One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile with 

classical
mechanics, but it is compatible with special relativity. According to Maxwell's equations, the speed of
light in a vacuum is a universal constant that is dependent only on the electrical
permittivity and magnetic permeability of free space. This violates Galilean invariance, a long-
standing cornerstone of classical mechanics. One way to reconcile the two theories
(electromagnetism and classical mechanics) is to assume the existence of a luminiferous
aether through which the light propagates. However, subsequent experimental efforts failed to detect
the presence of the aether. After important contributions of Hendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincaré, in
1905, Albert Einstein solved the problem with the introduction of special relativity, which replaced
classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics compatible with classical electromagnetism.
(For more information, see History of special relativity.)
In addition, relativity theory implies that in moving frames of reference, a magnetic field transforms to
a field with a nonzero electric component and conversely, a moving electric field transforms to a
nonzero magnetic component, thus firmly showing that the phenomena are two sides of the same
coin. Hence the term "electromagnetism". (For more information, see Classical electromagnetism
and special relativity and Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism.)

Extension to nonlinear phenomena

Magnetic reconnection in the solar plasma gives rise to solar flares, a complex magnetohydrodynamical

phenomenon.

The Maxwell equations are linear, in that a change in the sources (the charges and currents) results
in a proportional change of the fields. Nonlinear dynamics can occur when electromagnetic fields
couple to matter that follows nonlinear dynamical laws. This is studied, for example, in the subject
of magnetohydrodynamics, which combines Maxwell theory with the Navier–Stokes equations.

Quantities and units

See also: List of physical quantities and List of electromagnetism equations
Electromagnetic units are part of a system of electrical units based primarily upon the magnetic
properties of electric currents, the fundamental SI unit being the ampere. The units are:

 ampere (electric current)
 coulomb (electric charge)
 farad (capacitance)
 henry (inductance)
  ohm (resistance)
 siemens (conductance)
 tesla (magnetic flux density)
 volt (electric potential)
 watt (power)
 weber (magnetic flux)
In the electromagnetic cgs system, electric current is a fundamental quantity defined via Ampère's
law and takes the permeability as a dimensionless quantity (relative permeability) whose value in a
vacuum is unity. As a consequence, the square of the speed of light appears explicitly in some of the
equations interrelating quantities in this system.

SI electromagnetism units

 v
 t
 e
Symbo
Symbol[11] Name of quantity Unit name Base units
l
Q electric charge coulomb C A⋅s
A (= W/V =
I electric current ampere A
C/s)
ampere per square
J electric current density A/m2 A⋅m−2
metre
U, ΔV, potential difference; electromotive J/C =
volt V
Δφ; E force kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−1
electric V/A =
R; Z; X ohm Ω
resistance; impedance; reactance kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−2
ρ resistivity ohm metre Ω⋅m kg⋅m3⋅s−3⋅A−2
V⋅A =
P electric power watt W
kg⋅m2⋅s−3
C/V =
C capacitance farad F
kg−1⋅m−2⋅A2⋅s4
ΦE electric flux volt metre V⋅m kg⋅m3⋅s−3⋅A−1
N/C =
E electric field strength volt per metre V/m
kg⋅m⋅A−1⋅s−3
coulomb per square
D electric displacement field C/m2 A⋅s⋅m−2
metre
ε permittivity farad per metre F/m kg−1⋅m−3⋅A2⋅s4
χe electric susceptibility (dimensionless) 1 1
Ω−1 =
G; Y; B conductance; admittance; susceptance siemens S
kg−1⋅m−2⋅s3⋅A2
κ, γ, σ conductivity siemens per metre S/m kg−1⋅m−3⋅s3⋅A2
B magnetic flux density, magnetic tesla T Wb/m2 =
 kg⋅s−2⋅A−1 =
induction
N⋅A−1⋅m−1
V⋅s =
Φ, ΦM, ΦB magnetic flux weber Wb
kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅A−1
H magnetic field strength ampere per metre A/m A⋅m−1
Wb/A = V⋅s/A
L, M inductance henry H
= kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅A−2
μ permeability henry per metre H/m kg⋅m⋅s−2⋅A−2
χ magnetic susceptibility (dimensionless) 1 1

Formulas for physical laws of electromagnetism (such as Maxwell's equations) need to be adjusted
depending on what system of units one uses. This is because there is no one-to-one
correspondence between electromagnetic units in SI and those in CGS, as is the case for
mechanical units. Furthermore, within CGS, there are several plausible choices of electromagnetic
units, leading to different unit "sub-systems", including Gaussian, "ESU", "EMU", and Heaviside–
Lorentz. Among these choices, Gaussian units are the most common today, and in fact the phrase
"CGS units" is often used to refer specifically to CGS-Gaussian units.

See also
 Abraham–Lorentz force
 Aeromagnetic surveys
 Computational electromagnetics
 Double-slit experiment
 Electromagnet
 Electromagnetic induction
 Electromagnetic wave equation
 Electromagnetic scattering
 Electromechanics
 Geophysics
 Introduction to electromagnetism
 Magnetostatics
 Magnetoquasistatic field
 Optics
 Relativistic electromagnetism
 Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory

References
1. ^ Ravaioli, Fawwaz T. Ulaby, Eric Michielssen, Umberto (2010).  Fundamentals of applied
electromagnetics  (6th ed.). Boston: Prentice Hall. p.  13. ISBN 978-0-13-213931-1.
2. ^ Darrigol, Olivier (2000).  Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0198505949.
3. ^ Martins, Roberto de Andrade. "Romagnosi and Volta's Pile: Early Difficulties in the
Interpretation of Voltaic Electricity"  (PDF). In Fabio Bevilacqua; Lucio Fregonese
 (eds.). Nuova Voltiana: Studies on Volta and his Times.  3. Università degli Studi di Pavia.
pp.  81–102. Archived from the original  (PDF) on 2013-05-30. Retrieved 2010-12-02.
4. ^ VIII. An account of an extraordinary effect of lightning in communicating magnetism.
Communicated by Pierce Dod, M.D. F.R.S. from Dr. Cookson of Wakefield in Yorkshire. Phil.
Trans. 1735 39, 74-75, published 1 January 1735
5. ^ Whittaker, E.T. (1910). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity from the Age of
Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth Century. Longmans, Green and Company.
6. ^ Browne, "Physics for Engineering and Science," p. 160: "Gravity is one of the fundamental
forces of nature. The other forces such as friction, tension, and the normal force are derived
from the electric force, another of the fundamental forces. Gravity is a rather weak force...
The electric force between two protons is much stronger than the gravitational force between
them."
7. ^ Purcell, "Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd Edition," p. 546: Ch 11 Section 6, "Electron Spin
and Magnetic Moment."
8. ^ Stern, Dr. David P.; Peredo, Mauricio (2001-11-25).  "Magnetic Fields – History". NASA
Goddard Space Flight Center. Retrieved  2009-11-27.
9. ^ Purcell, p. 436. Chapter 9.3, "Maxwell's description of the electromagnetic field was
essentially complete."
10. ^ Purcell: p. 278: Chapter 6.1, "Definition of the Magnetic Field." Lorentz force and force
equation.
11. ^ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in
Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. pp. 14–
15. Electronic version.

Further reading
Web sources
 Nave, R. "Electricity and magnetism". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 2013-
11-12.
 Khutoryansky, E.  "Electromagnetism – Maxwell's Laws". Retrieved 2014-12-28.

Textbooks
 G.A.G. Bennet (1974). Electricity and Modern Physics (2nd  ed.). Edward Arnold (UK). ISBN 978-
0-7131-2459-0.
 Browne, Michael (2008).  Physics for Engineering and Science  (2nd ed.). McGraw-
Hill/Schaum.  ISBN  978-0-07-161399-6.
 Dibner, Bern (2012).  Oersted and the discovery of electromagnetism. Literary Licensing,
LLC. ISBN 978-1-258-33555-7.
 Durney, Carl H.; Johnson, Curtis C. (1969). Introduction to modern electromagnetics. McGraw-
Hil]. ISBN 978-0-07-018388-9.
 Feynman, Richard P. (1970).  The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol II. Addison Wesley
Longman. ISBN 978-0-201-02115-8.
 Fleisch, Daniel (2008). A Student's Guide to Maxwell's Equations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-70147-1.
 I.S. Grant; W.R. Phillips; Manchester Physics (2008). Electromagnetism (2nd  ed.). John Wiley &
Sons.  ISBN  978-0-471-92712-9.
 Griffiths, David J. (1998).  Introduction to Electrodynamics  (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-
13-805326-0.
 Jackson, John D.  (1998). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd  ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-30932-1.
 Moliton, André (2007).  Basic electromagnetism and materials. 430 pages. New York City:
Springer-Verlag New York, LLC.  ISBN  978-0-387-30284-3.
  Purcell, Edward M. (1985).  Electricity and Magnetism Berkeley, Physics Course Volume 2 (2nd
ed.). McGraw-Hill.  ISBN  978-0-07-004908-6.
 Purcell, Edward M and Morin, David. (2013). Electricity and Magnetism, 820p (3rd  ed.).
Cambridge University Press, New York. ISBN 978-1-107-01402-2.
 Rao, Nannapaneni N. (1994).  Elements of engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.). Prentice
Hall.  ISBN  978-0-13-948746-0.
 Rothwell, Edward J.; Cloud, Michael J. (2001). Electromagnetics. CRC Press.  ISBN  978-0-8493-
1397-4.
 Tipler, Paul (1998).  Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 2: Light, Electricity and
Magnetism (4th  ed.). W.H. Freeman.  ISBN  978-1-57259-492-0.
 Wangsness, Roald K.; Cloud, Michael J. (1986). Electromagnetic Fields  (2nd ed.).
Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-81186-2.

General references
 A. Beiser (1987).  Concepts of Modern Physics  (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill (International).  ISBN  978-
0-07-100144-1.
 L.H. Greenberg (1978). Physics with Modern Applications. Holt-Saunders International W.B.
Saunders and Co.  ISBN  978-0-7216-4247-5.
 R.G. Lerner; G.L. Trigg (2005).  Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd  ed.). VHC Publishers, Hans
Warlimont, Springer. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-07-025734-4.
 J.B. Marion; W.F. Hornyak (1984). Principles of Physics. Holt-Saunders International Saunders
College. ISBN 978-4-8337-0195-2.
 H.J. Pain (1983).  The Physics of Vibrations and Waves  (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-
0-471-90182-2.
 C.B. Parker (1994). McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd  ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-
07-051400-3.
 R. Penrose (2007).  The Road to Reality. Vintage books. ISBN 978-0-679-77631-4.
 P.A. Tipler; G. Mosca (2008). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: With Modern
Physics (6th  ed.). W.H. Freeman and Co.  ISBN  978-1-4292-0265-7.
 P.M. Whelan; M.J. Hodgeson (1978).  Essential Principles of Physics (2nd  ed.). John
Murray.  ISBN  978-0-7195-3382-2.

External links
Wikiquote has quotations
related
to: Electromagnetism

Library resources about
Electromagnetism

 Resources in your library

 Magnetic Field Strength Converter

 Electromagnetic Force – from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics
 The Deflection of a Magnetic Compass Needle by a Current in a Wire
(video) on YouTube
 show

The fundamental interactions of physics