PIA Training Centre Module 13- AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

MODULE 13
Sub Module 13.2

AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL CONCEPTS

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

Contents

13.2 STRUCTURES – GENERAL CONCEPT

FUNDAMENTALS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEM ------------------------------- 1

CONSTRUCTION METHOD OF STRESSED SKIN FUSELAGE ------------- 14
FRAMES AND FORMERS------------------------------------------------------- 16
BULKHEADS ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
LONGERONS AND STRINGERS ----------------------------------------------- 16
ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS ----------------------- 19
LOCATION NUMBERING / STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM ------- 22
ELECTRICAL BONDING --------------------------------------------------------- 24
LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION PROVISION ---------------------------- 25

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FUNDAMENTALS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEM according to strict standards established by the Aviation

Authorities to ensure safety.
Introduction
.
The Aircraft structure or airframe is designed to satisfy various
criteria. These include the loads imposed in flight and on the
ground, the aerodynamic requirements and the need to carry a
viable payload efficiently. Overriding all of these are the safety
considerations which ensure that commercial aviation remains
one of the safest forms of transport.

The shape and layout that an aircraft takes will be determined

by the types of operation it will undertake and the environment it
will operate in. These are many and varied and so there are
many different shapes, sizes and configurations of aircraft.

Requirements

The structure of an aircraft must be strong enough to carry all

the loads to which it might be subjected, including the repeated
small to medium loads experienced in normal flight and big
loads experienced during extreme conditions. To fly the airplane
the exterior must have an aerodynamic shape. Into this shape
must be fitted members having a high strength to weight ratio
that are capable of sustaining the forces necessary to balance
the airplane in flight. Airplanes are generally designed for a
specific purpose that dictates the structural design required.

The airplane must be capable of withstanding much more force

than that imposed by its own weight. When the purpose of a
particular design is established the designers provide structure

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

LOAD FACTOR In turning flight, the load factor is greater than +1g. For example,
the load factor is +2g in a turn with 60° angle of bank. In a
Load factor is the ratio of the lift on an aircraft to the weight of balanced turn in which the angle of bank is θ the load factor n is
the aircraft. The load factor is expressed in multiples of G where related to the cosine of θ.
one G represents conditions in straight and level flight. In
straight and level flight the lift is equal to the weight so the ratio 1
of lift to weight is one, and the load factor is one g. Load factors n 
cos θ
greater than one, and less than one, are achieved by
manoeuvring of the aircraft by the pilot, and by atmospheric
gusts.

In the definition of load factor, lift on an aircraft is not simply the

lift generated by the wing. Lift on an aircraft is the vector sum of
the lift generated by the wing and fuselage plus the lift
generated by the tail plane which is almost always downwards.
Lift on an aircraft is therefore almost always less than the lift
generated by the wing and fuselage.

Another way of expressing load factor is the ratio of a given load

to the pull of gravity, i.e. to refer to a load factor of 3 as ‘three
Gs’ where g refers to the pull of gravity. In this case the weight
of the aircraft is equal to 1g and if a load of 3 times the actual
weight of the aircraft was imposed upon the wing due for
example to turning flight, the load factor would be equal to 3Gs.

The load factor may be positive or negative. During straight and

level flight the "right way up", the load factor is 1g. In a turn, and
during some aerobatic manoeuvres, the load factor is greater
than 1g. Whenever the load factor is greater than zero the load
factor is said to be positive.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

LIMIT LOAD FACTOR OF SAFETY

An aircraft is designed to have sufficient strength to carry the As discussed, the strength requirement of a structure is
maximum loading anticipated during normal flying. Thus, the expressed in terms of limit loads, which is the maximum load to
limit load condition is the maximum of loads anticipated during be expected in service, but; to provide for the rare instances of
normal operation of the aircraft. Various types of aircraft will flight when a load greater than the limit load is imposed on the
have different limit load factors. For example, a transport aircraft structure, a factor of safety is provided.
will have a positive limit load factor of 3.8. Negative load limit
factors are usually less than positive load limit factors. Experience has shown that an ultimate factor of safety of 1.5 is
sufficient. Thus, the aircraft must be capable of withstanding a
ULTIMATE LOAD load 1.5 times the limit load factor. The primary structure of the
aircraft must withstand this ultimate load (1.5 times the limit load
The aircraft structure must be able to withstand this load with no factor).
ill effects, i.e. must not experience permanent deformation when
subjected to the limit load. In fact, the components must Unless otherwise specified, a factor of safety of 1.5 must be
withstand this load with a positive margin, and must be able to applied to the prescribed limit load. The load so obtained is
withstand a load which is at least 1.5 times the design limit load, referred to as the ultimate limit load. The load factor associated
this is known as the ultimate load. with limit loading and ultimate loading are called the limit load
factor and the ultimate limit load factor respectively. The aircraft
Ultimate Load = 1.5 (Limit Load) structure must withstand limit loads with no ill effects.
Specifically, the primary structure of the aircraft should
This multiplying factor of 1.5 is known as Factor of Safety. experience no permanent deformation when subjected to the
limit load factor. In fact, the components must withstand this
load with a positive margin.

This requirement implies that the aircraft should withstand

successfully the load factor limit and then return to its original
unstressed shape when the load is removed. If the aircraft is
subjected to load in excess of the limit load factor the over
stress may cause permanent distortion of the primary structure,
requiring replacement of the damaged parts.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

THE V-N DIAGRAM

The V-N diagram or V-G diagram is a graph that summarizes an

airplane's structural and aerodynamic limitation. The horizontal
axis is indicated airspeed, since this is what we see in the
cockpit. The vertical axis of the graph is load factor, or G's. The
V-N diagram represents the manoeuvrings envelope of the
airplane for a particular weight, altitude, and configuration.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

FLIGHT LOADS

Flight load factors represent the ratio of the aerodynamic force

component (acting normal to the assumed longitudinal axis of
the aeroplane) to the weight of the aeroplane. A positive load
factor is one in which the aerodynamic force acts upward with
respect to the aeroplane.

Considering compressibility effects at each speed, compliance

with the flight load requirements must be shown for each critical
altitude within the range of altitudes selected by the applicant; at
each weight from the design minimum weight to the design
maximum weight appropriate to each particular flight load
condition; and for each required altitude and weight, for any
practicable distribution of disposable load within the operating
limitations recorded in the Aeroplane Flight Manual.

Enough points on and within the boundaries of the design

envelope must be investigated to ensure that the maximum load
for each part of the aeroplane structure is obtained.

The significant forces acting on the aeroplane must be placed in

equilibrium in a rational or conservative manner. The linear
inertia forces must be considered in equilibrium with the thrust
and all aerodynamic loads, while the angular (pitching) inertia
forces must be considered in equilibrium with thrust and all
aerodynamic moments, including moments due to loads on
components such as tail surfaces and nacelles. Critical thrust
values in the range from zero to maximum continuous thrust
must be considered.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

FLIGHT LOAD CLASSIFICATION Design Air Speeds

Loads that occur in flight are divided into following types The minimum value of Cruise Speed (Vc) must be sufficiently
greater than design speed for maximum Gust intensity (VB) to
1. Manoeuvre loads provide for inadvertent speed increases likely to occur as a
2. Gust loads result of severe atmospheric turbulence.
3. Pressurization loads (in a pressurized aircraft)
Design manoeuvring speed (VA) may not be less than
MANOEUVRE LOADS Stalling Speed (Vo).

In steady level trimmed cruise all parts of the airplane and its The design wing-flap speed for each wing-flap position
contents are subjected to a loading of their mass times G or in (established in accordance with JAR 25.697(a) must be
other words 1G loading. When the aircraft is accelerating sufficiently greater than the operating speed recommended for
upwards, downwards or performing a banking manoeuvre the the corresponding stage of flight (including balked landings) to
structure is subjected to a loading higher than its weight. allow for probable variations in control of airspeed and for
transition from one wing-flap position to another.
For example, when the airplane is being manoeuvred into a 2-G
banked turn or accelerated upwards with twice the acceleration The selected design speed for each drag device must be
of gravity, a body of 100 lb will exert a reaction of 100x2 lbs on sufficiently greater than the speed recommended for the
the structure; this in turn doubles the load applied to the wings operation of the device to allow for probable variations in speed
and other parts of the airplane. The loads so induced on the control.
structure and the wing are referred to as the manoeuvre load.

Flight manoeuvring envelope

The strength requirements must be met at each combination of

airspeed and load factor on and within the boundaries of the
representative manoeuvring envelope (V-N diagram). This
envelope must also be used in determining the aeroplane
structural operating limitations as specified in JAR 25.1501.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

GUST LOADS

Gust loads in general are of a shorter duration than manoeuvre This expansion creates tensile loading on the fuselage barrel,
loads but their direction change can be much faster and which is in addition to the regular flight; ground loads derived
sometimes will appear to be instantaneous. It is during this time from normal flight and ground operations.
that the aircraft structure experiences the highest load factor. An
airplane is designed and certificated for a specified maximum The internal pressure also acts on the pressure bulkheads at
weight during flight. This weight is referred to as the maximum the cap ends of the barrel and induces longitudinal stresses
certificated gross weight It is important that the airplane be along the length of the barrel. However, the longitudinal
loaded within the specified weight limits because certain flight stresses are always less than the hoop stresses resulting in a
manoeuvres will impose an extra load on the airplane structure, difference in design strength between the longitudinal and
which if the airplane is overloaded may impose stresses lateral (girth) joints of the barrel sections.
exceeding the design capabilities of the airplane.
DESIGN FUEL AND OIL LOADS
If during flight severe turbulence or any other condition causes
excessive loads to be imposed on the airplane a thorough The disposable load combinations must include each fuel and
inspection must be given to all critical structural parts before the oil load in the range from zero fuel and oil to the selected
plane is flown again. maximum fuel and oil load. A structural reserve fuel condition,
not exceeding 45 minutes of fuel under operating conditions in
PRESSURIZATION LOADS JAR 25.1001 (f), may be selected.

In a pressurized aircraft the fuselage structure is subjected to If a structural reserve fuel condition is selected, it must be used
stresses that originate from the difference in pressure between as the minimum fuel weight condition for showing compliance
the inside and the outside of the pressurized area of the aircraft. with the flight load requirements as prescribed in this Subpart.
In a typical commercial airliner this differential pressure is given In addition, the structure must be designed for a condition of
by, zero fuel and oil in the wing at limit loads corresponding to a
manoeuvring load factor of +2.25.
ΔP = Cabin pressure - Outside pressure

This ΔP could be as high as 9 psi. This differential pressure

induces what is referred to as Hoop Stresses on the fuselage
which tends to expand the cross-sectional area.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
 Unintentional operation of a service
For the purpose of assessing damage and the type of repairs to  Power unit failure
be carried out, the structure of all aircraft is divided into three
significant categories: - Examples of some types of primary structure are as follows:
 Primary structure  Engine Mountings
 Secondary structure  Fuselage Frames
 Tertiary structure  Main Floor members
 Main Spars
Diagrams are prepared by each manufacturer to denote how
the various structural members fall into these three categories.

In the manuals of older aircraft, the use of colour may be found

to identify the three categories. Primary Structure is shown in
Red, Secondary in Yellow and Tertiary in Green.
Note: This system has been discontinued for many years, but
with some aircraft having a life of 30 or more years and still
being operated; it may still be possible to find the old system in
use.

Primary structure
This structure includes all portions of aircraft; the failure of
which in flight or on the ground would be likely to cause:

 Catastrophic structural collapse

 Inability to operate a service
 Injury to occupants
 Loss of control

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Fig 4

Fig 5

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

SECONDARY STRUCTURE

This structure includes all portions of the aircraft which would

normally be regarded as primary structure, but which
unavoidably have such a reserve of strength over design
requirements that appreciable weakening may be permitted,
without risk of failure. It also includes structure which, if
damaged, would not impair the safety of the aircraft as
described earlier. Examples of secondary structure include:
 Ribs and parts of skin in the wings.
 Skin and stringers in the fuselage

TERTIARY STRUCTURE

This type of structure includes all portions of the structure in

which the stresses are low, but which, for various reasons,
cannot be omitted from the aircraft. Typical examples include
fairings, fillets and brackets which support items in the fuselage
and adjacent areas.

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GENERAL CONCEPTS REGARDING FUSELAGE Although steel tubing is the material most commonly used in
CONSTRUCTION truss construction nowadays, wood and aluminium have both
been extensively used in the past, often with steel wire forming
Besides providing the accommodation for crew, passengers, some of the bracing members. As a general rule, truss type
freight, systems and equipment, the fuselage must be able to construction is limited to light aircraft fuselages. The fuselage
withstand the stresses of flight. These are, typically, the torsion skin is usually made of thin gauge aluminium, since it carries no
from the empennage (rudder and elevators) and the propeller load. In earlier aircraft types the skin was often fabric or
(in a single-engine aircraft), bending on touchdown and tension plywood.
and compression transmitted from the wings in flight.

There are three common forms of fuselage construction known

as steel tube (truss type), or stressed skin type (monocoque
and semi-monocoque).

TRUSS TYPE FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION

In modern aircraft, the truss type of fuselage comprises a

framework made up of steel tubes. The principal components
are longitudinal tubes called longerons, joined together by
lateral braces. The lateral members may be perpendicular to the
longerons, with intermediate diagonal braces, known as a Pratt
truss or there may be only diagonal braces, Known as Warren
Truss.

The basic concept of truss construction is that the compression

and tension stresses, due to the bending that a fuselage is
primarily subjected to, are alternately carried by the truss
components as shown in Figure. When bending loads are
reversed the loading of the truss members is reversed and so
stresses are spread evenly over the whole structure, avoiding
concentration at any one point.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

Fig 6

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CONSTRUCTION METHOD OF STRESSED SKIN FUSELAGE The skin is riveted or bonded to the structure to form the
complete unit. The thickness of the skin varies according to its
The fuselages of most modern aircraft are built on the stressed position on the fuselage. The skin takes mainly tension loads.
skin principle. The load bearing (stressed) skin is usually quite The framework to which it is attached taking the compressive
thin. It’s main contribution to the strength of the fuselage is in loads.
tension, the framework to which it is firmly attached, taking the
compressive loads. Stressed Skin may be classified into,

Since the basic function of the fuselage is to provide  Monocoque Construction

accommodation for the crew, passengers and cargo, it must  Semi-Monocoque Construction
have the minimum of internal framework to provide the
maximum usable space. MONOCOQUE TYPE FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION

Aircraft fuselages are usually very similar. The forward section The name means 'single shell' and in this type of construction
of the fuselage usually contains the cockpit and passenger the strength to maintain fuselage rigidity and withstand stress is
cabin. The shape of this section depends upon the passenger all in the fuselage skin. There are no bracing members, only
capacity and whether or not the aircraft is pressurised. formers to maintain the desired shape of the fuselage. Since the
skin must take all the loads this type of construction is unsuited
The rear section, often referred to as the tail cone is usually to large diameter fuselages because the skin thickness
circular in cross section and tapers towards the tail. The rear necessary would incur a high weight penalty. Hence,
section may be rectangular in unpressurised types. monocoque construction is limited to small, narrow fuselages.
An example is shown in the figure.
The cross-sectional shape of the fuselage will vary with the job
aircraft has to perform. Unpressurised transport aircraft usually SEMI - MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION
have fuselages having rectangular cross sections as this is the
best shape for accommodating seated passengers and cargo. Neither truss nor monocoque construction is suitable for most
aircraft fuselages, especially where large, pressurised aircraft
The interior structure to which the skin is attached consists of are concerned. Because of this a form of semi-monocoque
longerons, frames, bulkheads, stringers, gussets and possibly construction is used which employs longerons to brace the load-
intercostals members. These are riveted, bolted or bonded bearing skin material and take some of the loads.
together to form a rigid structure.

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Fig 8
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VARIOUS COMPONENTS IN STRESSED SKIN

CONSTRUCTION Stringers provide longitudinal shape and support to the fuselage
skin. They are also the spanwise members of the mainplanes,
FRAMES AND FORMERS vertical and horizontal stabilisers and flying control surfaces.
Often stringers are attached to frames with fillets or gussets.
Frames and formers provide the basic fuselage shape, with the
frames, being of more robust construction, providing strong
points for attachment of other fittings such as the wings and
tailplane.

BULKHEADS

Where extra support is required within a fuselage for mounting

of components such as wings and landing gear, bulkheads are
to transfer the loads to the fuselage structure without producing
stress raising points.

Bulkheads can be either a complete or a partial circular frame,

which usually reinforces a fuselage frame. Other examples are
solid pressurisation bulkheads which are normally found at the
front of the fuselage ahead of the flight deck and at the rear of
the pressure cabin, or an engine firewall on the nacelles.

LONGERONS AND STRINGERS

Longerons are used in fuselage construction, where either an

aperture such as a door or window requires greater support, or
where a number of structural high load points such as floors,
landing gear attachments, etc. need to be interconnected. They
are usually of much heavier construction than stringers and can
be solid extrusions or fabricated multiple part construction.

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Semi-Monocoque Construction
Figure 9 Longerons and Stringers
Figure 10

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WING

The basic requirement for wing construction, particularly with

cantilever types is for a span wise member of great strength,
usually in the form of a spar. Conventionally, there are three
general designs, mono spar, two-spar or multi spar.

Most modern commercial airliners have a wing comprising top

and bottom skins complete with span wise stringers, front and
rear spars and a set of wing ribs running chord wise across the
wing between the spars. This forms a box-like shape which is
very robust and the addition of nose ribs and trailing edge
fittings produce the characteristic aerofoil shape.

Wing structures carry some of the heaviest loads found in

aircraft structure. Fittings and joints must be carefully
proportioned so they can pick up loads in a gradual and
progressive manner and redistribute them to other parts of the
structure in a similar manner. Special attention must be paid to
minimising stress concentrations, by avoiding too rapid a
change in cross section and to provide ample material to handle
any concentration in stress or shock loading that cannot be
avoided, such as landing loads.

Typical Wing Construction

Figure 13

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ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS Major Zone

Area
Number
SECTION 1: ZONING
Lower half of the fuselage to the rear
100 pressure bulkhead
For ease of reference and identification of components in the
(below the main cabin deck)
different parts of the aircraft the Air Transport Association of
Upper half of the fuselage to the rear
America in the ATA 100 specification has specified a zoning 200
pressure bulkhead
system.
Empennage including fuselage aft of
300
the rear pressure bulkhead
A zone is identified by one of the three indicators depending
upon whether it is a major zone sub major zone or simply a 400 Power plant and struts or pylon
zone. Major zones are identified by three-digit numbers as
follows. 500 Left wing

600 Right wing

The standard series is from 100 to 800 and the special series
numbers are in the 900 brackets. 700 Landing gear and Landing gear door

800 Doors
900 Reserved for uncommon differences

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SUB MAJOR ZONES

Major
Major zones are divided into major sub zones by the addition of Subzone No Area
a second nonzero digit to the major zone number. For example,
the major zone 100 may be sub zoned as follows: 110 Nose area.

120 Forward cargo compartment.

Sub zones are divided by the use of a third non-zero digit in the
three-digit number. The sub zone 110 - Nose Area and 120 -
Forward cargo compartment, may therefore be divided into 130 Wing center section.
zones as follows
140 Main landing gear wheel well.

150 Aft cargo compartment.

160 Bulk cargo compartment.

190 Wing-to-body fairings.

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SUBZONE ZONE ZONE NAME

110 Nose Area

111 Radome

112 Area Forward of Nose Landing Gear Wheel Well

113 Nose Landing Gear Wheel Well, Left

114 Nose Landing Gear Wheel Well, Right

115 Area Outboard and Above Nose Landing Gear Wheel, Left

116 Area Outboard and Above Nose Landing Gear Wheel, Right

117 Main Equipment Center, Left

118 Main Equipment Center, Right

120 120 Forward Cargo Compartment

121 Forward Cargo Compartment, Left

122 Forward Cargo Compartment, Right

123 Area Below Forward Cargo Compartment, Left

124 Area Below Forward Cargo Compartment, Right

125 Area Aft of Forward Cargo Compartment, Left

126 Area Aft of Forward Cargo Compartment, Right

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LOCATION NUMBERING / STATION IDENTIFICATION WATER LINE

SYSTEM
Water Line is the vertical distance from the longitudinal Datum.
In the service, maintenance and repair of the aircraft it is This datum may be some convenient part of the fuselage, such
necessary to establish a method of locating components and as passenger cabin floor, or it may be the ground with the
reference points on the aircraft. This has been accomplished by aircraft on its wheels. Water line measurements above the
establishing convenient reference lines and planes with respect datum have positive values and those below have negative
to whom station numbers are assigned for the fuselage wings values.
nacelle empennage and landing gear. While zone numbers are
used for locating components station numbers are used for BUTT LINES OR BUTTOCK LINES
locating structural elements on the aircraft structure. The station
numbers are given either in inches or in mm as the case may be. Body buttock lines (BL) are measurements left or right of a
vertical plane running through the aircraft’s longitudinal axis.
Alternate methods of references have been developed by Expressed as LBL or RBL they may be used for fuselage
different manufactures, which are discussed below. locations, particularly in wide bodied aircraft and also wing
locations on smaller aircraft.
FUSELAGE STATIONS (BODY STATIONS)
On large aircraft wings are also divided into reference planes to
Longitudinal points along the length of the fuselage of the provide a means of identifying wing components. The methods
airplane are determined by reference to a zero-datum line vary according to manufacturer and can either be measured in
usually at or near the forward portion of the fuselage and inches from the root rib datum and each rib being numbered
referred to as the body station or fuselage station. It is the from the root outwards or as wing station numbers and wing
normal distance measured along or parallel to the fuselage buttock lines.
centre line from a plane perpendicular to the centre line located
at a specified distance from the nose of the aircraft. This .
specified distance from the nose of the aircraft differs from
aircraft to aircraft. The position of the datum line is set forth in
the type certification data sheet or aircraft specification for the
airplane and also in the manufactures data. It is generally
denoted by F.S. or B.S.

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Fig 18

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

ELECTRICAL BONDING

Most important is the electrical bonding of all the major

components of the airframe. Bonding is achieved by electrically
connecting all the components of an aircraft structure together.
These precautions will ensure all components are at the same
electrical potential by providing a return path through the
airframe, since modern aircraft utilise an earth return system.
This means that current from the lightning strike cannot build up
on one part of the structure and create a voltage high enough to
allow it to jump to another part that might be electrically
separated, such as flying control surfaces.

Note: Electrical bonding also protects equipment from the build-

up of static electricity, which is produced as the aircraft collects
ions from the atmosphere as it passes through. Bonding cables
are referred to as secondary conductors

Fig 19

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 PIA Training Centre Module 13- AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts
LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION PROVISION Usually the structure in the aircraft is divided into zones on the
basis of the strike they are prone to attract and the protection
Damage by lightening is divided into two types given to these surfaces differ depending on the type of damage
they are likely to suffer. The zone identified as zone 1 (e.g. nose
 Direct strike damage and radome) is likely to attract direct strike while zone 2 is likely to
 Swept strike damage (static discharge damage). suffer swept strike.

Direct Strike Damage

Direct strike damage is due to the effect of a direct lightning arc

attachment between the charged clouds and the oppositely
charged airframe.

Swept Strike Damage

Swept strike damage is due to a swept strike, which is arcing

between the unlikely charged portions of the airframe. The
electrical strength of a direct strike can be in the range of 200kA
while the strength of a swept stroke can be in the range of 100
kA.

For instance the presence of a positively charged cloud in the

vicinity of an aircraft sets up a negative charge on the surface
nearest to the clouds while the rest of the airframe takes a
positive charge. Once direct arc attachment occurs between the
positively charged clouds and the negatively charged airframe
prone to direct arc attachment, a swept strike is set up between
the unlike charged portions of the airframe which did not make
direct arc attachment. Swept strike therefore is a secondary
effect of a direct strike.

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 PIA Training Centre Module 13- AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

FigFig
16 20

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

LIGHTENING PROTECTION FOR COMPOSITE MATERIALS However, if CFRP is used in zone 1it is protected with
Aluminium straps, bonding braids and dielectric coating as
On most modern aircrafts there is an increasingly wide usage of shown in the diagram.
composite materials on both primary and secondary structures.
The composites that are commonly used are CFRP, GFRP and Areas prone to direct damage such as the leading and trailing
AFRP. Since the fibre used in the construction of CFRP is edges and the tip are usually constructed of GFPR and a metal
carbon it provides some degree of electrical conductivity and spray or a protective foil is applied to dissipate the electric
therefore considered a conductive composite. However, GFRP charges that develop during lightning. Non-conductive
and AFRP are considered non-conductive composites as composites used in zone 1 and 2 are usually protected over
neither Aramid fibre nor glass fibre is conductive. The type of their entire surface to allow current flow to metallic structures by
protection therefore depends on whether the component is the following means.
made of a nonconductive or a conductive composite.
 Copper straps bolted to the component (AFRP
With regard to aircraft of non-metallic or composite construction, radome)
a cage consisting of metallic conductors having a surge carrying
capacity at least equal to that of a primary conductor and to  Metallic grid (bronze mesh) bonded with some parts
which metal parts are connected becomes the basic equi-
potential bonding for lightning strike protection.  Bonding metallic braids connecting the different
components
The addition of metal flakes to the matrices (resin) during the
manufacturing process provides electrical conductivity.  Protective foils or metal spray (GFRP tips and
Stainless steel wire whiskers are added to some matrices to leading edges)
give them additional lightning strike protection.
The vulnerable portion of the forward fuselage which is likely
PROTECTION attract a swept stroke lightning strike is flame sprayed with a
thin coating of tin to spread and dissipate the lightning energy
The choice of material and the type of protection applied to the and prevent penetration at the point. Five woven cloth plies
structure would depend on the type of lightning strike damage were found to prevent penetration so that if alight damage
they are likely to suffer. Parts exposed to direct strike should be occurs to the skin it is only necessary to carry out a wet lay-up
protected against heat damage without severe deterioration. repair to re-establish the thickness.
Conductive composites such as CFRP are usually not used in
areas prone to direct strike. On a hybrid composite rudder, the upper section is identified as
zone 1, prone to damage by direct strike.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.2 - Airframe Structures-General concepts

Protection is through a thin Aluminium strip passing along the

crest of the tip and down the trailing edge to join the P-static
dischargers. At the upper end the strip is connected by a flexible
bonding strap to the metal structure of the rudder. The trailing
edge and the tip sections are made of glass fibre to provide
electrical insulation between the Aluminium strips and the
carbon epoxy box structure. The leading-edge sections are
made of glass fibre.

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