures of astronauts floating inside a
space shuttle. They are experiencing weightlessness. The astro-
nauts are not really weightless. However, they do weigh less
because they are farther from Earth’s gravitational pull.

44 CHAPTER 3 Forces
 An orbiting space shuttle is in free fall. It is falling around
Earth, not straight downward. Everything in the space shuttle
is falling at the same rate, much like the way you and the scale
were falling in the elevator. Objects in the shuttle seem to be
floating because they are all falling with the same acceleration.

Projectile Motion
You probably have noticed that thrown objects do not
always move in a straight line. Their path curves downward.
Anything that is thrown or shot through the air is called a
projectile. Earth’s gravity causes projectiles to follow a down-
ward, curved path.
What happens when an object has both
horizontal and vertical motion?
When you throw a ball, the force exerted on the ball by
your hand pushes the ball forward. This force gives the ball
horizontal motion. When you let go of the ball, gravity pulls it
downward, giving it vertical motion. The ball has constant
horizontal velocity, but increasing vertical velocity. Gravity
exerts an unbalanced force on the ball. It changes the direc-
tion of the ball’s path from only forward, to forward and
downward. The result of these two motions is that the ball
moves in a downward curve.
Are horizontal and vertical distance always 6. Describe What does gravity
the same? do to the path of an object
Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

that is thrown horizontally?

Suppose an automatic ball machine launches a ball in a
horizontal direction from 1 m above the ground. Would it
take longer to reach the ground than if you dropped the ball
from the same height? Surprisingly, it would not. Look at the
figure below. A dropped ball and one thrown horizontally
from the same height will hit the ground at the same time.
Both balls travel the same vertical distance in the same
amount of time. However, the ball thrown horizontally travels
a greater total distance than the ball that is dropped. Picture This
7. Interpret a Figure Which
ball has fallen the greater
vertical distance in one
second, the ball that was
dropped or the ball that
was thrown?

Reading Essentials 45
 Centripetal Force
Look at the path of the ball as it travels through the curved
tube in the figure below. When the ball enters a curve, even if
its speed does not change, it is accelerating. This is because its
direction is changing. When the ball goes
through a curve, the change in its
direction is toward the center
Picture This of the curve. Acceleration
8. Trace the path of the ball at toward the center of a
right with a pen. Try to move curved path is called
the pen at a constant speed. centripetal acceleration.
The ball has centripetal
acceleration. So, according
to the second law of motion,
the direction of the net force on the
ball must be toward the center of the
curved path. The net force exerted toward the center of a
curved path is called a centripetal force. An object that
moves in a circle is doing so because a centripetal force is act-
ing on it in a direction toward the center. The centripetal
force is the force exerted by the walls of the tube on the ball.
How does centripetal force depend on traction?
When a car rounds a curve, a centripetal force must be act-
9. Describe a real-world ing on the car to keep it moving in a curved path. If it does
situation that involves not, the car will slide off the road. This centripetal force is the
centripetal force.
frictional force, or traction, between the tires and the road.

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The road may be slippery because of rain or ice. As tires get
older, they get smoother and their traction decreases. If either
or both of these situations occur, the car may slide in a
straight line and not follow the curve. This is because the
centripetal force, traction, is not strong enough to keep the
car moving around the curve.
Can gravity be a centripetal force?
Imagine swinging a yo-yo on a string above your head. The
string places centripetal force on the yo-yo. The string keeps
the yo-yo moving in a circle. In the same way, Earth’s gravita-
tional pull places centripetal force on the Moon and keeps it
moving in a nearly circular orbit.

46 CHAPTER 3 Forces
 After You Read
Mini Glossary
centripetal acceleration: acceleration toward the center of gravity: a force that pulls two objects together
a curved path weight: the gravitational force placed on an object
centripetal force: a force that moves an object in the direc-
tion of the center of a curved path

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain the difference
between the mass of an object and its weight.

2. Choose one of the question headings in the Read to Learn section. Write the question in
the space below. Then write your answer to the question.

Question:
Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Answer:

3. Think about what you have learned in this section. How did identifying the main point
and supporting details of each paragraph help you learn the new material?

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games, and projects to help you learn more about gravity. Section

Reading Essentials 47
 chapter
3 Forces
section ●
3 The Third Law of Motion

Before You Read

What You’ll Learn
■ Newton’s third law of
Think about a time you reacted to someone else’s action. For
motion example, a time when you smiled because someone compli-
■ how to find momentum mented you. Another one of Newton’s laws of motion says
that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Write about an action/reaction situation you have seen.

Study Coach
Read to Learn
Create a Quiz As you read this
section, write five questions that
could be included on a quiz.
Newton’s Third Law
Be sure to include the answer. If you push against a wall while wearing in-line skates, you
will roll backwards. The action of pushing against the wall
produced a reaction—moving backward. This is an example
of Newton’s third law of motion.

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Newton’s third law of motion describes action and reaction.
It states that when one object applies a force on a second object,
the second object applies a force on the first object that is equal
in strength and opposite in direction. In other words “to every
action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force.”
How do action and reaction happen?
When a force is applied in nature, a reaction force occurs at
the same time. When you jump on a trampoline, you exert a
downward force on the trampoline. At the same time, the
trampoline exerts an equal upward force on you.
●
C Finding Main Ideas While How do action and reaction make you move?
reading this section, make a
The action and reaction forces are equal. So how do you
Foldable to help you identify
the main ideas in Newton’s move by walking if each time you push on the ground, Earth
third law of motion. pushes back with an equal force? The forces are acting on
objects that have different masses. Earth has more mass than
The Third
Law of Motion
you do. Even though the forces are equal, their net force is not
equal. Unequal net forces determine the direction you move.

48 CHAPTER 3 Forces
 What is rocket propulsion?
Suppose you are standing on skates holding a softball. You
exert a force on the softball when you throw it. Newton’s third ●D Finding Main Ideas Use
two quarter-sheets of notepaper
law says the softball exerts a reaction force on you. This force
to organize notes on momentum
pushes you in the direction opposite the softball’s motion. and the law of conservation of
Rockets use this same principle to move. In a rocket engine, momentum.
burning fuel produces hot gases. The rocket engine applies a
force on the gases and causes them to escape out of the back
of the rocket. By Newton’s third law, the gases apply a reaction
force on the rocket and push it in the opposite direction.

Momentum
A moving object has a property called momentum.
Momentum is related to how much force is needed to change
an object’s motion. The momentum of an object is the prod-
uct of its mass and its velocity. Momentum can be found
using the following equation. The symbol p represents
momentum. The unit for momentum is kg#m/s.
momentum (kg#m/s) ! mass (kg) # velocity (m/s)
1. Compare Which has more
p ! mv momentum, a car traveling
at 12 km/h or a bicycle trav-
Two cars can have the same velocity. But the bigger car has eling at the same speed?
more momentum, because it has more mass. An archer’s Explain why.
arrow can have a large momentum because of its high veloc-
ity, even though its mass is small. A walking elephant may
have a low velocity, but because of its large mass, it has a
Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

large momentum.
Suppose a sprinter with a mass of 80 kg has a speed of
10 m/s. What is the sprinter’s momentum? Substitute the
known values into the momentum equation.
p ! mv
! (80 kg)(10 m/s)
! 800 kg#m/s
Applying Math
The sprinter’s momentum is 800 kg#m/s.
2. Apply What is the momen-
How are force and momentum related? tum of a bicycle with a
Recall that acceleration is the difference between final and mass of 18 kg traveling at
20 m/s?
initial velocity, divided by the time. Also recall that the net force
on an object is its mass times its acceleration. When you com-
bine these two relationships, you get the following equation.
(mvf $ mv1)
F ! "t"

Reading Essentials 49
 In the equation, mvf is final momentum and mvi is initial
momentum. This equation shows that net force exerted on an
object is its change in momentum divided by the time over
which the change occurs.
When you catch a ball, your hand applies a force on the
3. Define What are mvf
and mvi in the net force ball that stops it. The force your hand exerts on the ball and
equation? the force the ball exerts on your hand are equal. The force
depends on the mass and initial velocity of the ball
and how long it takes to come to a stop. The ball’s final
velocity is zero.
What is the law of conservation of momentum?
Momentum can be passed from one object to another.
When a cue ball hits a group of balls that are motionless, the
cue ball slows down and the other balls move. The momen-
tum that the group of balls gained equals the momentum that
the cue ball lost. But the total momentum of all the balls
before and after the collision is the same. Total momentum
has not been lost, nor has new momentum been created.
This is an example of the law of conservation of momentum.
If a group of objects applies forces on each other, their total
momentum does not change.
4. Recognize Cause and Effect What happens when objects collide?
In a game of pool, why will In a game of pool, suppose one ball is moving in one direc-
the balls eventually stop
after a collision?
tion, and another ball moving the same direction strikes it
from behind. The ball that is struck will continue to move in
the same direction, but more quickly. The striking ball has

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

given it more momentum in the same direction.
What if two balls of equal mass are moving toward each
other with the same speed? They would have the same
momentum, but in opposite directions. If the balls collided,
each would reverse direction, and move with the same speed
as before the collision.

50 CHAPTER 3 Forces
 After You Read
Mini Glossary
momentum: the product of a moving object’s mass and Newton’s third law of motion: to every action force there
velocity is an equal and opposite reaction force

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe a real-world exam-
ple of Newton’s third law of motion.

2. Match the terms with the correct statements. Put the letter of the statement in Column 2
on the line in front of the term it matches in Column 1.

Column 1 Column 2

1. rocket propulsion a. To every action force there is an

equal and opposite reaction.
2. momentum
b. Momentum cannot be created
3. conservation of momentum or destroyed.

4. Newton’s third law of motion

Copyright © by Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

c. the product of a moving object’s

mass and velocity

d. An engine applies a force on hot

gases and the gases apply a force in
the opposite direction.

3. You created quiz questions to help you learn the material in this section. How can you use
these questions to help you prepare for a test on the whole chapter?

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projects to help you learn more about Newton’s third law of motion. Section

Reading Essentials 51