CHAPTER TWO

Chapter Two

Cellular and Satellite Systems

2.1 Background

2.1.1 First-generation analogue mobile systems

In 1980 the mobile cellular era had started, and since then mobile
communications have undergone significant changes and experienced
enormous growth. Figure 2.1 shows the evolution of the mobile networks.
First-generation mobile systems used analogue transmission for speech
services. In 1979, the first cellular system in the world became operational
by Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) in Tokyo, Japan. The system
utilized 600 duplex channels over a spectrum of 30 MHz in the 800 MHz
band, with a channel separation of 25 kHz. Two years later, the cellular
epoch reached Europe. The two most popular analogue systems were
Nordic Mobile Telephones (NMT) and Total Access Communication
Systems (TACS). In 1981, the NMT-450 system was commercialized by
NMT in Scandinavia. The system operated in the 450 MHz and 900 MHz
band with a total bandwidth of 10 MHz. TACS, launched in the United
Kingdom in 1982, operated at 900 MHz with a band of 25 MHz for each
path and a channel bandwidth of 25 kHz. Extended TACS was deployed in
1985. Other than NMT and TACS, some other analogue systems were also
introduced in 1980s across the Europe. For example, in Germany, the C-
450 cellular system, operating at 450 MHz and 900 MHz (later), was
deployed in September in 1985. All of these systems offered handover and
roaming capabilities but the cellular networks were unable to interoperate
between countries. This was one of the inevitable disadvantages of first-
generation mobile networks. In the United States, the Advanced Mobile

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CHAPTER TWO

Phone System (AMPS) was launched in 1982. The system was allocated a
40-MHz bandwidth within the 800 to 900 MHz frequency range. In 1988,
an additional 10 MHz bandwidth, called Expanded Spectrum (ES) was
allocated to AMPS.
2.1.2 Second-generation & phase 2+ mobile systems
Second-generation (2G) mobile systems were introduced in the end
of 1980s. Low bit rate data services were supported as well as the
traditional speech service. Digital transmission rather than analogue
transmission was used by these systems. Consequently, compared with
first-generation systems, higher spectrum efficiency, better data services,
and more advanced roaming were offered by 2G systems. In Europe, the
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) was deployed to
provide a single unified standard. This enabled seamless services through
out Europe by means of international roaming. The earliest GSM system
operated in the 900 MHz frequency band with a total bandwidth of 50 MHz.
During development over more than 20 years, GSM technology has been
continuously improved to offer better services in the market. New
technologies have been developed based on the original GSM system,
leading to some more advanced systems known as 2.5 Generation (2.5G)
systems. So far, as the largest mobile system worldwide, GSM is the
technology of choice in over 190 countries with about 787 million
subscribers [GSMweb].

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CHAPTER TWO

Figure 2-1: Evolution of mobile networks

In the United States, there were three lines of development in second-

generation digital cellular systems. The first digital system, introduced in
1991, was the IS-54 (North America TDMA Digital Cellular), of which a
new version supporting additional services (IS-136) was introduced in
1996. Meanwhile, IS-95 (CDMA One) was deployed in 1993. The US
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) also auctioned a new block of
spectrum in the 1900 MHz band, allowing GSM1900 to enter the US
market. In Japan, the Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) system, originally
known as JDC (Japanese Digital Cellular) was initially defined in 1990.
Commercial service was started by NTT in 1993 in the 800 MHz band and
in 1994 in the 1.5 GHz band. Nowadays, second-generation digital cellular
systems still dominate the mobile industry throughout the whole world.
However, they are evolving towards third generation (3G) systems because
of the demands imposed by increasing mobile traffic and the emergence of
new type of services. The new systems, such as HSCSD (High Speed
Circuit Switched Data), GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), and IS-95B,
are commonly referred as generation 2.5 (2.5G). HSCSD, GPRS and EDGE

8
CHAPTER TWO

are all based on the original GSM system. HSCSD is the first enhancement
of the GSM air interface: it bundles GSM timeslots to give a theoretical
maximum data rate of 57.6 Kbit/s (bundling 4´14.4 Kbit/s full rate
timeslots). HSCSD provides both symmetric and asymmetric services and it
is relatively easy to deploy. However, HSCSD is not easy to price
competitively since each timeslot is effectively a GSM channel.
Following HSCSD, GPRS is the next step of the evolution of the GSM air
interface. Other than bundling timeslots, 4 new channel coding schemes are
proposed. GPRS provides “always on” packet switched services with
bandwidth only being used when needed. Therefore, GPRS enables GSM
with Internet access at high spectrum efficiency by sharing time slots
between different users. Theoretically, GPRS can support data rate up to
160 Kbit/s (current commercial GPRS provides 40 Kbit/s). Deploying
GPRS is not as simple as HSCSD because the core network needs to be
upgraded as well. EDGE uses the GSM radio structure and TDMA framing
but with a new modulation scheme, 8QPSK, instead of GMSK, thereby
increasing by three times the GSM throughput using the same bandwidth.
EDGE in combination with GPRS will deliver single user data rates of up to
384 Kbit/s. For more details on GSM phase 2+ and on GSM’s evolution
towards 3G systems.
2.1.3 Third-generation mobile systems and beyond
The massive success of 2G technologies is pushing mobile networks to
grow extremely fast as ever-growing mobile traffic puts a lot of pressure on
network capacity. In addition, the current strong drive towards new
applications, such as wireless Internet access and video telephony, has
generated a need for a universal standard at higher user bitrates: 3G.
2.1.4 Fourth-Generation (4G) Systems

9
CHAPTER TWO

With the completion of many aspects of the standardization of 3G

systems, attention has now focused on the definition and standardization of
4G technologies. The influence of the Internet will have a significant
bearing on 4G capabilities, as operators move towards an all
IPenvironment. In this scenario, the legacy of 2G technologies, in particular
the CN and radio interface solutions will diminish, although perhaps not to
the extent to which 1G influenced 3G. As technology continues to develop
and evolve, the ability to deliver faster, broadband services at a premium
QoS will be implicit requirements of next-generation technologies.

While 3G can rightly claim to have brought forward the convergence

of mobile and Internet technologies, 4G will herald the convergence of
fixed, broadcast and mobile technologies. The possibility of converging
UMTS and digital video broadcasting (DVB) and digital audio broadcasting
(DAB) is an area for further investigation. Such a solution would allow
broadcast quality television to be beamed directly to the mobile user, for
example. It is in such an environment that cellular, cordless, WLL and
satellite technologies will combine to open up new possibilities for the
telecommunications sector.
2.2 Integrated Systems
2.2.1 Integrated Wireless Systems
Integrated wireless systems are exemplified by integrated cordless
and cellular systems, integrated cellular systems, and integrated terrestrial
and satellite systems.
Such integrated systems combine the features of individual wireless
systems to achieve the goals of improved mobility, low cost, etc.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.2.2 Integrated Terrestrial Systems

Terrestrial intersystem handover may be between two cellular
systems or between a cellular system and a cordless telephone system.
Examples of systems that need intersystem handovers include GSM-DECT,
CDMA in macro cells, and TDMA in microcells.
When a call initiated in a cellular system controlled by an MSC enters a
system controlled by another MSC, intersystem handover is required to
continue the call.
In this case, one MSC makes a handover request to another MSC to
save the call. The MSCs need to have software for intersystem handover if
intersystem handover is to be implemented. Compatibility between the
concerned MSCs should be considered, too. There are several possible
outcomes of an intersystem handover: (i) a long distance call becomes a
local call when an MS becomes a roamer; (ii) a long distance call becomes
a local call when a roamer becomes a home mobile unit; (ii) a local call
becomes a long distance call when a home mobile unit becomes a roamer;
(iv) a local call becomes a long-distance call while a roamer becomes a
home mobile unit. There is a growing trend toward service portability
across dissimilar systems, such as GSM and DECT. For example, it is nice
to have an intersystem handover between the cordless and cellular
coverage. Cost effective handover algorithms for such scenarios represent a
significant research area. This paper outlines different approaches to
achieving intersystem handover. Simulation results are presented for
handover between GSM and DECT/WACS. It is shown that a minor
adjustment to the DECT specification can greatly simplify the
implementation of an MS capable of an intersystem handover between
GSM and DECT.

11
CHAPTER TWO

2.2.3 Integrated Terrestrial and Satellite System

In an integrated cellular/satellite system, advantages of satellites and
cellular systems can be combined. Satellites can provide wide area
coverage, completion of coverage, immediate service, and additional
capacity (by handling overflow traffic). A cellular system can provide a
high capacity economical system. In particular, the procedures of the GSM
are examined for their application to the integrated systems.
The future public land mobile telecommunication system (FPLMTS)
will provide a personal telephone system that enables a person with a
handheld terminal to reach anywhere in the world. The FPLMTS will
include low-earth-orbit (LEO) or geostationary-earth-orbit (GEO) satellites
as well as terrestrial cellular systems. When an MS is inside the coverage
area of a terrestrial cellular system, the BS will act as a relay station and
provide a link between the MS and the satellite. When an MS is outside the
terrestrial system coverage area, it will have a direct communication link
with the satellite. Different issues such as system architecture, call handling,
performance analysis of the access, and transmission protocols are
discussed in. The two handover scenarios in an integrated system are
described below.
 Handover from the Land Mobile Satellite System (LMSS)
to the Terrestrial System. While operating, the MS monitors
the satellite link and evaluates the link performance. The RSSs
are averaged (e.g., over a thirty second time period) to
minimize signal strength variations. If the RSS falls below a
certain threshold N consecutive times (e.g., N=3), the MS
begins measuring RSS from the terrestrial cellular system. If
the terrestrial signals are strong enough, handover is made to

12
CHAPTER TWO

the terrestrial system, provided that the terrestrial system can

serve the BS.
 Handover from the Terrestrial System to the Land Mobile
Satellite System (LMSS). When an MS is getting service from
the terrestrial system, the BS sends an acknowledge request at
predefined intervals to ensure that the MS is still inside the
coverage area. If an acknowledge request signal from the MS
is not received at the BS for N consecutive times, it is handed
off to LMSS. The lowest level in the hierarchy is formed by
microcells. Macro cells overlay microcells and form the
middle level in the hierarchy. Satellite beams overlay macro
cells and constitute the topmost hierarchy level. Two types of
subscribers are considered, satellite-only subscribers and
cellular/satellite dual subscribers. Call attempts from satellite-
only subscribers are served by satellite systems, while call
attempts from dual subscribers are first directed to the serving
terrestrial systems with the satellites taking care of the
overflow traffic. An analytical model for teletraffic
performance is developed, and termination probabilities are
evaluated for low speed and high speed users.
2.3 Basic Principles of Satellite Communication
Satellite communication is one of the most impressive spinoffs from
the space programs and has made a major contribution to the pattern of
international communications. A communication satellite is basically an
electronic communication package placed in orbit whose prime objective is
to initiate or assist communication transmission of information or message
from one point to another through space. The information transferred most
often corresponds to voice (telephone), video (television), and digital data.

13
CHAPTER TWO

Communication involves the transfer of information between a source and a

user. An obvious example of information transfer is through terrestrial
media, through the use of wire lines, coaxial cables, optical fibers, or a
combination of these media. Communication satellites may involve other
important communication subsystems as well. In this instance, the satellites
need to be monitored for position location in order to instantaneously return
an upwardly transmitting (uplink) ranging waveform for tracking from an
earth terminal (or station). The term earth terminal refers collectively to the
terrestrial equipment complex concerned with transmitting signals to and
receiving signals from the satellite. The earth terminal configurations vary
widely with various types of systems and terminal sizes. An earth terminal
can be fixed and mobile landbased, sea-based, or airborne. Fixed terminals,
used in military and commercial systems, are large and may incorporate
network control center functions. Transportable terminals are movable but
are intended to operate from a fixed location, that is, a spot that does not
move. Mobile terminals operate while in motion; examples are those on
commercial and navy ships as well as those on aircraft.

2.4 Types of satellite      

There are three types of satellite:

2.4.1 High elliptical orbiting satellite (HEO)

An HEO satellite is a specialized orbit in which a satellite

continuously swings very close to the earth, loops out into space, and then
repeats its swing by the earth. It is an elliptical orbit approximately 18,000
to 35,000 km above the earth’s surface, not necessarily above the equator.
HEOs are designed to give better coverage to countries with higher northern
or southern latitudes. Systems can be designed so that the apogee is

14
CHAPTER TWO

arranged to provide continuous coverage in a particular area. By definition,

an apogee is the highest altitude point of the orbit, that is, the point in the
orbit where the satellite is farthest from the earth. 

2.4.2 Middle-earth orbiting satellite (MEO)

An MEO is a circular orbit, orbiting approximately 8,000 to 18,000

km above the earth’s surface, again not necessarily above the equator. An
MEO satellite is a compromise between the lower orbits and the
geosynchronous orbits. MEO system design involves more delays and
higher power levels than satellites in the lower orbits. However, it requires
fewer satellites to achieve the same coverage. 

2.4.3 Low-earth orbiting satellite (LEO)

LEO satellites orbit the earth in grids that stretch approximately 160
to 1,600 km above the earth’s surface. These satellites are small, are easy to
launch, and lend themselves to mass production techniques. A network of
LEO satellites typically has the capacity to carry vast amounts of facsimile,
electronic mail, batch file, and broadcast data at great speed and
communicate to end users through terrestrial links on ground-based
stations. With advances in technology, it will not be long until utility
companies are accessing residential meter readings through an LEO system
or transport agencies and police are accessing vehicle plates, monitoring
traffic flow, and measuring truck weights through an LEO system.

15
CHAPTER TWO

Figure 2-2: Satellite Orbiting

2.5 Introduction to Handover

Some of the terminology used in cellular communications is explained next
[5].

 Mobile Station (MS). The mobile station is intended for use while in
motion at an unspecified location.
 Base Station (BS). The base station is a fixed station used for radio
communication with MSs.
 Mobile Switching Center (MSC). The mobile switching center
coordinates the routing of calls in a large service area.
 Forward Channel. The forward channel is the radio channel used
for the transmission of information from the base station to the
mobile station. It is also known as the downlink.

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CHAPTER TWO

 Reverse Channel. The reverse channel is the radio channel used for
the transmission of information from the mobile station to the base
station. It is also known as the uplink.
 Handoff. Handoff is a process of transferring a mobile station from
one base station or channel to another. The channel change due to
handoff occurs through a time slot for time division multiple access
(TDMA), frequency band for frequency division multiple access
(FDMA), and codeword for code division multiple access (CDMA)
systems [9].
 Channel Interference (CCI). The cochannel interference is caused
when the desired signal and another signal in some remote cell are
using the same frequency or channel.

2.5.1 Handover Process

Handover is the basic criteria of mobility of the user in cellular

networks. The handover is to provide the link of mobile services to a user
moving over cell boundaries in a cellular communication network. During
an ongoing communication of a user when the user crosses the cell
boundary it is better to use the radio resources of the new cell also called
the target cell because the strength of signal in the preceding cell is weaker
than the next one that is the target-cell. Now the whole process of the
terminating of connection of user from previous cell and establishing the
new connection to target cell is called handover.

In other words handover can be defined as the transformation of user

connection from one radio channel to another radio channel. The main
purpose of handover is to maintain the ongoing call of user during its
mobility because the mobility of the user may be in high speed. In this

17
CHAPTER TWO

situation sometimes the call may drop. Also in the case of multiple users
with ongoing calls changing the cell area the network needs to change the
frequency of an ongoing call.

2.5.2 Handover Requirements

There are four possible situations when handover is required to a user

 When MS moves from one cell to another

 In overlapping of adjacent cells
 MS experiencing interference from adjacent cell
 Fast motion of MS
 Less Power Emission

2.5.3 Handover Categories

There are different types of handovers

 Hard handover

Hard handover is the type of handover where the old connection is

break before the new one is established between user and radio network.
Hard handover is known as the break before the make. This type of
handover is used in the GSM cellular systems where each cell was assigned
a different frequency. When a user want to establish a new call first the old
one will be disconnected before the new connection established at different
frequency in the desired cell. The hard handover uses simple algorithm.
When the strength of signal in new cell is greater than that of previous cell
then hard handover is used by mobile station with a given threshold.

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CHAPTER TWO

Advantages

 In the hard handover one call uses only one channel at any instant of
the time.
 In the hard handover the phone hardware does not require to
accomplish to receive two or more parallel channels.

Disadvantages

 The main disadvantage of the hard handover is the call may be

terminated during the handover process.

 Soft handover

Soft Handover is that in which channel in the source cell is retained

and used for a while in parallel with the channel in the target cell. In this
scenario before the connection to the source is broken the connection to the
target is made. This handover is called make before break.

Advantages

 In the Soft handover source cell connection is broken when the

reliable connection is established with the target cell.
 In the Soft handover in multiple cells channels are at the same time
maintained, when the channels are interfered then call could be fail.

Disadvantages
 More complex hardware will be needed in order to continue the
processing in several parallel channels.

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CHAPTER TWO

 In soft handover in single call several parallel channels are used.

 Softer handover

The softer handover is a special type of soft handover in which all the
radio links belong to same node that is the coverage area of correlated base
stations from which several cells can be served.

handover

Softer
Hard Soft
(the radio links that are
(the old radio link removed (the new established
added and removed belong
before the new established) before the old removed)
to the same Node)

Figure 2-3: Types of Handover

2.5.4 Objectives of Handover

Handover can be described in the following ways

 During the mobility of user across the boundaries of cellular network

the guarantee of the network service continuity.
 To maintain the required quality of service.

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CHAPTER TWO

 The roaming between different networks.

 Load balancing between the cells.
 To keep connected the mobiles with strong base stations to reduce
interference level.

2.6 Handover in LEO Satellite Systems

To support continuous communication over a LEO satellite system,
we may need to change one or more links as well as the IP address of the
communication endpoints. Thus, both link layer and higher layer handovers
may be required for satellite networking. Handovers in satellite networks
can be broadly classified as:
2.6.1 Link Layer Handover
Link layer handover occurs when we have to change one or more
links between the communication endpoints due to dynamic connectivity
patterns of LEO satellites. It can be further classified as:
 Spot-beam Handover: When the end point users cross the boundary
between the neighboring spot-beams of a satellite, an intrasatellite or
spot-beam handover occurs. Since the coverage area of a spot-beam
is relatively small, spot-beam handovers are more frequent (every 1-
2 minutes) [1].
 Satellite Handover: When the existing connection of one satellite
with the end user’s attachment point is transferred to another
satellite, an intersatellite handover occurs.
 ISL Handover: This type of handover happens when a LEO
satellite passes over the polar area. Due to the change of connectivity
patterns in neighboring satellites, the inter-satellite links (ISL) have
to be switched off temporarily near the polar areas. Then the

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CHAPTER TWO

ongoing connections using these ISL links have to be rerouted,

causing ISL handovers.
The performance of different link layer handover schemes can be
evaluated using two classic connection level QoS criteria [13]:
 call blocking probability (Pb), the probability of a new call being
blocked during handover.
 forced termination probability (Pf ), the probability of a handover
call being dropped during handover.
There is a tradeoff between Pb and Pf in different handover schemes.
The priority can be given via different treatments of new and handover calls
to decrease handover call blocking [1].
2.6.2 Network Layer Handover
When one of the communication endpoints (either satellite or user
end) changes its IP address due to the change of coverage area of the
satellite or mobility of the user terminal, a network or higher layer handover
is needed to migrate the existing connections of higher level protocols
(TCP, UDP , SCTP, etc.) to the new IP address. This is referred to as
Network or higher layer Handover. Three different schemes can be used
during this kind of handover [4]:
 Hard handover schemes: In these schemes, the current link is
released before the next link is established.
 Soft handover schemes: In soft handover schemes, the current link
will not be released until the next connection is established.
 Signalling Diversity schemes: Similar to soft handover. Only
exception is that, in signalling diversity schemes, signalling flows
through both old and new link and the user data goes through the old
link during handover [4].

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CHAPTER TWO

Among all the link layer handovers, spot-beam handover issues have
been studied in depth in the literature, as it is the most frequent link
handover experienced in LEO systems. The network layer handover has
also recently received a lot of attention from the space network community.
Therefore, this paper restricts itself to the classification and comparison of
spot-beam handover and network layer handover schemes.

Figure 2.4: Scenes of handoff

2.7 Spot-beam Handover

Dividing the footprint of an individual satellite into smaller cells or
spot-beams result in better frequency utilization through the use of identical
frequencies in non-adjacent spot-beams which are geographically well
separated to limit interference [3]. To ensure uninterrupted ongoing
communications, a current communication link should be handed off to the

23
CHAPTER TWO

next spot-beam if needed. A spot-beam handover involves the release of the

communication link between the user and the current spot-beam and
acquiring a new link from the next spot-beam to continue the call. Since
both spot-beams are served by the same satellite, no other satellite is
involved in the handover process.

Figure 2.3 Spotbeam handover scenario

Due to small spotbeams and high satellite speed, spot-beam

handovers are the most common type of handovers experienced in LEO
satellite systems [1]. We can consider user mobility negligible compared to
high satellite speed. As a result, the deterministic and constant movement of
the satellites makes the solving of the spot-beam handover problems easier.
During the handover process, if a new link or channel cannot be found in
the next spot-beam, the ongoing call should be dropped or blocked. From
the user viewpoint, the interruption of a call is less desirable than the
blocking of a newly arrived call [1]. It will be the best for a user if
handovers can be guaranteed, ensuring smooth ongoing calls. Again, the
selection of a suitable policy in resource management (channel allocation)
can ensure new channel availability during handover. Thus, the channel

24
CHAPTER TWO

allocation strategies and the handover guarantee are the prime issues in
managing handover requests.
2.8 Spot-beam Handover Classifications
To solve spot-beam handover problem, several handover
policies/schemes are proposed in the literature. We can classify the spot-
beam handover schemes according to two different criteria: (a) channel
allocation strategies, and (b) handover guarantee.
2.8.1 Classification based on Channel Allocation Strategies
Various channel allocation strategies can be used to assign a channel
to a call. Handover requests can also be considered a transferred call for the
next cell, requiring allocation of a channel. Based on channel allocation
strategies, handover schemes can be divided into three broad categories [10]
as follows: (a) Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA) based handover schemes,
(b) Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA) based handover schemes, and (c)
Adaptive Dynamic Channel Allocation (ADCA) based handover schemes.
Table 1 compares different channel allocation schemes based on several
link layer QoS criteria.
 FCA based Handover Schemes
In FCA schemes, a set of channels is permanently assigned to each
cell, according to frequency reuse distance [10]. A handover call can only
be given a channel if any channel belonging to the set of the cell is
available. If no channel is available, the call is blocked or, in the worst case,
dropped. Fixed channel allocation schemes have a very simple
implementation due to fixed predefined channel distribution [10].
An interesting variation of FCA based handover scheme is Channel
Sharing Handover [8]. Channel Sharing Handover uses a channel allocation
scheme called channel sharing [8], where channels can be shared between

25
CHAPTER TWO

adjacent cells. A pair of adjacent cells is called a meta-cell. Two adjacent

cells that form a meta-cell are called the component cells [8]. In channel
sharing scheme, channels are shared between component cells to carry on
the connection during handover. This scheme offers a significantly lower
call blocking probability (Pb) for the same handover dropping probability
(Pf ) when compared to FCA based schemes [8].
 DCA based Handover Schemes
DCA based handover schemes use dynamic channel allocation,
where channels are grouped together in a central pool. Any cell requiring a
channel use a channel from the pool satisfying the channel reuse distance
[10]. Allocated channels are removed from the common channel pool
during call time. When the call is terminated, the channel is transferred to
the central pool for future reuse. DCA based schemes provide important
advantage of coping up with traffic variations and overload conditions in
different cells. This adaptability of DCA schemes makes it a fundamental
channel allocation strategy in third generation cellular networks. It is
concluded that there is a reduction of Pb and Pf in DCA compared to
FCA based schemes under same conditions.
 ADCA based Handover Schemes
Adaptive Dynamic Channel Allocation (ADCA) is an extension of
DCA scheme. It uses guard channel during handover (Handover with Guard
Channel HG). A handover scheme with guard channel technique has to deal
with the tradeoff between the number of guard channels and the number of
normal channels. Excessive guard channels will create new call blocking,
and fewer guard channels may block handover calls. Hence, ADCA keeps
track of the current traffic load, and dynamically adapts the optimal number
of guard channels according to user location information [3]. ADCA thus
tries to make appropriate use of the guard channels. Cho et al. [3] proposed

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CHAPTER TWO

a new connection admission control scheme based on ADCA, called

Geographical Connection Admission Control (GCAC), for LEO satellites to
limit the handover blocking probability.
Table 2-1: Comparison among channel allocation schemes

2.8.2 Classification based on Handover Guarantee

A number of handover schemes provide guaranteed handover to
prevent calls from being blocked or dropped during handover. Other
schemes try to ensure best service by prioritizing handover over the new
calls, but do not ensure any handover guarantee. Based on handover
guarantee, handover schemes can be classified as: (a) Guaranteed Handover
(GH) schemes, and (b) Prioritized Handover schemes.
I. Guaranteed Handover Schemes
In a guaranteed handover (GH) scheme, a new call is assigned a
channel only if there is an available channel simultaneously in the current
cell and the next transit cell. If such channels cannot be found immediately,
the call is blocked. As the name indicates, this scheme guarantees each
handover to be successful. Maral et al. [12] proposed a guaranteed handover
scheme. In that scheme, when the first handover occurs, new channel
reservation request will be issued to the next candidate transit cell. If all the

27
CHAPTER TWO

channels in the candidate transit cell are busy, the handover request is
queued in a FIFO queue until the next handover. Thus, this scheme
provides almost zero Pf while the value of Pb is unacceptably high. This is
due to the early channel reservation (also known as channel locking in GH)
for a call which is still not transferred to the cell, exhibiting bad resource
management.
To improve resource allocation, a few modified GH schemes are
proposed: (a) Elastic Handover Scheme, (b) TCRA Handover Scheme, and
(c) DDBHP Scheme.
 Elastic Handover Scheme: The elastic handover scheme is based on
Elastic Channel Locking (ECL) scheme [6]. The idea behind the ECL
scheme is that an entering call does not issue a channel locking
request to the next cell immediately; instead it postpones the request
for a period of time until Ta [6]. The time Ta is decided by the QoS
requirement for handover failure probability.
 TCRA based Handover Scheme: Boukhatem et al. [2] proposed a
Time based Channel Reservation Algorithm (TCRA) to improve GH
performance and resource utilization. TCRA locks a channel in the
next candidate cell with the cell movement. TCRA is a variation of
ECL except that the time instant to send the channel reservation
request (Ta in ECL) is calculated using the estimated user location in
the current cell, instead of the QoS parameters in ECL.
 Dynamic Doppler Based Handover Prioritization (DDBHP)
Scheme: DDBHP is yet another variation of GH scheme proposed by
Papapetrou et al. [13]. This method uses Doppler effect in order to
determine the terminal location, and to reserve channels at the
estimated time in the next servicing cell. The system must reserve
channel for the next cell in the corresponding time interval, called

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CHAPTER TWO

handover threshold (ttH) [13]. Clearly, different values of ttH will

provide different level of service [13].

Table 2-2: Comparison among Guaranteed Handover (GH) schemes

II. Prioritized Handover Schemes

Probability of handover failure is a common criteria for performance
evaluation of handovers in satellite networks. In non-prioritized schemes,
handover requests are treated equally as new calls, thereby increasing the
probability of call dropping during handover [10]. As discussed in Sec. 3,
ongoing call dropping is less desirable than new call blocking from user
viewpoint. Thus, handover prioritization schemes have been proposed to
decrease handover failure at the expense of increased call blocking [10].
These prioritized handover techniques can be used along with the channel
allocation strategies defined in Sec. 3.1 to increase handover performance.
Table 3 compares different prioritized handover schemes based on Pb and
Pf . The following are different handover prioritization categories:
 Handover with Guard channel (HG): HG scheme [7] provides
successful handover by reserving a set of channels (either fixed or
dynamically adjustable) exclusively for handovers [10]. This reduces
the probability of forced termination of calls during handover, while

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increasing new call blocking probability as fewer channels are

available for new calls. Therefore, an important design issue is
carefully choosing the number of guard channels [10].
 Handover with Queuing (HQ): HQ scheme takes advantage of the
overlapping area between adjacent cells [14] where a mobile host can
be served by any of the cells. This makes provision of queuing the
handover requests for a certain time period equal to the time of
mobile host’s existence in the overlapping area [10]. When a new
channel becomes available, the cell checks the queue for waiting
requests and grants the channel to the longest waiting request.
Several schemes, depending on the strategy to order the handover
requests in the queue, have been proposed. First in first out (FIFO)
scheme [14] is the most common queuing discipline where handover
requests are ordered according to their arrival times. A more complex
scheme called MBPS (Measurement Based Priority Scheme), is
based on dynamic priority, where the handover priorities are defined
by the power levels of the corresponding calls (received from the
satellite) from their current spot-beam [11]. The objective is to first
serve the call with the most degraded link. Another alternative
priority scheme is called LUI (Last Useful Instant) scheme [14]
where a handover request with a longer residual queuing time is
queued ahead of other requests.
 Channel Rearrangement based Handover: This scheme is only
used with dynamic channel allocation schemes [14] and manages
handover requests in exactly the same manner as new call attempts.
Whenever a call termination occurs in a cell, the scheme performs a
channel rearrangement to deallocate the channel which becomes
available in the greatest number of cells.

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 HQ+HG Handover: HQ+HG scheme takes advantages of both

guard channel and queuing schemes.
Table 3-3: Comparison among prioritized handover schemes

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