DISABILITY HANDBOOK

Educating Exceptional Students – A guide to Individuals with Disabilities

Zac Bodkin

Contents
1
Autism ……………………………………………………………………………………….…….3
Deaf-Blindness …………………………………………………………………………………6
Developmental Delays………………………………………………………………………9
Emotional/Behavioral Disorders……………………………………………………….11
Gifted/Talented………………………………………………………………………………..14
Hearing Impairments………………………………..……………………………………...16
Intellectual Disability/Mental Retardation…………………………………….….19
Multiple Disabilities…………………………………………………………………………..22
Other Health Impairments…………………………………………………………………24
Physical Disabilities……………………………………………………………………………………..26
Specific Learning Disabilities………………………………………………………………………..28
Speech and Language Impairments……………………………………………………………..32
Traumatic Brain Injury……………………………………………………………………….36
Visual Impairments……………………………………………………………………………39
Resources………………………………………………………………………………………….42
References………………………………………………………………………………………..44

AUTISM

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DEFINITION

According to IDEA, Autism is defined as a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and
nonverbal communication and social interaction that adversely affects a child’s educational performance

CHARACTERISTICS

- Social
o Difficulty with social interaction
 Can include not making eye contact with others and not enjoying interactions
with others
o May not respond to name until 1 year of age
o Prefers to play alone
o Has inappropriate or flat facial expressions
o Does not understand personal space boundaries
o Has trouble understanding other’s feelings and talking about their own feelings

- Academic/Cognitive
o Delayed or impaired acquisition of words, word combinations, and syntax
o Deficits in using and understanding verbal and nonverbal communication
o Literary deficits
 These can include reading books for meaning, understanding text genres that
require multiple perspectives, difficulty getting the main idea and summarizing,
and providing enough information to the reader while writing.
o Deficits in executive functioning
 Poor flexibility, poor problem solving, poor planning and organization, and lack
of inhibition
- Behavioral
o Problems in dealing with change in routine and or changing from one activity to the next
o Problems generalizing learned skills
o Using objects in unusual ways and developing uncommon attachments to objects
o Expressing inappropriate emotions for reasons that can be difficult to determine or at
inappropriate times (i.e.: crying, becoming angry, or laughing)
o Problems with anxiety and or social withdrawal
o Increased depression
o Repeated patterns of behavior
o Problems with self-management

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CONTINIUM OF SERVICES/PREVALANCE

Students with autism may benefit from Special education services. 33.3% of students with ASD are
educated in a self-contained classroom while 39.7% are educated in general education classrooms.

Where Students with ASD are Serviced

9%

18% General Education Classroom

40% Separate Classroom
Resource Room
Other Environments

33%

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

Due to some behaviors from students with Autism that can impede with academic instruction and the
problems that consist with social interaction, intervention research targeting the behavioral standpoint
needs to be focused on environmental factors. Once those environmental factors have been assessed,
educators must work to alter the environment to support appropriate behavior. Applying an ABA
(applied behavioral analysis), which is applying behavioral principles to change specific behaviors and
evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention, can help the effectiveness of the child in the classroom.
: Using the help of speech language specialists and school psychologists, educators must help find ways
to improve communication for these individuals. This can be done by providing more ways for student
communication throughout the day using activities that encourage communication within the
classroom. (i.e. show and tell and group projects and schoolwork) Another way to help with
communication is if the student has deficits on communicating for the want of an object use proper
intervention techniques to require the student to verbally ask for said object. (i.e. divide snacks up
during snack time to require the student for ask for more portions)
Due to the nature of Autism, social interaction among these individuals produce deficits. Interventions
involving explaining social activities can be implemented by the instructor before the student performs
these activities can have a positive effect on the student and the rest of the classroom. (i.e. before
playing a game of four square instruct the student on the rules and how to play the game before playing
the student into the game) To better involve the student in group activities, try to provide activities
centered to the student’s specific interests.

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MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS/UNDERLYING CONDITIONS/TREATMENTS

Students with autism may suffer from additional mental health needs, underling conditions and may
require individualized treatments. Anxiety disorders are extremely common among individuals with
autism because pf combination of the brain structure and function and stress. These anxiety disorders
can be treated with either the help of a therapist, medication or both. Common medicines used to treat
anxiety include benzodiazepines such as Xanex, Klonopin, Ativan and Valium. Buspirone is also a
common medicinal treatment for anxiety that can help affect chemicals in the brain that regulate mood.
Antidepressants such as Lexapro, Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft are often effective medicinal treatments.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (O.C.D.) is another condition that students with Autism may suffer from
on top of the main disability. Just like anxiety O.C.D. can be treated with the combination of therapies
and medications that are classified as SRI’s (Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors).

Depression is also a common mental health concern among individuals with Autism. For those with
Autism, change can cause anxiety and if not treated could lead individuals into depression. Just like the
treatments above a combination of therapy and SRI’s can help the symptoms of depression for
individuals with Autism.

Deaf/Blindness

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DEFINITION

IDEA defines Deaf-Blindness as individuals with spontaneous hearing and vision impairment, which the
pair causes severe communication and other educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in
special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.

According to National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY), Def-Blindness does
not always mean complete loss. The term applies to those who have some degree of both hearing and
vision loss.

CHARACTERISTICS

- Social
o Students may have problems communicating with others.
o Students will have a hard time of anticipating things that are going to happen because
cues from the environment or the faces or actions of others may make it difficult to
read.

- Academic/Cognitive
o Students will have to learn mainly though firsthand experiences
o With the lack of vision and hearing, students will have a hard time learning though
unplanned or unintended learning (also known as incidental learning) or with group
learning
o
- Behavioral
o Students can seem unmotivated because things can’t be seen or heard well enough to
be desired

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES

6
Students with def-blindness are normally are educated in a separate classroom (34.9%). The remainder
of students will be educated in the general education classroom (23.6%) and in resource rooms and
other environments.

Where Individuals with Def-Blindness are Educated

30%
35% Separate Classroom
General Education Classroom
Resource Room
Other Environments

12%

24%

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

Due to the nature of this exceptionality, behavioral deficits are connected to the fact that students with
def-blindness have some impairments with hearing and vision. To combat most of these deficits
educators must develop alternate means of communication with and for the student. The first step into
identifying the behaviors that need to be met with interventions is to perform an FBA (functional
behavior assessment. This will allow educators to identify the purpose of the behaviors by students with
def-blindness. After these behaviors are identified FTC (functional communication training) can be
implemented in order to teach socially acceptable ways to communicate in order to correct these
behaviors. Behavioral principles (i.e. praise and attention, token economies) can be implemented to
effectively reduce inappropriate behaviors.
Because communication is necessary for everyday activities, finding effective communication for
students with def-blindness is imperative. In order to provide for these students, educators need to
make sure the development of effective communication for these individuals are embedded into every
activity, provided in the context of natural environments, and complemented with enough opportunities
for social interaction. Child-guided approaches for individuals with def-blindness can be done by
establishing the students trust, considering their interests and their attempts at communication. Tactile
approaches can also benefit the student when communicating. Touch cues are extremely effective
intervention strategies for educators to use. An example of this is if a student wears glasses, before
putting on the child’s glasses, the educator will allow the student to touch the glasses while explaining to
the student what is about to happen. Sign language will also be another important tool for educators to
use for students with def-blindness. This should also be taught in a tactual form for these students.
Providing directions and instructions using the child’s preferred and strongest mode of communication
can have a substantial effect to the effectiveness of communication. These students can also extremely

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benefit from assistive technologies to better help communication. As educators, try to increase the use
of braille during instruction and when providing activities for the students.
In order to provide effective learning outcomes for students with def-blindness socialization with other
students needs to be considered when making interventions. Facilitating friendships is a way educators
can try to provide effective socialization for students with def-blindness. Examples of this can include
providing times for students to work together, presenting the student with def-blindness in a positive
way to other students and allowing them to share information about themselves to the class.

MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS/UNDERLYING CONDITIONS/TREATMENTS

Students with deaf-blindness may suffer from depression due to the fact that some individuals with this
disability may feel helpless and hopeless. Anxiety and sleep disorders are also common among
individuals with deaf-blindness. Treatments for these disorders can include therapy, benzodiazepines,
and antidepressants or a combination of two or all three.

Developmental Delays
(Early Childhood Special Education)

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DEFINITION

Developmental Delays are defined as slow to meet or not reaching milestones in one or more areas of
communication, motor, cognition, social-emotional, or adaptive skills in expected way for the child’s
age. The child’s delay may not be related to a condition or specific diagnosis.

IDEA states in part C that individuals with Developmental Delays as a child under the age of 3 with an
existing diagnosed physical or mental condition that has a high probability of developmental delay
qualified for early intervention.

CHARACTERISTICS

- Social
o Children may have difficulties with initiating communicating with others and carrying on
two-way conversations.
o Children may have difficulties in talking or may begin to talk later than others
o Children may show no reaction to sounds.
o Children may not pay attention to new faces or be frightened by them
o

- Academic/Cognitive
o Children may have difficulties in the ability to acquire information.
o Children may have deficits in problem solving.
o Children may show delays in reasoning skills.
o The rate of learning for children may be considerably below the normal rate for other
children in their age group.
o Children may show delays in memory.
o Children may show deficits in obtaining and keeping attention.
- Behavioral
o Children may not be able to connect their actions with consequences.
o Children may have difficulties dealing with frustration and coping with change.
o Some children may have prolonged tantrums and may take considerably more time than
other children to calm down

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES

9
Students with developmental delays have no specific are where they are taught. These children can be
serviced in all different types of classrooms. The continuum of service all depends on the severity of the
delay. For delays that are more severe, children may benefit from being in a separate classroom. For less
severe delays, these children can be included in the general education classroom.

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

There are many different interventions that can be used for behavior. Using natural consequences to
reinforce cause and effect in a rule, request, or limit can be beneficial for those with developmental
delays. It is imperative that educators use wording that students can understand easily when explaining
the rules and consequences for their actions. To better let the student know about how their behavior
affects others, have them imagine how their behaviors affect others in the classroom. When a student
does show inappropriate behavior, brainstorm better choices of their actions with the students involved.
This allows for the student to grasp the idea of their actions have consequences and they can take
control of those actions easier.
: When using communication interventions, the goal is to help students be able to understand better.
Some effective interventions can include speaking slowly and deliberately and paraphrasing back to the
student what they have just communicated to you. Educators must also be patient when a student is
speaking to reduce frustration of the student. Some students may need to utilize other forms of
communication in the classroom depending on the severity of the delay. For younger children providing
puppets and incorporating songs and plays can help for more open and effective communication with
the educators and other students. Speaking directly to the student will also help improve
communication abilities.
Students with developmental delays may have increased difficulties in socialization. As an educator,
providing opportunities to play and interact with each other directly can promote effective and
appropriate socialization skills. To help promote acceptable socialization with other students, provide
“helping roles” to the students. This can include letting the student hand out snacks, worksheets, etc.
When providing helping roles instruct students to perform effective communication tasks when doing
their role. For example, have students ask other students, “Would you like a snack” when they approach
another student. Another excellent way to provide social interaction with other students have another
student become the “peer buddy” with the student with developmental delays. The “peer buddy” can
join the student when moving around the building, playing outside, and attending assemblies. This will
allow more effective socialization.

MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS/UDERLYING CONDITONS/TREATMENTS

With developmental disorders it is extremely hard to assess mental health needs due to the fact these
disorders affect children at a very young age. Characteristics of many mental health disorders may also
be from other physical conditions and the assessment may not be accurate. For example, just because a
infant may constantly cry, assuming the infant is depressed would not be the best decision. The infant
may be crying for many other reasons such as physical pain, need for attention, hunger, thirst.

Emotional/Behavior Disorders
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DEFINITION

An Emotional/Behavioral Disorder is defined as a chronic condition characterized by behaviors that

significantly differ from age norms and community standards to such a degree that educational
performance is adversely affected. The terms that we use to describe these individuals range
throughout all spectrums. These can include emotionally disturbed, behaviorally disordered,
emotionally conflicted, socially handicapped, personally impaired, socially impaired. Not all behaviors
may appear abnormal to every person.

CHARACTERISTICS

There are two different classification systems for children with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders. These
classification systems include clinically derived and statistically derived. Clinically derived classification
systems are used by psychologists and they involve administering different tests (such as the DSM-5) to
assist them in making diagnoses. This normally happens by observing the individuals behavior and
comparing it to diagnostic criteria provided in a classification system. Statically derived classification is
where researchers use statistical techniques to establish categories of disordered behavior to be
prevalent among individuals with emotional/behavioral disorders.

- Social
o Individuals may withdraw from others and appear isolated.
o Individuals may not act appropriately with peers, teachers, siblings and parents.
o Individuals may have few or no friends
o Individuals may affiliate with deviant social groups.

- Academic/Cognitive
o Individuals may be performing below grade level in various subjects.
o Individuals may lack social skills that are needed for academic success.
o Individuals may have deficits in organization and time-management skills.
o Individuals may display inability to sustain attention.

- Behavioral
o Individuals may display immaturity which can include sustained crying, temper
tantrums, and poor coping skills.
o Individuals may blame behavior or social problems on teachers or other students.
o Individuals may be aggressive with peers and adults and may cause injury when playing
or interacting with others.

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 o Individuals may display relational aggression which can include manipulating, gossiping,
and excluding other individuals.
o Individuals may show signs of impulsivity. Examples of this include hyperactivity,
defiance, opposition, and risky behaviors)
o These individuals may have an increased risk for substance abuse

Emotional and behavioral disorders may be a direct result of trauma occurring in the home, school, and
extra-curricular areas. Educators need to keep in mind the occurrence trauma with these individuals and
work to find the source of that trauma and possibly stop the trauma from re-occurring (if possible) with
the use of help from other professionals. (I.E. school psychologist, social worker, councilor etc.)

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES

Students with emotional /behavioral disorders normally are educated in the general education
classroom (45.2%) where the rest were being educated in a special education classroom, and other
environments.

Where Individuals with Emotional/Behavioral Disroders

are Educated

17%
General Education Classroom
Special Education Classroom
44% Other Environments

39%

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

Constant communication with the home is a necessary strategy needed for those with
emotional/behavioral disorders. This allows the constant intervention for the individual at the home and

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school environments. Providing students opportunities to assume responsibilities (such as handing out
papers) can help provide effective positive behavioral changes. To help the individual with
emotional/behavioral disorders, teaching other students to ignore attention seeking behaviors from the
student with emotional/behavioral disorders. This can allow the instructor to implement positive
behavioral reinforcement when the student finally notices other students aren’t paying attention to
their unacceptable behavior. As an instructor, providing clear rules and giving concrete examples for the
student will allow the student with emotional/behavioral disorders know exactly what is expected of
them. By using and monitoring effective seating arrangements in the classroom, the instructor can
effectively monitor all students’ behaviors and focus on aiding the individual with emotional/behavioral
disorders when necessary.
Providing clear and concrete expectations to the student with emotional/behavioral disorders can let
that student know what is expected of them while in the classroom setting. When the student shows
appropriate emotions and behavior always use positive reinforcement with the student.
As educators teaching appropriate behavior and emotional rules and skills frequently and explicitly can
aid in the positive reinforcement for the student with emotional/behavioral disorders, and it will also
benefit all students in the classroom. By being aware of and being in control of teachers, aides, students
whom the individual reacts negatively with, the educator can then teach the student to accurately label
the emotional status of others and themselves in order to promote positive emotions and behaviors.

MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS/UNDERLYING CONDITIONS/TREATMENTS

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders can exhibit a plethora of mental health needs
regarding the disability. Individuals with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders may also have anxiety
disorders, severe depression, bipolar disorder, ADHD, and even schizophrenia. These underlying mental
needs for individuals with emotional and behavioral disorders can be treated with a combination of
therapy and medication.

Students with Emotional and Behavioral disorders may also have other underlying conditions such as
Autism and learning disorders. These coupled with emotional and behavioral disorder will have to make
educators focus on effective and individualized interventions for these students.

Gifted/Talented

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DEFINITION

A gifted or talented individual is defined as a person who possesses abilities or talents that can be
demonstrated, or have potential of being developed, at exceptionally high levels.

Each state develops its own definitions for students who are known as gifted or talented. In those states
the children who are defined as gifted or talented are included within the laws that govern special
education.

CHARACTERISTICS

There are three categories of characteristics for individuals who are considered gifted or talented. The
first category is that individuals who are gifted or talented tend to perform childhood tasks at a more
advanced rate than others. This can include talking in sentences, beginning to read before in school, or
think abstractly before age related peers. A second characteristic category is that these individuals may
show an exceptional talent in one or more academic areas. An example of this is some students may
perform at a higher rate in mathematics but may not perform at grade level for language arts. Some of
these individuals may be seen as “single-minded” but that is not the case. A third characteristic category
is an individual may have more increased levels of creativity. A final category for characteristics can
include the ability to show leadership.

- Social
o Works very well independently.
o Has a high energy level.
o Is extremely self-confident.
o Exhibits qualities of leadership.
o Relates well to older classmates, teachers, and adults.
o Critical of self and strives for perfection.
o Has a dislike for routines, rules, and regulations.

- Academic/Cognitive
o Individuals may ask many probing questions that may cause adults to think they are
driven to distraction.
o Ability to think abstractly.

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 o Acquires information easily
o Enjoys learning
o Demonstrates interests in a variety of activities and areas.
o Has an excellent memory.
o Is highly verbal.
o Generates elaborate and non-traditional answers to questions.

- Behavioral
o Has an unusual alertness even in infancy.
o Has a keen or unusual sense of humor.
o Has a high level of curiosity.
o Is preoccupied with their own thoughts (daydreams)
o Is highly sensitive.

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES

Students that are considered as gifted or talented have a very different way of receiving their continuum
of services. Just like some students with other exceptionalities, these students may receive their
education in separate environments. However, the reasonings why they have separate environments
are extremely different than other students with exceptionalities. Students considered gifted or talented
will receive education in pull-out programs, advanced classes, and even duel enrollment.

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

Students who are considered gifted or talented normally do not show behavioral issues with the correct
interventions. These interventions can include placing students in a classroom where the educator
enjoys teaching gifted and talented students, giving these individuals frequent opportunities to work
with their peers, and keeping them actively engaged in learning that is appropriately complex,
challenging and meaningful.
: Since students who are considered gifted or talented exceed in many levels of their lives, providing
them new and challenging ways for communication can improve their oral communication skills. These
interventions can include developing fishbowl discussions and Socratic seminar. A fishbowl discussion
where students are set in two concentric circles. The inner circle of students discuss open ended
questions about a specific topic and the outer circle of students will take notes and generate new
questions. In a Socratic circle the same open-ended questions are being asked but it is done in a large
group instead of two separate groups. To boost a student’s writing skills educators can have students
write journal entries, formal essays, reviews, opinion pieces, narratives, and opinion summaries.
As educators teaching appropriate behavior and emotional rules and skills frequently and explicitly can
aid in the positive reinforcement for the student with emotional/behavioral disorders, and it will also
benefit all students in the classroom. By being aware of and being in control of teachers, aides, students
whom the individual reacts negatively with, the educator can then teach the student to accurately label
the emotional status of others and themselves in order to promote positive emotions and behaviors.

Hearing Impairments
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DEFINITION

There are many definitions to know when it comes to hearing impairments including the term “hearing
impairment” itself. Hearing impairment is defined as less than normal hearing (either sensitivity or
speech understanding) resulting from auditory disorders. The term hearing sensitivity loss is defined as
poorer than normal auditory sensitive for sounds. Another term when dealing with hearing
impairments is deafness. The term deafness is defined as limited or absent hearing for ordinary
purposes of daily life.

There are 4 different kinds of hearing loss: conductive, central, sensorial, and mixed. Conductive hearing
loss is caused by a blockage to the transmission of sound through the outer or middle ear. Central
hearing impairment is caused by interference through the pathway which nerve fibers proceed from the
brainstem to the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex. Sensorial hearing loss is caused by disorders of
the cochlea (inner ear) the auditory nerve that transmits impulses to the brain. Finally, there is mixed
hearing loss, which is the combination of conductive and sensorial hearing loss.

CHARACTERISTICS

- Social
o Individuals with hearing impairments tend to interact less frequently with peers.
o Individuals tend to engage in less social interaction than those who do not have hearing
impairments.
o Individuals with hearing loss tend to interact more with other individuals with hearing
loss.
o Individuals with hearing loss tend to have a difficult time learning how to use speech.

Academic/Cognitive
o Education achievement is lower than those of their peers.
o Reading tends to be the lowest academic achievement for those with hearing
impairments.
o Group work for these individuals can prove problematic.

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 - Behavioral
o Individuals may have difficulty with impulse control.
o Individuals may closely watch their peers and emulate their behavior and body
language. This process or symptom is known as echopraxia.
o Individuals may seem like they have selective hearing.

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES

Most students with hearing impairments are taught in the general education classroom. Students with
hearing impairments can also be taught in a resource room, separate classroom, or other environments.

Where Individuals with Hearing Impairments are

Educated

12%
General Education Classroom
Separate Classroom
16% Resource Room
Other Environments

59%
12%

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

Students with hearing impairments may need the help of other professionals to be able to excel in their
academic activities. These professionals can include audiologists that can diagnose, treat, and manage
individuals with hearing disorders. Students with hearing impairments may also benefit from the help of
speech-language pathologists who can help provide treatment for the language and speech impairments
that accompany students with hearing impairments. Finally, interpreters can also assist students with
hearing impairments by relaying information that is said in class in the forms of repetition, sign
language, finger spelling, body language and verbal expression.

Other strategies and interventions can include avoiding the overuse of hand gestures. This could make a
student who is hearing impaired singled out and make the classroom setting uncomfortable.

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 When producing lesson plans, incorporating visual aids will not only help the student who is hearing
impaired retain the information better it can also allow the other students in the class grasp the
information easier.

If a student who is hearing impaired uses sign language, having the educator learn sign language
themselves and then teach other students in the class how to use it can be a great use of diversity that
doesn’t just benefit the exceptional student but also the entire classroom.

Educators can work with an audiologist to provide useful strategies and interventions for students with
hearing impairments.

For students with hearing impairments, hearing is hard enough for them. Reducing the amount of
background noise in the classroom will not only benefit the student that has hearing impairments but
also will allow the rest of the class be able to focus on lessons, lectures, and activities better. For
students with a hearing aid, loud background noise will just be amplified.

MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS/UNDERLYING CONDITIONS/TREATMENTS

Students with hearing impairments just like those with visual impairments may find depression to be a
mental health needs educators may need to be aware of. Again, just like those individuals with visual
impairments, students with hearing impairments may feel helpless and that feeling of helplessness may
cause depression.

Students with hearing impairments may also have a few different underlying conditions and added
categories of special education. For instance, these students may also have learning disabilities, ADHD,
Autism, and even emotional and behavioral disorders. They can also be included in traumatic brain
injury, which might have been the cause of the hearing impairment.

Intellectual Disability/Mental Retardation

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DEFINITION

The definition of intellectual disability has changed dramatically since it was first introduced in 1959 as
mental retardation. Mental retardation was referred to as sub-average general intellectual functioning
which originates during the developmental period and is associated with impairment in adaptive
behavior. The term adaptive behavior is defined as the individual’s ability to meet the social
requirement of his or her that are appropriate for their ages. The developmental period is typically
referred to as the time between birth and age 16. Back in 1959 subaverage intellectual functioning was
classified as an IQ (intelligence quotient) below 50. In 1961 the number for the IQ rose to number less
than 85. In 1973 another change to the definition of intellectual disability came about. The word
“significant” was added to the beginning of the definition which led the IQ scores when defining a
person with Intellectual ability to lower slightly to 70. In 1983 the definition changed yet again. This time
it suggested using the rage of 70-75 IQ scores for determining intellectual disability giving the idea of
flexibility with the definition. In 1992 the definition changed yet again. This definition focused on the
use of assessments, the existence of limited adaptive skills within the context environments of an
individuals age group, limitations and strengths of adaptive skills, and with added support life function
will increase. In 2002 the definition changed to create a contemporary system of diagnosis,
classification, and systems of support for those with intellectual disability. The latest change to the
definition of Intellectual disability came in 2010, which changed the term of mental retardation into
intellectual disability.

There are 3 different levels of Intellectual disability which is dependent on assessed IQ scores. These
include mild, moderate, and severe/profound.

CHARACTERISTICS

- Social
o Immature social judgment and decision making.
o Difficulty in understanding peer social ques and roles.
o Slow to develop language and language skills.
o May misinterpret the intentions of others.

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 o May use simple language with short sentences.

- Academic/Cognitive
o 2-4 years behind in all areas of cognitive development. (i.e. reasoning, problem-solving,
working memory)
o Short attention span and easily distractible.
o May not be confident in school and is easily frustrated.
o Difficulties with learning concepts.
o May operate at a concrete rather than abstract level of thinking.

- Behavioral
o Difficulty following rules and routines.
o Displays some obsessive / compulsive behaviors.
o Exhibits problem behaviors and some immaturity.
o May need reminders about hygiene - washing hands and brushing teeth.

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES

Students with intellectual disability will most likely be served in a separate classroom. Almost half of the
students with intellectual disability are served in a separate classroom with the remainder of students
being served in a resource room, general education classroom, and in other environments.

Where Individuals with Intellectual Disability are

Educated

8%

Separate Classroom
17% Resource Room
General Education Classroom
Other Environments
49%

27%

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

There are a lot of different interventions and strategies educators can use to better help students with
intellectual disability. When it comes to academic strategies, using short and simple sentences when
giving instructions can greatly help understanding. Educators can also repeat instructions if need be.

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Keeping distractions and transitions to a minimum can help a student with intellectual disabilities retain
focus. Making it a point to teach organizational skills will benefit all students, not just those with
intellectual disabilities. Teaching a student with intellectual disabilities the difference from literal and
figurative language can help improve their social skills. When teaching difficult to remember
information, the use of mnemonics can greatly help retention.

Providing social strategies and interventions not only benefits students with intellectual disabilities it can
also benefit the whole classroom. Techniques such as providing frequent activities that require students
to work in groups can provide beneficial social skills. Have students who demonstrate appropriate
behavior become peer tutors for other students in class. Monitoring and considering seating
arrangements can also help boost social activity for the student with intellectual disabilities while also
preventing behavioral issues.

MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS/UNDERLYING CONDITIONS/TREATMENTS

Students with intellectual disability may have many different mental health needs these can include
depression, bipolar disorders, and anxiety just to name a few. Students with intellectual disabilities may
also share instances from other categories such as autism, emotional and behavioral disorders, learning
disability, and even traumatic brain injury.

Multiple Disabilities

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DEFINITION

Multiple disability is defined as Concomitant impairments that result in such severe educational needs
that a student cannot be accommodated in a special education program solely on the basis of one of the
impairments. It is important to note that deaf-blindness is not included in this category. The prevalence
of this category within student populations varies widely depending on the specific condition. Some
examples of individuals with multiple disabilities include behavioral disorders and muscular dystrophy,
cerebral palsy and seizures, deafness and AIDS, intellectual disability and spina bifida, and learning
disabilities and asthma.

CHARACTERISTICS, CONTINIUM OF SERVICES, AND INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE

STUDENTS

Due to the nature of these disabilities, characteristics, continuum of services and interventions can differ
depending on the combination and specifics of the multiple disability. For example, the characteristics
will combine that of students with physical disabilities and behavioral disabilities and continuum of
services for this student may mostly be done in separate classroom and strategies will be combined
from both disability categories to give the student the best academic experience. However, using this
example does not apply to all students with multiple disabilities.

Educational needs for these students can be done in 4 ways, using physical and health monitoring,
adaptations, specialized instructional strategies, and specialized expanded curriculum areas.

Physical health monitoring requires the teacher what type of medical condition each student has in
order to monitor the student and know what to do if a problem occurs.

Adaptations are Instructional accommodations that do not lower achievement expectations. There are
7 different types of adaptations. Environmental adaptations revolve around the environment the
student learns in. For example, for students who tire easily may need shorter days or more frequent
breaks or a student with a wheelchair may need proximity modifications made throughout the
classroom and school. Communication adaptations may need to be made so that the teacher can
understand students and in turn the student can understand the teacher. Instructional and curricular

22
adaptations may need to be made for some students. This can include using alternative text books for
students who have deficits in reading abilities. Assistive technology is another adaptation teachers can
use for students with multiple disabilities. Class participation adaptations made need to be made for
some students, especially those for those who may not be able to raise their hand or may take a longer
time to communicate than others. Assignments and tests may need to be modified for some students
who tire easily. There are also other adaptions, such as eating, mobility, and using the bathroom, that
may need to be made for certain students.

Specialized instructional strategies may need to be made for these students. These are teaching
techniques and or strategies specifically designed for a particular special education population to assist
with learning specific material. When coming up with specialized instructional strategies teachers must
prevent communication breakdowns, or misunderstanding of what is being communicated.

Finally there is specialized expanded curriculum areas. Specialized expanded curriculum areas may mean
some students will have more of an academic curriculum while others may have more of a functional
curriculum. Depending on the mixture of disability, students may require one or both of these areas.

Where Individuals with Multiple Disabilities are

Educated

24% Separate Classroom

Resource Room
General Education Classroom
46% Other Environments

13%

16%

Other Health Impairments

23
DEFINITION

According to IDEA Other Health Impairments s having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a
heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the
educational environment, that is due to chronic or acute health problems and Adversely affects a child’s
educational performance.

Acute health problems can include asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis,
rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and/or Tourette syndrome.

Other Health Impairments according to IDEA must involve the characteristics of limited strength, vitality
or alertness due to chronic health problem and educational performance is negatively affected as a
result of these conditions.

CHARACTERISTICS

Due to the fact that other health impairments spans over a plethora of conditions, the characteristics
can very greatly. The most common characteristics of other health impairments include: fatigue
(diabetes, epilepsy, heart conditions, leukemia, rheumatic fever, lead poisoning) mobility issues
(Seizures, leukemia, sickle cell anemia), issues involving attention (ADD, ADHD, and sometime
Tourette’s), coordination difficulties (epilepsy, lead poisoning), muscle weakness, (epilepsy, rheumatic
fever, sickle cell anemia), frequent absences or late to school, and Inability to concentrate for long
periods of time (ADD, ADHD)

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES & PREVALANCE

The prevalence of students with Other Health Impairments is less than 1% of school age students and
represents about 7.5% of students with a special education.

24
Depending on the type of health impairment, most students will benefit from education inside a general
education classroom. However, students with ADD, ADHD, and Tourette’s syndrome may benefit from a
separate classroom environment.

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

When assisting students with other health impairments, it is important to use a team approach when
coming up with strategies and interventions for these students. These team approaches should be made
to meet the needs in physical independence, self-awareness and social maturation, communication,
academic growth and life skills training.

Educators should adapt the school environment when possible to help meet the specific needs of these
students. This can include adaptive equipment such as specially designed desks, positioning devices,
wedges, or standing tables. For students that deal with frequent medical emergencies, educators should
develop correct procedures for taking care of these students during those occurrences.

For students with ADD and ADHD, interventions and strategies should be made with the students lack of
attention and behavior in mind. Examples of this can include providing clear and set rules and
regulations in the classroom. Developing seating charts that effectively help the student and teacher
perform to their best abilities.

MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS/UNDERLYING CONDITIONS/TREATMENTS

Students that are included under the category of Other Health Impairments may have underlying
conditions and mental health needs. For example, some students that have ADHD, and ADD may suffer
from depression, anxiety, and oppositional defiant disorder.

Another example is for students that have epilepsy. These students may have underlying conditions
such as congenital disorders, head trauma, and even infections.

For some students with other health impairments treatments and medications are available to help
these students. For example, for ADD and ADHD certain prescription drugs such a Ritalin, Adderall, and
Concert can greatly improve symptoms of these disorders. For students with asthma, inhalers and
nebulizers can provide needed relief during attacks. For individuals with Sickle Cell Anemia, medications
such as Hydroxyurea and other pain relivers can be relief. For those with seizures, medications such as
Carbatrol, Dilantin, and Topamax can help reduce the frequency of seizures.

Physical Disabilities
(Orthopedic Impairments)
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DEFINITION

Physical Disabilities are more commonly known as orthopedic impairments. Orthopedic Impairment is
defined as a physical disability that occurs from congenital anomalies, diseases, or other causes that
adversely affect a child’s educational performance.

CHARACTERISTICS

Orthopedic Impairments can be divided into three types. These are neuromotor impairments,
degenerative diseases, and musculoskeletal disorders. Neuromotor impairments are an abnormality of,
or damage to, the brain, spinal cord, or nerves that send impulses to the muscles of the body. Some
examples of neuromotor impairments include limited limb movement, loss of urinary control, loss of
proper alignment of the spine. These individuals may also have a higher incidence of other impairments
such as intellectual disability, seizures, and/or visual impairment. Specific examples of neuromotor
impairments include spina bifida, and Cerebral Palsy.

The second type of orthopedic impairment is degenerative diseases. These are diseases in which the
function or structure of the affected tissues or organs change and become worse over time. A prime
example of this type of disease which is most common in the school population is Duchenne muscular
dystrophy, which is an inherited disease that is characterized by progressive muscle weakness from the
degeneration of the muscle fiber.

The third type of orthopedic impairments is musculoskeletal disorders. These are disorders of the
muscles, nerves, tendons, joints, cartilage, and spinal discs. Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA) and Limb
Deficeny are two examples of musculoskeletal disorders.

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES

Students with physical disabilities can be taught in many different environments. These range from the
general education classroom, separate classrooms, resources rooms to even a homebound or hospital
setting. For example, students with cerebral palsy and are nonverbal may best be taught in a resource
room, while another student with cerebral palsy may also thrive in the general education classroom. The

26
continuum of service for these individuals depends on student assessments, educational goals, and
planned interventions.

Where Individuals with Physical Disabilties (Orthopedic

Impairments) are Educated

7%
21%
Separate Classroom
Resource Room
General Education Classroom
Other Environments

16%

55%

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

There are many interventions that students with physical disabilities may need when in the classroom.
Some common strategies and interventions can include: Special seating arrangements to develop useful
posture and movements, instruction focused on development of gross and fine motor skills, securing
suitable augmentative communication and other assistive devices and awareness of medical condition
and its effect on the student.

MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS/UNDERLYING CONDITIONS/TREATMENTS

Students that may have physical disabilities may need the help from other professionals and specialists
including physical therapists who will help work on a students gross motor skills, occupational therapists
who will help work on a students fine motor skills, speech language pathologists who help students
work on problems with speech and language, and other therapists including massage and music
therapists.

Individuals with physical disability may also suffer from some mental health issues. These issues can be
changes in mood and even anxiety.

Specific Learning Disabilities

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DEFINITION

According to IDEA the term learning disabilities is a disability in which there is a discrepancy
between a person’s ability and academic achievement; individual possesses average intelligence.

The central component of learning disabilities is the idea of a discrepancy. A discrepancy in the sense of
learning disabilities is the difference between the student’s actual academic performance and his or her
estimated ability. A discrepancy is not antic aped on the basis of a student’s overall intellectual ability.
Also, a learning disability cannot be due primarily to sensory impairments, intellectual disability,
emotional problems, or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

The four main causes of learning disability has to do with acquired trauma, genetic/hereditary
influences, biochemical abnormalities, and environmental possibilities.

CHARACTERISTICS

- Social
o Individuals may have low self-esteem which can create deficits on creating relationships
with peers.
o Deficits in social cognition. Social cognition is the ability to understanding and interpret
social cues and social situations. This could also create issues on creating meaningful
relationships with peers and adults.
o Individuals may struggle to accurately interpret non-verbal cues.
o Individuals may have low social status, few positive interactions at school, difficulty
making friends, and seem lonely.
o Individuals may not follow the social rules of conversation, such as taking turns.

- Academic/Cognitive

o Deficits in reading. A common problem is dyslexia, which is a severe reading disability

which causes difficulty in understanding the relationship between sounds and letters.

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 o Deficits in math. Possibly due to computational skills, word problems, spatial
relationships, or writing numbers and copying shapes. Also, some students have issues
with fractions and decimals.
o Deficits in written language. This can include spelling, handwriting and composition
o Deficits in spoken language including problems with appropriate word choice,
understanding complex sentence structures, and responding to questions.
o Deficits with memory that can include problems with short-term memory and working
memory.
o Deficits in metacognition. Metacognition is the ability to evaluate and monitor one’s
own performance. These skills can include recognition of task requirements,
implementation of the appropriate process, and monitoring, evaluating, and adjusting
one’s performance to ensure successful task completion.
o Individuals may attribute success situations or events beyond their control rather than
their own efforts.
o Individuals may hesitate or refuses to participate in activities where speaking is
required.

- Behavioral
o Deficits in retaining attention which can impair success in the classroom.
o Individuals may be hyperactive which can cause distractions for the individual and
others in the classroom setting.
o Individuals may act impulsively and may respond before instructions are given out.
o Individuals may often seems slow to respond.

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES & PREVALENCE

Students with learning disabilities are normally taught in a general education classroom with the help of
useful strategies and interventions. The remainder of students can be taught in separate classrooms,
resource rooms, and other environments.

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 Where Individuals with Learning Disabilities are
Educated

6% 1%

General Education Classroom

Resource Room
24% Separate Classroom
Other Environments

69%

Students with learning disabilities make up the largest category for those with disabilities. Four out of
every ten students have a learning disability and receive special education. This represents 3.4% of the
school age population.

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

Strategies for students with learning disabilities focus on academics, which can include reading, writing
and math. For example, educators can break learning tasks into small steps to provide easier retention
for individuals with learning disabilities. Educators can also present information visually and verbally by
the use of diagrams, graphics and pictures. When directions may become complicated, educators can re-
word these directors for better retention. When it comes to reading, educators can provide books on
tape along with books with large print. Focusing on activities that involve sounds of words and not just
letters and spellings is another great strategy. For writing educators can use oral exams instead of
written exams when possible. Another great strategy is using computers for writing assignments for
students to type out their responses instead of handwritten responses. To also help with writing
educators can provide checklists for students when they proofread written assignments. For students
who show deficits in mathematics, having students draw pictures when solving word problems can help
individuals visualize the content. When teaching math strategies, explaining why they are important and
how they can use these strategies in the real world can help grasp content.

30
MENTAL HEALTH NEEDS/UNDERLYING CONDITIONS/TREATMENTS

Students that have learning disabilities may experience mental health needs. Students with learning
disabilities may experience problems with depression and anxiety.

Individuals with physical disability may also suffer from some mental health issues. These issues can be
changes in mood and even anxiety.

Students with learning disabilities may have underlying conditions such as autism, ADHD, ADD, and
other various mental disabilities. These students could also be shared in all other fields of special
education.

Treatments for these individuals can include medicines to better help treat symptoms of ADD, ADD,
anxiety, and depression.

31
 Speech/Language Impairments

DEFINITION

IDEA officially defined speech and language orders as “a communication disorder such as stuttering,
impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance.”

When talking about speech and language disorders we need to know what speech and language actually
is. Speech is the expression of language by the use of sounds. Language is a code used to communicate
ideas by a convention system of arbitrary signals.

There are 5 major components of language: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
Phonology is the actual sound of language. Morphology dictates how the smallest meaningful units of
our language are combined to form words. Syntax is the of linguistic rules that determine word order
and combinations to form sentences and how such word order is used in the communication process.
Semantics is a psycholinguistic system that involves word meanings and word relationships and their use
in communication. Finally, there is pragmatics which is a sociolinguistic system involving the use of
communication skills in social contexts.

There are two different types of language impairments; these are Receptive and Expressive. Receptive
Language Impairment refers to the deficit of the ability to understand what is meant by spoken
language, while Expressive Language Impairment impairments refer to the deficit in the formation and
production of language (verbal or non-verbal) that is understood by and meaningful to others.

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CHARACTERISTICS

- Social
o Individuals may isolate themselves from social situations.
o Individuals may be embarrassed by speech, regardless of age.
o Individuals may not initiate or maintain eye contact.
o Individuals may use inappropriate grammar when talking.
o Individuals may have trouble getting others to understand what they are trying to say.
o Individuals may have trouble forming sounds. (called articulation or phonological
disorders)
o Individuals may have unintelligible (cannot be understood) or indistinct speech.

- Academic/Cognitive

o An individual’s overall academic achievement may be lower than expected.

o An individual’s word knowledge may be below expectancy.
o Word substitutions may occur frequently in reading and writing (when copying).
o Individuals may hesitate or refuse to participate in activities where speaking is required.
o Individuals may have a learning disability (difficulties with reading or written language)
with average intelligence.
o Individuals may use Inappropriate grammar when writing.
o Individuals may have limited vocabulary.

- Behavioral
o An individual may be Inattentive and has difficulty with concentration.
o Individuals may become easily frustrated.
o Individuals may have difficulty following directions.
o Individuals may act impulsively and may respond before instructions are given out.

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES & PREVALENCE

Most of the students who have speech and language impairments are taught in the general classroom
setting with the help of assistive technology and custom-tailored intervention and strategies. The
remainder of students will be taught in resource rooms, separate classrooms, and other environments.

33
 Where Individuals with Speech and Language
Impairments are Educated

4% 3%
5%
General Education Classroom
Resource Room
Separate Classroom
Other Environments

87%

According to the U.S. Department of education, less than 20% of students in special education programs
possess speech and language impairments.

INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

Most of the interventions for students with speech and language disorder will focus on their language
and speech. These can be done by actively listening to students and focusing on interactive
communication. For those students who may have a severe speech and language impairment make
sure that student has a way to appropriately express their wants and needs. After a student speaks an
educator should paraphrase back to the student what was just said to make sure that communication
was understood. Possibly having a speech-language therapist come into the classroom and present
language units to the entire class could help the student with speech and language impairments and
provide other students useful knowledge. For the focus of the speech aspect of the impairment, a big
strategy for educators is to be patient when a student is speaking. Rushing the student can cause
frustration. Having easy and good interactive communication in the classroom can benefit the student
with speech and language impairments and other students in the classroom. When at all possible,
provide verbal cues and visual cues when possible.

UNDERLYING CONDITIONS/TREATMENTS

Students that have learning disabilities have a multitude of underlying conditions such as Autism
Spectrum Disorders, ADHD, and Cerebral Palsy which can make it even more difficult for these students
when it comes to speech and language.

34
Some students may have speech and language impairments due to physical occurrences. For example,
students may have a cleft lip and pallet that can greatly affect speech. Cleft pallets can affect speech by
sometimes sounding nasally and sometimes students may have issues pronouncing consonant sounds.

Students and parents of students can seek out help from a speech-language pathologist and speech-
language therapist to help with needed treatments and exercises for students with speech and language
impairments.

35
 Traumatic Brain Injury

DEFINITION

IDEA officially defines traumatic brain injury as an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external
physical force resulting in total or partial functional disability and or psychosocial impairment.

The definition also states that traumatic brain injury applied to open or closed head injuries resulting in
impairments in one or more areas such as cognition, language, memory, attention, reasoning, abstract
thinking, judgment, problem-solving, sensory, perceptual, motor abilities, psycho-social behavior
physical functions, information processing , and speech.

The term does NOT apply to injuries that are congenital and or degenerative or to brain injuries induced
by birth trauma.

CHARACTERISTICS

- Social
o Difficulties maintaining relationships.
o Inability to restrict socially inappropriate behaviors.
o Inappropriate responses to the environment.
o Insensitivity to others’ feelings.
o Limited initiation of social interaction.
o Individuals often are seen in social isolation.

- Academic/Cognitive
o Decreased attention, organization skills, and problem-solving ability.
o Difficulty with abstract concepts.
o Memory deficits.
o Perceptual problems.

36
 o Poor concentration.
o Poor judgment.
o Slowed information processing.
o Poor memory.

- Behavioral
o Aggressive behavior.
o Denial of deficits.
o Depression.
o Difficulty accepting and responding to change.
o Loss of reductions of inhibitions.
o Low frustration level.
o Inappropriate crying or laughing.

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES

The vast majority (almost half) of students with traumatic brain injury are educated in the general
education classroom. A little under 1/6th of students are educated in a separate classroom. The
remainder of these students will have their education in resource rooms (a little over 1/6 th) and other
environments.

Where Individuals with Traumatic Brain Injury are

Educated

8%

General Education Classroom

20% Resource Room
Separate Classroom
Other Environments
50%

22%

37
INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

Because traumatic brain injury takes its toll mostly on the cognitive, behavioral, and social aspects of
students’ academic lives, strategies and interventions need to focus on these characteristics to provide
students with the best experiences in the classroom. Educators can do this by providing repetition and
consistency when teaching. They can also demonstrate new tasks, state instructions, and provide
examples to illustrate ideas and concepts. To deal with the lack of attention from students with
traumatic brain injury educators can reinforce lengthening periods of attention to appropriate tasks.
Keeping the academic environment as distraction-free as possible can also really help these students.

Educators should also find out as much as they can about the student’s injury. This can help the
educator find the right interventions and strategies for the student’s success. For some students with
traumatic brain injury change can really put a damper on their learning. By having constant routines, the
student will know what is expected of them in the classroom. Because these students may tire quickly,
providing rest breaks may be beneficial to the student.

MENTAL HEALTH CONCERNS/TREATMENTS

Students that have traumatic brain injuries already have a physical underlying condition from trauma of
the brain. Because of this trauma and its characteristics depression, mania, obsessive compulsive
disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

While medications and treatment do not treat the actual instance of traumatic brain injury, treatments
and medications can treat some of the mental concerns for students with traumatic brain injury when it
comes to depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, and PTSD.

Students and parents of students can seek out help from a speech-language pathologist and speech-
language therapist to help with needed treatments and exercises for students with speech and language
impairments.

38
 Visual Impairments

DEFINITION

According to IDEA a visual impairment is an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely
affects an individual’s educational performance. This team also includes blindness.

Visual impairments can sometimes include a reduction of visual activity. This is ability to visually
perceive details. Other visual impairments can affect the visual field. This refers to the amount of vision
a student has in quadrant regions to the right, left, above, and below while gazing ahead (peripheral
vision). Students may also have a field loss, which is a restriction to the visual field.

Some students may be what is referred to as legally bind. This is a visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the
better eye with correction or a visual field that has no greater than 20 degrees. This classification can be
determined using a Snellen chart, which is an eye chart of clinical measurement of the true amount of
distance vision an individual has under certain conditions.

Individuals may also be considered functionally blind. This is when the primary channel of learning is
though tactile and auditory means. These individuals may use Braille to read and utilize other tactile
ways to gain information and knowledge.

Individuals may be described as having low vision, which is when the visual impairment interferes with
the ability to perform daily activities.

CHARACTERISTICS

- Social
o Individuals may show deficits in social skills.
o Individuals may not be able to understand nonverbal communications and body
language.
o Individuals may have fewer self-initiated social interactions and spend more time alone.
o Individuals may not be able to make or keep eye contact.

- Academic/Cognitive

39
 o Individuals may have a difficult time to see the connections between experiences.
o Individuals may have a different pattern of development due to fact that one of their
main senses have been compromised.
o Limited capability to organize elements into higher levels of thought and verifying said
information.
o Individuals cannot learn though incidental learning.

- Behavioral
o Behaviors such as rocking, eye-poking, hand or finger movements, gazing at lights and
other repetitive behaviors are common.
o Individuals may exhibit frequent blinking, eye-rubbing, or face crunching.
o Individuals may be clumsy.
o Individuals may have frequent headaches.

CONTINIUM OF SERVICES & PREVALENCE

Over half of students with visual impairments will be taught in the general education classroom. The
other remaining students receive their education in a resource room, separate classroom, or other
environments.

Where Individuals with Visual Impairments are

Educated

11%

General Education Classroom

11% Resource Room
Separate Classroom
Other Environments

13%
65%

According to the U.S. Department of education, only 0.4% of students with a disability have visual
impairments.

40
INTERVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR THESE STUDENTS

Most of the interventions and strategies for students with visual impairments can be met by the use of
assistive technology. Some examples of this include magnifiers, Braille, closed circuit television systems,
and large print books.

Other strategies teachers can do to help students who are visually impaired are keeping instructions
brief and uncomplicated as possible. Trying to provide and present lectures more auditorily will help
students who will not be able to utilize classroom visual aids. Educators should also keep a front row
seat open for students with visual impairments.

UNDERLYING CONDITIONS/TREATMENTS

Students that have visual impairments may also have other underlying conditions. These students may
have had a traumatic brain injury that may have affected the visual portion of their brain.

Treatments options such as glasses and contacts may be able to help individuals with visual
impairments. Working alongside an optometrist can help provide specific treatments for individuals with
visual impairments.

RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS

AUTISM

41
For students, parents, educators, administrators, and even friends, a wonderful resource for individuals
is Autism Speaks. It is a website that provides a plethora of resources and information for any individual
who interacts with an individual with autism. This is a wonderful tool to find help with identifying signs,
information about screening and treatments. It also is a wonderful place to find many different
resources available to all individuals who interact with students with autism. These can range from
camps, after-school programs, post-secondary education options, employment services and much more.

https://www.autismspeaks.org/

Various Disability Categories

Throughout my search for information regarding strategies and characteristic for the various
categories, I found a wonderful website that provided some incredibly useful information for
educators, and possibly even parents pertaining to those strategies and characteristics. This
website is called Do 2 Learn. It provides even more than just strategies and characteristics for
the various disability categories. It provides information on behavior management and social
skills as well as objects and activities you can use in the classroom settings. These include
picture cards and songs and games. I highly recommend this site for anyone who works with
individuals with disabilities.

https://do2learn.com/

Various Disability Categories (With a focus on Learning Disabilities and Gifted and Talented
Students)
Another great resource for educators to recommend to parents when it comes to various disabilities but
focusing on learning disabilities and gifted and talented students, is the Sylvan Learning Center. The
Sylvan Learning Center is a center that provides personalized tutoring, academic coaching, and
advancement and test prep. I have experience with the Sylvan Learning Center because when I was in
middle school, I was also included in some of these disability categories. My parents took me to the
Sylvan Learning Center for many years due to my struggles in mathematics, reading, and writing. For
those with learning disabilities (which was my case), The Sylvan Learning Center can provide meaningful
and custom tutoring sessions geared towards the students weakest areas providing a chance for success
for these students. For those who are gifted and talented, Sylvan Learning Center can provide activities
to promote advancement to help these individuals continue to grow their potential outside of the
classroom setting.

https://www.sylvanlearning.com/

Various Disability Categories

I found a wonderful local organization in the Atlanta are that provides extracurricular resources for
individuals with disabilities. This organization is called Greater Atlanta Pathways. With most school
systems, after a student has graduated there is no county facilitation that continues the work of the

42
school system for these individuals. The Greater Atlanta Pathways do just that. They provide the
resources and “life enhancements” for individuals with disabilities throughout the Atlanta area. These
pathways include therapy and health which provide therapeutic recreational workshops. These
workshops provide activities for arts and crafts that help an individual tap into their creative side. They
also provide culinary workshops that could benefit individuals on becoming more independent. They
also provide other pathways using music, sports, education, cultural arts, and life skills.

https://www.greateratlantapathways.org/home

REFRENCES
Special Education in Contemporary Society by Gargiulo & Bouck

43
 https://do2learn.com/
https://www.autism.org.uk/about/health/mental-health.aspx
https://www.healthline.com/health/anxiety-drugs
https://www.parentcenterhub.org/speechlanguage/
https://inpathybulletin.com/mental-health-impact-speech-disorders/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK356271/
https://www.clapa.com/treatment/early-years-1-4/speech/#cleft-speech ’
http://www.projectidealonline.org
https://www.specialeducationguide.com
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2536546/
https://eda508lowvisionblindness.weebly.com/general-characteristics.html
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0010440X76900420
https://www.umaryland.edu/media/umb/oaa/campus-life/disability-services-/documents/Tips-for-
Teaching-Students-Who-Are-Deaf-or-Hard-of-Hearing.pdf
https://childdevelopment.com.au/areas-of-concern/diagnoses/developmental-delay/
https://www.understood.org/en/learning-thinking-differences/treatments-approaches/early-
intervention/what-you-need-to-know-about-developmental-delays
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4859038/
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311908.2020.1716465

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