Basic Electrical Technology (ESC 101-A)

Module 1: DC Circuits
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Voltage and Current Sources

The term voltage source is used to describe a source of energy which establishes a
potential difference across its terminals. Most of the sources encountered in everyday
life are voltage sources e.g., batteries, d.c. generators, alternators etc.
The term current source is used to describe a source of energy that provides a current
e.g., collector circuits of transistors.
Voltage and current sources are called active elements because they provide electrical
energy to a circuit.

Ideal Voltage Source or Constant-Voltage Source

Ideal voltage source (also called constant-voltage source) is one that maintains a
constant terminal voltage, no matter how much current is drawn from it. An ideal voltage
source has zero internal resistance. Therefore, it would provide constant terminal
voltage regardless of the value of load connected across its terminals.
For example, an ideal 12V source would maintain 12V across its terminals when a 1 MΩ
resistor is connected (so I = 12 V/1 MΩ = 12A) as well as when a 1 kΩ resistor is
connected ( I = 12 mA) or when a 1 Ω resistor is connected (I = 12A). This is illustrated
in Fig. 2.1

Fig-2.1
It is not possible to construct an ideal voltage source because every voltage source has
some internal resistance that causes the terminal voltage to fall due to the flow of
current. However, if the internal resistance of voltage source is very small, it can be
considered as a constant voltage source.

Real Voltage Source

A real or non-ideal voltage source has low but finite internal resistance (Rint) that causes
its terminal voltage to decrease when load current is increased and vice-versa. A real
voltage source can be represented as an ideal voltage source in series with a resistance
equal to its internal resistance (Rint) as shown in Fig. 2.2.
When load RL is connected across the terminals of a real voltage source, a load current
IL flows through the circuit so that output voltage Vo is given by ;
Vo = E – IL Rint
Here E is the voltage of the ideal voltage source i.e., it is the potential difference between
the terminals of the source when no current (i.e., IL = 0) is drawn. Fig. 2.3 shows the
graph of output voltage Vo versus load current IL of a real or non-ideal voltage source.

Fig- 2.2 Fig- 2.3

As Rint becomes smaller, the real voltage source more closely approaches the ideal
voltage source.

Ideal Current Source

An ideal current source or constant current source is one which will supply the same
current to any resistance (load) connected across its terminals.
An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance. Therefore, it supplies the same
current to any resistance connected across its terminals. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.4.
The symbol for ideal current source is shown in Fig. 2.5. The arrow shows the direction
of current (conventional) produced by the current source.

Fig-2.4 Fig- 2.5

Since an ideal current source supplies the same current regardless of the value of
resistance connected across its terminals, it is clear that the terminal voltage V of the
current source will depend on the value of load resistance.
For example, if a 2 A current source has 10  across its terminals, then terminal voltage
of the source is V = 2 A × 10  = 20 volts. If load resistance is changed to 100, then
terminal voltage of the current source becomes V = 2 A × 100  = 200 volts. This is
illustrated in Fig. 2.4.

Real Current Source

A real or non-ideal current source has high but finite internal resistance (Rint).
Therefore, the load current (IL) will change as the value of load resistance (RL) changes.
A real current source can be represented by an ideal current source (I) in parallel with
its internal resistance (Rint) as shown in Fig. 2.6. When load resistance RL is connected
across the terminals of the real current source, the load current IL is equal to the current
I from the ideal current source minus that part of the current that passes through the
parallel internal resistance (Rint) i.e.,

where V = P.D. between output terminals.

Fig. 2.7 shows the graph of load current IL versus output voltage V of a real current
source.

Fig-2.6 Fig-2.7
As the internal resistance of real current source becomes greater, the current source
more closely approaches the ideal current source.

Source Conversion
A real voltage source can be converted to an equivalent real current source and vice-
versa.
(i) Voltage to current source conversion. We know that a real voltage source can be
represented by constant voltage E in series with its internal resistance Rint as shown in
Fig. 2.8 (i).
 Fig-2.8
It is clear from Fig. 2.8 (i) that load current IL is given by;

= Current which would flow in a short circuit across the

output terminals of voltage source in Fig. 2.8 (i)
The current source shown in Fig. 2.8 (ii) (dotted box) is equivalent to the real voltage
source shown in Fig. 2.8 (i) (dotted box).
Thus a real voltage source of constant voltage E and internal resistance R int is equivalent
to a current source of current IS = E/Rint and Rint in parallel with current source.

(ii) Current to voltage source conversion. Fig. 2.9 (i) shows a real current source
whereas Fig. 2.9 (ii) shows its equivalent voltage source. Note that series resistance Rint
of the voltage source has the same value as the parallel resistance of the original current
source. The value of voltage of the equivalent voltage source is E = IS Rint where IS is the
magnitude of current of the current source.

Fig-2.9
Independent Voltage and Current Sources
(i) Independent voltage source. An independent voltage source is a two-terminal
element (e.g. a battery, a generator etc.) that maintains a specified voltage between its
terminals.
An independent voltage source provides a voltage independent of any other voltage or
current. The symbol for independent voltage source having ‘v’ volts across its terminals
is shown in Fig. 2.10. (i).

Fig-10
(ii) Independent current source. An independent current source is a two-terminal
element through which a specified current flows.
An independent current source provides a current that is completely independent of the
voltage across the source. The symbol for an independent current source is shown in
Fig. 2.10 (ii) where ‘i’ is the specified current. The direction of the current is indicated by
the arrow.

Dependent Voltage and Current Sources

A dependent source provides a voltage or current between its output terminals which
depends upon another variable such as voltage or current.
For example, a voltage amplifier can be considered to be a dependent voltage source. It
is because the output voltage of the amplifier depends upon another voltage i.e. the
input voltage to the amplifier. A dependent source is represented by a *diamond-shaped
symbol.
There are four possible dependent sources:
(i) Voltage-dependent voltage source (ii) Current-dependent voltage source
(iii) Voltage-dependent current source (iv) Current-dependent current source

(i) Voltage-dependent voltage source. A voltage-dependent voltage source is one

whose output voltage (v0) depends upon or is controlled by an input voltage (v1). Fig. 2.11
(i) shows a voltage-dependent voltage source. Thus if in Fig. 2.11(i), v1 = 20 mV, then
v0 = 60 × 20 mV = 1.2 V. If v1 changes to 30 mV, then v0 changes to 60 × 30 mV = 1.8 V.
 Fig-2.11
(ii) Current-dependent voltage source. A current-dependent voltage source is one
who’s output voltage (v0) depends on or is controlled by an input current (i1). Fig. 2.11 (ii)
shows a current-dependent voltage source. Note that the controlling current i1 is in the
same circuit as the controlled source itself.
(iii) Voltage-dependent current source. A voltage-dependent current source is one
whose output current (i) depends upon or is controlled by an input voltage (v1). Fig. 2.12
(i) shows a voltage-dependent current source.

Fig- 2.12
(iv) Current-dependent current source. A current-dependent current source is one
whose output current (i) depends upon or is controlled by an input current (i1). Fig. 2.12
(ii) shows a current-dependent current source.

Network Analysis
There are two general approaches to network analysis viz. (a) direct method (b)
network reduction method.
 In direct method, the network is left in its original form and different voltages and
currents in the circuit are determined. This method is used for simple circuits.
Examples of direct method are Kirchhoff’s laws, Mesh current method, nodal
analysis, superposition theorem etc.
 In network reduction method, the original network is reduced to a simpler
equivalent circuit. Examples of network reduction method are Thevenin’s theorem,
Norton’s theorem, star/delta or delta/star transformation etc.
Maxwell’s Mesh Current Method
In this method, Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applied to a network to write mesh equations in
terms of mesh currents instead of branch currents. Each mesh is assigned a separate
mesh current. This mesh current is assumed to flow clockwise around the perimeter of
the mesh without splitting at a junction into branch currents. Kirchhoff’s voltage law is
then applied to write equations in terms of unknown mesh currents. The branch
currents are then found by taking the algebraic sum of the mesh currents which are
common to that branch.
Explanation. Maxwell’s mesh current method consists of following steps :
(i) Each mesh is assigned a separate mesh current. For convenience, all mesh
currents are assumed to flow in clockwise direction. For example, in Fig. 3.1,
meshes ABDA and BCDB have been assigned mesh currents I1 and I2
respectively. The mesh currents take on the appearance of a mesh fence and
hence the names mesh currents.
(ii) If two mesh currents are flowing through a circuit element, the actual current
in the circuit element is the algebraic sum of the two. Thus in Fig. 3.1, there
are two mesh currents I1 and I2 flowing in R2. If we go from B to D, current is
I1 – I2 and if we go in the other direction (i.e. from D to B), current is I2 – I1.

Fig- 3.1
(iii) Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applied to write equation for each mesh in terms of
mesh currents. Remember, while writing mesh equations, rise in potential is
assigned positive sign and fall in potential negative sign.
(iv) If the value of any mesh current comes out to be negative in the solution, it
means that true direction of that mesh current is anticlockwise i.e. opposite
to the assumed clockwise direction.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to Fig. 3.1, we have,

Mesh ABDA.
– I1R1 – (I1 – I2) R2 + E1 = 0
or I1 (R1 + R2) – I2R2 = E1 (i)
Mesh BCDB.
– I2R3 – E2 – (I2 – I1) R2 = 0
or – I1R2 + (R2 + R3) I2 = – E2 (ii)

Solving eq. (i) and eq. (ii) simultaneously, mesh currents I1 and I2 can be found out. Once
the mesh currents are known, the branch currents can be readily obtained.
The advantage of this method is that it usually reduces the number of equations to solve a
network problem.

Example:1- Calculate the current in each branch of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig: 3.2
Solution: Assign mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 to meshes ABHGA, HEFGH and BCDEHB
respectively as shown in Fig. 3.2.1.

Fig-3.2.1
Example:2- Using mesh current method, find the currents in resistances R3, R4, R5 and
R6 of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.3 .

Fig-3.3
Solution: First convert 2A current source in parallel with 12 resistance into
equivalent voltage source of voltage = 2A × 12 = 24V in series with 12 resistance.
The circuit then reduces to the one shown in Fig. 3.3.1. Assign the mesh currents I1, I2
and I3 to three meshes 1, 2 and 3 shown in Fig. 3.3.1.

Fig- 3.3.1

Nodal Analysis
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 3.4. In this method, one of the nodes (Remember a
node is a point in a network where two or more circuit elements meet) is taken as the
reference node. The potentials of all the points in the circuit are measured w.r.t. this
reference node. In Fig. 3.4, A, B, C and D are four nodes and the node D has been taken as
the reference node. The fixed-voltage nodes are called dependent nodes. In this circuit A
and C are fixed nodes because VA = E1 = 120 V and VC = 65 V. The voltage from D to B is
VB and its magnitude depends upon the parameters of circuit elements and the currents
through these elements. Therefore, node B is called independent node. Once we calculate
the potential at the independent node (or nodes), each branch current can be
determined because the voltage across each resistor will then be known.

Hence nodal analysis essentially aims at choosing a reference node in the network and
then finding the unknown voltages at the independent nodes w.r.t. reference node. For a
circuit containing N nodes, there will be N–1 node voltages, some of which may be
known if voltage sources are present.

Circuit analysis: The circuit shown in Fig. 3.4 has only one independent node B.
Therefore, if we find the voltage VB at the independent node B, we can determine all
branch currents in the circuit. We can express each current in terms of e.m.f.s,
resistances and the voltage VB at node B. Note that we have taken point D as the
reference node.

Fig-3.4

The voltage VB can be found by applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node B.

I1 + I3 = I2 (i)

In mesh ABDA, the voltage drop across R1 is E1 – VB.

𝐸1 − 𝑉𝐵
𝐼1 =
𝑅1

In mesh CBDC, the voltage drop across R3 is E2 – VB.

𝐸2 − 𝑉𝐵
𝐼3 =
𝑅3

𝑉𝐵
Also 𝐼2 =
𝑅2

Putting the values of I1, I2 and I3 in eq. (i), we get,

 𝐸1 − 𝑉𝐵 𝐸2 − 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵
+ =
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅2
All quantities except VB are known. Hence VB can be found out. Once VB is known, all
branch currents can be calculated. It may be seen that nodal analysis requires only one
equation [eq. (ii)] for determining the branch currents in this circuit. However,
Kirchhoff’s or Maxwell’s solution would have needed two equations.

Example:3- Find the currents in the various branches of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.5 by
nodal analysis.

Fig-3.5

Solution: Mark the currents in the various branches as shown in Fig. 3.5. If the value of
any current comes out to be negative in the solution, it means that actual direction of
current is opposite to that of assumed. Take point E (or F) as the reference node. We
shall find the voltages at nodes B and C.

Subtracting eq. (ii) from eq. (i), we get, 12VB = 180

VB = 180/12 = 15 V

Putting VB = 15 volts in eq. (i), we get, VC = – 26.25 volts.

The negative sign for I4 shows that actual current flow is opposite to that of assumed.

Example:4- Use nodal analysis to find the currents in various resistors of the circuit
shown in Fig. 3.6 (i).

Fig-3.6 (i)

Solution: The given circuit is redrawn in Fig. 3.6 (ii) with nodes marked 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Let us take node 4 as the reference node and then apply KCL at nodes 1, 2 and 3 to
obtain the solution.

Fig-3.6 (ii)

At node 1. Applying KCL, we have,

I1 + I2 + I3 = I
 𝑉1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 − 𝑉3
+ + = 10
2 3 5

31V1 – 10V2 – 6V3 = 300 (i)

At node 2. Applying KCL, we have,

I2 = I4 + I5

𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 𝑉2
= +
3 1 5
5V1 – 23V2 + 15V3 = 0 (ii)

At node 3. Applying KCL, we have,

I3 + I4 = I6 + 2

𝑉1 − 𝑉3 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 𝑉3
+ = +2
5 1 4
4V1 + 20V2 – 29V3 = 40 (iii)