We have seen throughout this Basic Electronics Tutorials website that there are two types of

elements within an electrical or electronics circuit: passive elements and active elements. An
active element is one that is capable of continuously supplying energy to a circuit, such as a
battery, a generator, an operational amplifier, etc. A passive element on the other hand are
physical elements such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc, which cannot generate electrical
energy by themselves but only consume it.

The types of active circuit elements that are most important to us are those that supply electrical
energy to the circuits or network connected to them. These are called “electrical sources” with
the two types of electrical sources being the voltage source and the current source. The current
source is usually less common in circuits than the voltage source, but both are used and can be
regarded as complements of each other.

An electrical supply or simply, “a source”, is a device that supplies electrical power to a circuit
in the form of a voltage source or a current source. Both types of electrical sources can be
classed as a direct (DC) or alternating (AC) source in which a constant voltage is called a DC
voltage and one that varies sinusoidally with time is called an AC voltage. So for noexample,
batteries are DC sources and the 230V wall socket or mains outlet in your home is an AC source.

We said earlier that electrical sources supply energy, but one of the interesting characteristic of
an electrical source, is that they are also capable of converting non-electrical energy into
electrical energy and vice versa. For example, a battery converts chemical energy into electrical
energy, while an electrical machine such as a DC generator or an AC alternator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Renewable technologies can convert energy from the sun, the wind, and waves into electrical or
thermal energy. But as well as converting energy from one source to another, electrical sources
can both deliver or absorb energy allowing it to flow in both directions.

Another important characteristic of an electrical source and one which defines its operation, are
its I-V characteristics. The I-V characteristic of an electrical source can give us a very nice
pictorial description of the source, either as a voltage source and a current source as shown.

Electrical Sources
Electrical sources, both as a voltage source or a current source can be classed as being either
independent (ideal) or dependent, (controlled) that is whose value depends upon a voltage or
current elsewhere within the circuit, which itself can be either constant or time-varying.

When dealing with circuit laws and analysis, electrical sources are often viewed as being “ideal”,
that is the source is ideal because it could theoretically deliver an infinite amount of energy
without loss thereby having characteristics represented by a straight line. However, in real or
practical sources there is always a resistance either connected in parallel for a current source, or
series for a voltage source associated with the source affecting its output.

The Voltage Source

A voltage source, such as a battery or generator, provides a potential difference (voltage)
between two points within an electrical circuit allowing current to flowing around it. Remember
that voltage can exist without current. A battery is the most common voltage source for a circuit
with the voltage that appears across the positive and negative terminals of the source being called
the terminal voltage.
Ideal Voltage Source

An ideal voltage source is defined as a two terminal active element that is capable of supplying
and maintaining the same voltage, (v) across its terminals regardless of the current, (i) flowing
through it. In other words, an ideal voltage source will supply a constant voltage at all times
regardless of the value of the current being supplied producing an I-V characteristic represented
by a straight line.

Then an ideal voltage source is known as an Independent Voltage Source as its voltage does
not depend on either the value of the current flowing through the source or its direction but is
determined solely by the value of the source alone. So for example, an automobile battery has a
12V terminal voltage that remains constant as long as the current through it does not become to
high, delivering power to the car in one direction and absorbing power in the other direction as it
charges.

On the other hand, a Dependent Voltage Source or controlled voltage source, provides a voltage
supply whose magnitude depends on either the voltage across or current flowing through some
other circuit element. A dependent voltage source is indicated with a diamond shape and are used
as equivalent electrical sources for many electronic devices, such as transistors and operational
amplifiers.

Connecting Voltage Sources Together

Ideal voltage sources can be connected together in both parallel or series the same as for any
circuit element. Series voltages add together while parallel voltages have the same value. Note
that unequal ideal voltage sources cannot be connected directly together in parallel.

Voltage Source in Parallel

While not best practice for circuit analysis, ideal voltage sources can be connected in parallel
provided they are of the same voltage value. Here in this example, two 10 volt voltage source are
combined to produce 10 volts between terminals A and B. Ideally, there would be just one single
voltage source of 10 volts given between terminals A and B.

What is not allowed or is not best practice, is connecting together ideal voltage sources that have
different voltage values as shown, or are short-circuited by an external closed loop or branch.

Badly Connected Voltage Sources

However, when dealing with circuit analysis, voltage sources of different values can be used
providing there are other circuit elements in between them to comply with Kirchoff’s Voltage
Law, KVL.

Unlike parallel connected voltage sources, ideal voltage sources of different values can be
connected together in series to form a single voltage source whose output will be the algebraic
addition or subtraction of the voltages used. Their connection can be as: series-aiding or series-
opposing voltages as shown.

Voltage Source in Series

Series aiding voltage sources are series connected sources with their polarities connected so that
the plus terminal of one is connected to the negative terminal of the next allowing current to flow
in the same direction. In the example above, the two voltages of 10V and 5V of the first circuit
can be added, for a VS of 10 + 5 = 15V. So the voltage across terminals A and B is 15 volts.

Series opposing voltage sources are series connected sources which have their polarities
connected so that the plus terminal or the negative terminals are connected together as shown in
the second circuit above. The net result is that the voltages are subtracted from each other. Then
the two voltages of 10V and 5V of the second circuit are subtracted with the smaller voltage
subtracted from the larger voltage. Resulting in a VS of 10 - 5 = 5V.

The polarity across terminals A and B is determined by the larger polarity of the voltage sources,
in this example terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative resulting in +5 volts. If the
series-opposing voltages are equal, the net voltage across A and B will be zero as one voltage
balances out the other. Also any currents (I) will also be zero, as without any voltage source,
current can not flow.

Voltage Source Example No1

Two series aiding ideal voltage sources of 6 volts and 9 volts respectively are connected together
to supply a load resistance of 100 Ohms. Calculate: the source voltage, VS, the load current
through the resistor, IR and the total power, P dissipated by the resistor. Draw the circuit.

Thus, VS = 15V, IR = 150mA or 0.15A, and PR = 2.25W.

Practical Voltage Source
We have seen that an ideal voltage source can provide a voltage supply that is independent of the
current flowing through it, that is, it maintains the same voltage value always. This idea may
work well for circuit analysis techniques, but in the real world voltage sources behave a little
differently as for a practical voltage source, its terminal voltage will actually decrease with an
increase in load current.

As the terminal voltage of an ideal voltage source does not vary with increases in the load
current, this implies that an ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance, R S = 0. In other
words, it is a resistorless voltage source. In reality all voltage sources have a very small internal
resistance which reduces their terminal voltage as they supply higher load currents.

For non-ideal or practical voltage sources such as batteries, their internal resistance (R S)
produces the same effect as a resistance connected in series with an ideal voltage source as these
two series connected elements carry the same current as shown.

Ideal and Practical Voltage Source

You may have noticed that a practical voltage source closely resembles that of a Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit as Thevenin’s theorem states that “any linear network containing resistances
and sources of emf and current may be replaced by a single voltage source, VS in series with a
single resistance, RS“. Note that if the series source resistance is low, the voltage source is ideal.
When the source resistance is infinite, the voltage source is open-circuited.

In the case of all real or practical voltage sources, this internal resistance, R S no matter how small
has an effect on the I-V characteristic of the source as the terminal voltage falls off with an
increase in load current. This is because the same load current flows through RS.

Ohms law tells us that when a current, (i) flows through a resistance, a voltage drop is produce
across the same resistance. The value of this voltage drop is given as i*RS. Then VOUT will equal
the ideal voltage source, VS minus the i*RS voltage drop across the resistor. Remember that in
the case of an ideal source voltage, RS is equal to zero as there is no internal resistance, therefore
the terminal voltage is same as VS.

Then the voltage sum around the loop given by Kirchoff’s voltage law, KVL is:
VOUT = VS – i*RS. This equation can be plotted to give the I-V characteristics of the actual output
voltage. It will give a straight line with a slope –RS which intersects the vertical voltage axis at
the same point as VS when the current i = 0 as shown.

Practical Voltage Source Characteristics

Therefore, all ideal voltage sources will have a straight line I-V characteristic but non-ideal or
real practical voltage sources will not but instead will have an I-V characteristic that is slightly
angled down by an amount equal to i*RS where RS is the internal source resistance (or
impedance). The I-V characteristics of a real battery provides a very close approximation of an
ideal voltage source since the source resistance RS is usually quite small.

The decrease in the angle of the slope of the I-V characteristics as the current increases is known
as regulation. Voltage regulation is an important measure of the quality of a practical voltage
source as it measures the variation in terminal voltage between no load, that is when I L = 0, (an
open-circuit) and full load, that is when IL is at maximum, (a short-circuit).

Voltage Source Example No2

A battery supply consists of an ideal voltage source in series with an internal resistor. The
voltage and current measured at the terminals of the battery were found to be VOUT1 = 130V at
10A, and VOUT2 = 100V at 25A. Calculate the voltage rating of the ideal voltage source and the
value of its internal resistance. Draw the I-V characteristics.

Firstly lets define in simple “simultaneous equation form“, the two voltage and current outputs
of the battery supply given as: VOUT1 and VOUT2.
As with have the voltages and currents in a simultaneous equation form, to find VS we will first
multiply VOUT1 by five, (5) and VOUT2 by two, (2) as shown to make the value of the two currents,
(i) the same for both equations.

Having made the co-efficients for RS the same by multiplying through with the previous
constants, we now multiply the second equation VOUT2 by minus one, (-1) to allow for the
subtraction of the two equations so that we can solve for VS as shown.
Knowing that the ideal voltage source, VS is equal to 150 volts, we can use this value for
equation VOUT1 (or VOUT2 if so wished) and solve to find the series resistance, RS.
Then for our simple example, the batteries internal voltage source is calculated as: V S = 150
volts, and its internal resistance as: RS = 2Ω. The I-V characteristics of the battery are given as:

Battery I-V Characteristics

Dependent Voltage Source

Unlike an ideal voltage source which produces a constant voltage across its terminals regardless
of what is connected to it, a controlled or dependent voltage source changes its terminal voltage
depending upon the voltage across, or the current through, some other element connected to the
circuit, and as such it is sometimes difficult to specify the value of a dependent voltage source,
unless you know the actual value of the voltage or current on which it depends.

Dependent voltage sources behave similar to the electrical sources we have looked at so far, both
practical and ideal (independent) the difference this time is that a dependent voltage source can
be controlled by an input current or voltage. A voltage source that depends on a voltage input is
generally referred to as a Voltage Controlled Voltage Source or VCVS. A voltage source that
depends on a current input is referred too as a Current Controlled Voltage Source or CCVS.

Ideal dependent sources are commonly used in the analysing the input/output characteristics or
the gain of circuit elements such as operational amplifiers, transistors and integrated circuits.
Generally, an ideal voltage dependent source, either voltage or current controlled is designated
by a diamond-shaped symbol as shown.

Dependent Voltage Source Symbols

An ideal dependent voltage-controlled voltage source, VCVS, maintains an output voltage equal
to some multiplying constant (basically an amplification factor) times the controlling voltage
present elsewhere in the circuit. As the multiplying constant is, well, a constant, the controlling
voltage, VIN will determine the magnitude of the output voltage, VOUT. In other words, the output
voltage “depends” on the value of input voltage making it a dependent voltage source and in
many ways, an ideal transformer can be thought of as a VCVS device with the amplification
factor being its turns ratio.

Then the VCVS output voltage is determined by the following equation: VOUT = μVIN. Note that
the multiplying constant μ is dimensionless as it is purely a scaling factor because μ = VOUT/VIN,
so its units will be volts/volts.

An ideal dependent current-controlled voltage source, CCVS, maintains an output voltage equal
to some multiplying constant (rho) times a controlling current input generated elsewhere within
the connected circuit. Then the output voltage “depends” on the value of the input current, again
making it a dependent voltage source.

As a controlling current, IIN determines the magnitude of the output voltage, VOUT times the
magnification constant ρ (rho), this allows us to model a current-controlled voltage source as a
trans-resistance amplifier as the multiplying constant, ρ gives us the following equation:
VOUT = ρIIN. This multiplying constant ρ (rho) has the units of Ohm’s because ρ = VOUT/IIN, and its
units will therefore be volts/amperes.

Voltage Source Summary

We have seen here that a Voltage Source can be either an ideal independent voltage source, or a
controlled dependent voltage source. Independent voltage sources supply a constant voltage that
does not depend on any other quantity within the circuit. Ideal independent sources can be
batteries, DC generators or time-varying AC voltage supplies from alternators.

Independent voltage sources can be modelled as either an ideal voltage source, (RS = 0) where
the output is constant for all load currents, or a non-ideal or practical, such as a battery with a
resistance connected in series with the circuit to represent the internal resistance of the source.
Ideal voltage sources can be connected together in parallel only if they are of the same voltage
value. Series-aiding or series-opposing connections will affect the output value.

Also for solving circuit analysis and complex theorems, voltage sources become short-circuited
sources making their voltage equal to zero to help solve the network. Note also that voltage
sources are capable of both delivering or absorbing power.

Ideal dependent voltage sources represented by a diamond-shaped symbol, are dependent on, and
are proportional too an external controlling voltage or current. The multiplying constant, μ for a
VCVS has no units, while the multiplying constant ρ for a CCVS has units of Ohm’s. A
dependent voltage source is of great interest to model electronic devices or active devices such as
operational amplifiers and transistors that have gain.

In the next tutorial about electrical sources, we will look at the compliment of the voltage source,
that is the current source and see that current sources can also be classed as dependent or
independent electrical sources

Current Sources
A Current Source is an active circuit element that is capable of supplying a constant current
flow to a circuit regardless of the voltage developed across its terminals

As its name implies, a current source is a circuit element that maintains a constant current flow
regardless of the voltage developed across its terminals as this voltage is determined by other
circuit elements. That is, an ideal constant current source continually provides a specified
amount of current regardless of the impedance that it is driving and as such, an ideal current
source could, in theory, supply an infinite amount of energy. So just as a voltage source may be
rated, for example, as 5 volts or 10 volts, etc, a current source will also have a current rating, for
example, 3 amperes or 15 amperes, etc.
Ideal constant current sources are represented in a similar manner to voltage sources, but this
time the current source symbol is that of a circle with an arrow inside to indicates the direction of
the flow of the current. The direction of the current will correspond to the polarity of the
corresponding voltage, flowing out from the positive terminal. The letter “i” is used to indicate
that it is a current source as shown.

Ideal Current Source

Then an ideal current source is called a “constant current source” as it provides a constant steady
state current independent of the load connected to it producing an I-V characteristic represented
by a straight line. As with voltage sources, the current source can be either independent (ideal) or
dependent (controlled) by a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit, which itself can be
constant or time-varying.
Ideal independent current sources are typically used to solve circuit theorems and for circuit
analysis techniques for circuits that containing real active elements. The simplest form of a
current source is a resistor in series with a voltage source creating currents ranging from a few
milli-amperes to many hundreds of amperes. Remember that a zero-value current source is an
open circuit as R = 0.
The concept of a current source is that of a two-terminal element that allows the flow of current
indicated by the direction of the arrow. Then a current source has a value, i, in units of amperes,
(A) which are typically abbreviated to amps. The physical relationship between a current source
and voltage variables around a network is given by Ohm’s law as these voltage and current
variables will have specified values.
It may be difficult to specify the magnitude and polarity of voltage of an ideal current source as a
function of the current especially if there are other voltage or current sources in the connected
circuit. Then we may know the current supplied by the current source but not the voltage across
it unless the power supplied by the current source is given, as P = V*I.
However, if the current source is the only source within the circuit, then the polarity of voltage
across the source will be easier to establish. If however there is more than one source, then the
terminal voltage will be dependent upon the network in which the source is connected.

Connecting Current Sources Together

Just like voltage sources, ideal current sources can also be connected together to increase (or
decrease) the available current. But there are rules on how two or more independent current
sources with different values can be connected, either in series or parallel.

Current Source in Parallel

Connecting two or more current sources in parallel is equivalent to one current source whose
total current output is given as the algebraic addition of the individual source currents. Here in
this example, two 5 amp current sources are combined to produce 10 amps as IT = I1 + I2.
Current sources of different values may be connected together in parallel. For example, one of 5
amps and one of 3 amps would combined to give a single current source of 8 amperes as the
arrows representing the current source both point in the same direction. Then as the two currents
add together, their connection is said to be: parallel-aiding.
While not best practice for circuit analysis, parallel-opposing connections use current sources
that are connected in opposite directions to form a single current source whose value is the
algebraic subtraction of the individual sources.

Parallel Opposing Current Sources

Here, as the two current sources are connected in opposite directions (indicated by their arrows),
the two currents subtract from each other as the two provide a closed-loop path for a circulating
current complying with Kirchoff’s Current Law, KCL. So for example, two current sources of 5
amps each would result in zero output as 5A -5A = 0A. Likewise, if the two currents are of
different values, 5A and 3A, then the output will be the subtracted value with the smaller current
subtracted from the larger current. Resulting in a IT of 5 - 3 = 2A.
We have seen that ideal current sources can be connected together in parallel to form parallel-
aiding or parallel-opposing current sources. What is not allowed or is not best practice for circuit
analysis, is connecting together ideal current sources in series combinations.

Current Sources in Series

Current sources are not allowed to be connected together in series, either of the same value or
ones with different values. Here in this example, two current sources of 5 amps each are
connected together in series, but what is the resulting current value. Is it equal to one source of 5
amps, or is it equal to the addition of the two sources, that is 10 amps. Then series connected
current sources add an unknown factor into circuit analysis, which is not good.
Also, another reason why series connected sources are not allowed for circuit analysis techniques
is that they may not supply the same current in the same direction. Series-aiding or series-
opposing currents do not exist for ideal current sources.

Current Source Example No1

Two current sources of 250 milli-amps and 150 milli-amps respectively are connected together
in a parallel-aiding configuration to supply a connected load of 20 ohms. Calculate the voltage
drop across the load and the power dissipated. Draw the circuit.

Then, IT = 0.4A or 400mA, VR = 8V, and PR = 3.2W

Practical Current Source

We have seen that an ideal constant current source can supply the same amount of current indefinitely regardless
A practical or non-ideal current source can be represented as an ideal source with an internal
resistance connected across it. The internal resistance (RP) produces the same effect as a
resistance connected in parallel (shunt) with the current source as shown. Remember that circuit
elements in parallel have exactly the same voltage drop across them.

Ideal and Practical Current Source

You may have noticed that a practical current source closely resembles that of a Norton’s
equivalent circuit as Norton’s theorem states that “any linear dc network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a constant-current source, IS in parallel with a resistor, RP“. Note
that if this parallel resistance is very low, RP = 0, the current source is short-circuited. When the
parallel resistance is very high or infinite, RP

An ideal current source plots a horizontal line on the I-V characteristic as shown previously
above. However as practical current sources have an internal source resistance, this takes some
of the current so the characteristic of this practical source is not flat and horizontal but will
reduce as the current is now splitting into two parts, with one part of the current flowing into the
parallel resistance, RP and the other part of the current flowing straight to the output terminals.
Ohms law tells us that when a current, (i) flows through a resistance, (R) a voltage drop is
produce across the same resistance. The value of this voltage drop will be given as i*RP. Then
VOUT will be equal to the voltage drop across the resistor with no load attached. We remember
that for an ideal source current, RP is infinite as there is no internal resistance, therefore the
terminal voltage will be zero as there is no voltage drop.
The sum of the current around the loop given by Kirchoff’s current law, KCL is:
IOUT = IS - VS/RP. This equation can be plotted to give the I-V characteristics of the output current.
It is given as a straight line with a slope –RP which intersects the vertical voltage axis at the same
point as IS when the source is ideal as shown.

Practical Current Source Characteristics

Therefore, all ideal current sources will have a straight line I-V characteristic but non-ideal or
real practical current sources will have an I-V characteristic that is slightly angled down by an
amount equal to VOUT/RP where RP is the internal source resistance.

Current Source Example No2

A practical current source consists of a 3A ideal current source which has an internal resistance
of 500 Ohms. With no-load attached, calculate the current sources open-circuit terminal voltage
and the no-load power absorbed by the internal resistor.
1. No-load values:

Then the open circuit voltage across the internal source resistance and terminals A and B (V AB) is
calculated at 1500 volts.
Part 2: If a 250 Ohm load resistor is connected to the terminals of the same practical current
source, calculate the current through each resistance, the power absorbed by each resistance and
the voltage drop across the load resistor. Draw the circuit.
2. Data given with load connected: IS = 3A, RP = 500Ω and RL = 250Ω
2a. To find the currents in each resistive branch, we can use the current-division rule.

2b. The power absorbed by each resistor is given as:

2c. Then the voltage drop across the load resistor, RL is given as:
We can see that the terminal voltage of an open-circuited practical current source can be very
high it will produce whatever voltage is needed, 1500 volts in this example, to supply the
specified current. In theory, this terminal voltage can be infinite as the source attempts to deliver
the rated current.
Connecting a load across its terminals will reduce the voltage, 500 volts in this example, as now
the current has somewhere to go and for a constant current source, the terminal voltage is
directly proportional to the load resistance.
In the case of non-ideal current sources that each have an internal resistance, the total internal
resistance (or impedance) will be the result of combining them together in parallel, exactly the
same as for resistors in parallel.

Dependent Current Source

We now know that an ideal current source provides a specified amount of current completely
independent of the voltage across it and as such will produce whatever voltage is necessary to
maintain the required current. This then makes it completely independent of the circuit to which
it is connected to resulting in it being called an ideal independent current source.
A controlled or dependent current source on the other hand changes its available current
depending upon the voltage across, or the current through, some other element connected to the
circuit. In other words, the output of a dependent current source is controlled by another voltage
or current.
Dependent current sources behave similar to the current sources we have looked at so far, both
ideal (independent) and practical. The difference this time is that a dependent current source can
be controlled by an input voltage or current. A current source that depends on a voltage input is
generally referred to as a Voltage Controlled Current Source or VCCS. A current source that
depends on a current input is generally referred too as a Current Controlled Current Source or
CCCS.
Generally, an ideal current dependent source, either voltage or current controlled is designated
by a diamond-shaped symbol where an arrow indicates the direction of the current, i as shown.
Dependent Current Source Symbols

An ideal dependent voltage-controlled current source, VCCS, maintains an output current, I OUT
that is proportional to the controlling input voltage, VIN. In other words, the output current
“depends” on the value of input voltage making it a dependent current source.
Then the VCCS output current is defined by the following equation: IOUT = αVIN. This
multiplying constant α (alpha) has the SI units of mhos, ℧ (an inverted Ohms sign) because
α = IOUT/VIN, and its units will therefore be amperes/volt.
An ideal dependent current-controlled current source, CCCS, maintains an output current that is
proportional to a controlling input current. Then the output current “depends” on the value of the
input current, again making it a dependent current source.
As a controlling current, IIN determines the magnitude of the output current, IOUT times the
magnification constant β (beta), the output current for a CCCS element is determined by the
following equation: IOUT = βIIN. Note that the multiplying constant β is a dimensionless scaling
factor as β = IOUT/IIN, so therefore its units would be amperes/amperes.

Current Source Summary

We have seen in this tutorial about Current Sources

, that an ideal current source, (R=) is an active element that provides a constant current which

Ideal independent current sources can be connected together in parallel for circuit analysis
techniques as either parallel-aiding or parallel-opposing configurations, but they can not be
connected together in series. Also for solving circuit analysis and theorems, current sources
become open-circuited sources to make their current equal to zero. Note also that current sources
are capable of either delivering or absorbing power.

In the case of non-ideal or practical current sources, they can be modelled as an equivalent ideal current source a
We have also seen here that current sources can be dependent or independent. A dependent
source is one whose value depends on some other circuit variable. Voltage-controlled current
source, VCCS, and current-controlled current source, CCCS, are types of dependent current
sources.
Constant current sources with very high internal resistances find numerous applications in
electronic circuits and analysis and can be built using bipolar transistors, diodes, zeners and
FETs as well as a combination of these solid-state devices.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) is Kirchhoff’s first law that deals with the conservation of
charge entering and leaving a junction.

To determine the amount or magnitude of the electrical current flowing around an electrical or
electronic circuit, we need to use certain laws or rules that allows us to write down these currents
in the form of an equation. The network equations used are those according to Kirchhoff’s laws,
and as we are dealing with circuit currents, we will be looking at Kirchhoff’s current law, (KCL).
Gustav Kirchhoff’s Current Law is one of the fundamental laws used for circuit analysis. His
current law states that for a parallel path the total current entering a circuits junction is
exactly equal to the total current leaving the same junction. This is because it has no other
place to go as no charge is lost.
In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a junction must be
equal to zero as: Σ IIN = Σ IOUT.
This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge, as the current is
conserved around the junction with no loss of current. Lets look at a simple example of
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) when applied to a single junction.

A Single Junction
Here in this simple single junction example, the current IT leaving the junction is the algebraic
sum of the two currents, I1 and I2 entering the same junction. That is IT = I1 + I2.
Note that we could also write this correctly as the algebraic sum of: IT - (I1 + I2) = 0.
So if I1 equals 3 amperes and I2 is equal to 2 amperes, then the total current, IT leaving the
junction will be 3 + 2 = 5 amperes, and we can use this basic law for any number of junctions or
nodes as the sum of the currents both entering and leaving will be the same.
Also, if we reversed the directions of the currents, the resulting equations would still hold true
for I1 or I2. As I1 = IT - I2 = 5 - 2 = 3 amps, and I2 = IT - I1 = 5 - 3 = 2 amps. Thus we can think of
the currents entering the junction as being positive (+), while the ones leaving the junction as
being negative (-).
Then we can see that the mathematical sum of the currents either entering or leaving the junction
and in whatever direction will always be equal to zero, and this forms the basis of Kirchhoff’s
Junction Rule, more commonly known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law, or (KCL).

Resistors in Parallel
Let’s look how we could apply Kirchhoff’s current law to resistors in parallel, whether the
resistances in those branches are equal or unequal. Consider the following circuit diagram:

In this simple parallel resistor example there are two distinct junctions for current. Junction one
occurs at node B, and junction two occurs at node E. Thus we can use Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule
for the electrical currents at both of these two distinct junctions, for those currents entering the
junction and for those currents flowing leaving the junction.
To start, all the current, IT leaves the 24 volt supply and arrives at point A and from there it
enters node B. Node B is a junction as the current can now split into two distinct directions, with
some of the current flowing downwards and through resistor R1 with the remainder continuing
on through resistor R2 via node C. Note that the currents flowing into and out of a node point are
commonly called branch currents.
We can use Ohm’s Law to determine the individual branch currents through each resistor as:
I = V/R, thus:
For current branch B to E through resistor R1

For current branch C to D through resistor R2

From above we know that Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents entering a
junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the junction, and in our simple example
above, there is one current, IT going into the junction at node B and two currents leaving the
junction, I1 and I2.
Since we now know from calculation that the currents leaving the junction at node B is I 1 equals
3 amps and I2 equals 2 amps, the sum of the currents entering the junction at node B must equal 3
+ 2 = 5 amps. Thus ΣIN = IT = 5 amperes.
In our example, we have two distinct junctions at node B and node E, thus we can confirm this
value for IT as the two currents recombine again at node E. So, for Kirchhoff’s junction rule to
hold true, the sum of the currents into point F must equal the sum of the currents flowing out of
the junction at node E.
As the two currents entering junction E are 3 amps and 2 amps respectively, the sum of the
currents entering point F is therefore: 3 + 2 = 5 amperes. Thus ΣIN = IT = 5 amperes and therefore
Kirchhoff’s current law holds true as this is the same value as the current leaving point A.

Applying KCL to more complex circuits.

We can use Kirchhoff’s current law to find the currents flowing around more complex circuits.
We hopefully know by now that the algebraic sum of all the currents at a node (junction point) is
equal to zero and with this idea in mind, it is a simple case of determining the currents entering a
node and those leaving the node. Consider the circuit below.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law Example No1

In this example there are four distinct junctions for current to either separate or merge together at
nodes A, C, E and node F. The supply current IT separates at node A flowing through resistors R1
and R2, recombining at node C before separating again through resistors R3, R4 and R5 and finally
recombining once again at node F.
But before we can calculate the individual currents flowing through each resistor branch, we
must first calculate the circuits total current, IT. Ohms law tells us that I = V/R and as we know
the value of V, 132 volts, we need to calculate the circuit resistances as follows.

Circuit Resistance RAC

Thus the equivalent circuit resistance between nodes A and C is calculated as 1 Ohm.

Circuit Resistance RCF

Thus the equivalent circuit resistance between nodes C and F is calculated as 10 Ohms. Then the
total circuit current, IT is given as:

Giving us an equivalent circuit of:

Kirchhoff’s Current Law Equivalent Circuit

Therefore, V = 132V, RAC = 1Ω, RCF = 10Ω’s and IT = 12A.

Having established the equivalent parallel resistances and supply current, we can now calculate
the individual branch currents and confirm using Kirchhoff’s junction rule as follows.
Thus, I1 = 5A, I2 = 7A, I3 = 2A, I4 = 6A, and I5 = 4A.
We can confirm that Kirchoff’s current law holds true around the circuit by using node C as our
reference point to calculate the currents entering and leaving the junction as:
We can also double check to see if Kirchhoffs Current Law holds true as the currents entering
the junction are positive, while the ones leaving the junction are negative, thus the algebraic sum
is: I1 + I2 - I3 - I4 - I5 = 0 which equals 5 + 7 – 2 – 6 – 4 = 0.
So we can confirm by analysis that Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) which states that the algebraic
sum of the currents at a junction point in a circuit network is always zero is true and correct in
this example.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law Example No2

Find the currents flowing around the following circuit using Kirchhoff’s Current Law only.

IT is the total current flowing around the circuit driven by the 12V supply voltage. At point A, I1
is equal to IT, thus there will be an I1*R voltage drop across resistor R1.
The circuit has 2 branches, 3 nodes (B, C and D) and 2 independent loops, thus the I*R voltage
drops around the two loops will be:

● Loop ABC ⇒ 12 = 4I1 + 6I2

● Loop ABD ⇒ 12 = 4I1 + 12I3

Since Kirchhoff’s current law states that at node B, I1 = I2 + I3, we can therefore substitute
current I1 for (I2 + I3) in both of the following loop equations and then simplify.

Kirchhoff’s Loop Equations

We now have two simultaneous equations that relate to the currents flowing around the circuit.
Eq. No 1 : 12 = 10I2 + 4I3
Eq. No 2 : 12 = 4I2 + 16I3
By multiplying the first equation (Loop ABC) by 4 and subtracting Loop ABD from Loop ABC,
we can be reduced both equations to give us the values of I2 and I3
Eq. No 1 : 12 = 10I2 + 4I3 ( x4 ) ⇒ 48 = 40I2 + 16I3
Eq. No 2 : 12 = 4I2 + 16I3 ( x1 ) ⇒ 12 = 4I2 + 16I3
Eq. No 1 – Eq. No 2 ⇒ 36 = 36I2 + 0
Substitution of I2 in terms of I3 gives us the value of I2 as 1.0 Amps
Now we can do the same procedure to find the value of I3 by multiplying the first equation (Loop
ABC) by 4 and the second equation (Loop ABD) by 10. Again by subtracting Loop ABC from
Loop ABD, we can be reduced both equations to give us the values of I2 and I3
Eq. No 1 : 12 = 10I2 + 4I3 ( x4 ) ⇒ 48 = 40I2 + 16I3
Eq. No 2 : 12 = 4I2 + 16I3 ( x10 ) ⇒ 120 = 40I2 + 160I3
Eq. No 2 – Eq. No 1 ⇒ 72 = 0 + 144I3
Thus substitution of I3 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I3 as 0.5 Amps
As Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that : I1 = I2 + I3
The supply current flowing through resistor R1 is given as : 1.0 + 0.5 = 1.5 Amps
Thus I1 = IT = 1.5 Amps, I2 = 1.0 Amps and I3 = 0.5 Amps and from that information we could
calculate the I*R voltage drops across the devices and at the various points (nodes) around the
circuit.
We could have solved the circuit of example two simply and easily just using Ohm’s Law, but
we have used Kirchhoff’s Current Law here to show how it is possible to solve more complex
circuits when we can not just simply apply Ohm’s Law.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) is Kirchhoff’s second law that deals with the conservation of
energy around a closed circuit path.

Gustav Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is the second of his fundamental laws we can use for circuit
analysis. His voltage law states that for a closed loop series path the algebraic sum of all the
voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero. This is because a circuit loop is a
closed conducting path so no energy is lost.
In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the potential differences around the loop must be equal
to zero as: ΣV = 0. Note here that the term “algebraic sum” means to take into account the
polarities and signs of the sources and voltage drops around the loop.
This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of Energy, as moving around a
closed loop, or circuit, you will end up back to where you started in the circuit and therefore back
to the same initial potential with no loss of voltage around the loop. Hence any voltage drops
around the loop must be equal to any voltage sources met along the way.
So when applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to a specific circuit element, it is important that we
pay special attention to the algebraic signs, (+ and -) of the voltage drops across elements and the
emf’s of sources otherwise our calculations may be wrong.
But before we look more closely at Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) lets first understand the
voltage drop across a single element such as a resistor.

A Single Circuit Element

For this simple example we will assume that the current, I is in the same direction as the flow of
positive charge, that is conventional current flow.
Here the flow of current through the resistor is from point A to point B, that is from positive
terminal to a negative terminal. Thus as we are travelling in the same direction as current flow,
there will be a fall in potential across the resistive element giving rise to a -IR voltage drop
across it.
If the flow of current was in the opposite direction from point B to point A, then there would be a
rise in potential across the resistive element as we are moving from a - potential to a + potential
giving us a +I*R voltage drop.
Thus to apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law correctly to a circuit, we must first understand the
direction of the polarity and as we can see, the sign of the voltage drop across the resistive
element will depend on the direction of the current flowing through it. As a general rule, you will
loose potential in the same direction of current across an element and gain potential as you move
in the direction of an emf source.
The direction of current flow around a closed circuit can be assumed to be either clockwise or
anticlockwise and either one can be chosen. If the direction chosen is different from the actual
direction of current flow, the result will still be correct and valid but will result in the algebraic
answer having a minus sign.
To understand this idea a little more, lets look at a single circuit loop to see if Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law holds true.

A Single Circuit Loop

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the potential differences in any loop
must be equal to zero as: ΣV = 0. Since the two resistors, R1 and R2 are wired together in a series
connection, they are both part of the same loop so the same current must flow through each
resistor.
Thus the voltage drop across resistor, R1 = I*R1 and the voltage drop across resistor, R2 = I*R2
giving by KVL:

We can see that applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to this single closed loop produces the
formula for the equivalent or total resistance in the series circuit and we can expand on this to
find the values of the voltage drops around the loop.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Example No1
Three resistor of values: 10 ohms, 20 ohms and 30 ohms, respectively are connected in series
across a 12 volt battery supply. Calculate: a) the total resistance, b) the circuit current, c) the
current through each resistor, d) the voltage drop across each resistor, e) verify that Kirchhoff’s
voltage law, KVL holds true.

a) Total Resistance (RT)

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10Ω + 20Ω + 30Ω = 60Ω

Then the total circuit resistance RT is equal to 60Ω

b) Circuit Current (I)

Thus the total circuit current I is equal to 0.2 amperes or 200mA

c) Current Through Each Resistor

The resistors are wired together in series, they are all part of the same loop and therefore each
experience the same amount of current. Thus:
IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = ISERIES = 0.2 amperes
d) Voltage Drop Across Each Resistor

VR1 = I x R1 = 0.2 x 10 = 2 volts

VR2 = I x R2 = 0.2 x 20 = 4 volts
VR3 = I x R3 = 0.2 x 30 = 6 volts

e) Verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Thus Kirchhoff’s voltage law holds true as the individual voltage drops around the closed loop
add up to the total.

Kirchhoff’s Circuit Loop

We have seen here that Kirchhoff’s voltage law, KVL is Kirchhoff’s second law and states that
the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops, as you go around a closed circuit from some fixed
point and return back to the same point, and taking polarity into account, is always zero. That is
ΣV = 0
The theory behind Kirchhoff’s second law is also known as the law of conservation of voltage,
and this is particularly useful for us when dealing with series circuits, as series circuits also act as
voltage dividers and the voltage divider circuit is an important application of many series
circuits.