Chapter (7) Static bending

STATIC BENDING

7.1. INTRODUCTION
If forces act on a piece of material in such a way that tend to induce
compressive stresses over one part of a cross section of the piece and tensile
stresses over the remaining part, the piece is said to be in bending. The
common illustration of bending action is a beam acted on by transverse loads.
Bending can also be caused by moments or couples such as may result, for
example from eccentric loads parallel to the longitudinal axis of a piece.

Figure (7-1) illustrates a beam subjected to transverse loading. The bending

effect at any section is expressed as the bending moment, M, which is the
sum of the moments of all forces acting to the left (or to the right) of the
section. The stresses induced by a bending moment may be termed bending
stresses. For equilibrium to be achieved the resultant of the tensile forces T
must always equal the resultant of the compressive forces C. When no
stresses act other than the bending stresses, a condition of pure bending is
said to exist. Pure bending is developed only under certain loading condition,
in the usual case, bending is accompanied by transverse shear. The resultant
of the shearing stresses across a transverse section equals the total transverse
shear V, which is computed as the algebraic sum of all transverse forces to
the left (or to the right) of a section. Bending action in beams is often referred
to as flexure.

Fig.7.1 A beam subjected to transverse loading

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The variations in total transverse shear and in bending moment along a beam
commonly represented by shear and moment diagrams, which are illustrated
for several cases of loading as shown in Fig. 7-2. It should be noted that
symmetrical two-point loading given a condition of pure bending (constant
moment) over the central portion of the span (see Fig. 7-2c).

W/2 W/2

L/3 L/3 L/3

W/2

W/2

WL/6
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.7.2 Shear and moment diagrams for several cases of loading

In a cross section of a beam, the line along which the bending stresses are
zero is called the neutral axis. The surface containing the neutral axis of
consecutive sections is the neutral surface. On the compressive side of the
beam the fibers of the beam shorten, and on the tensile side they stretch, thus
the beam bends or deflects in a direction normal to the neutral surface,
becoming concave on the compressive side, Figure 7-3.

Fig. 7-3 Fiber strains and stress

within the proportional limit

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Chapter (7) Static bending

Above the proportional limit, bending stresses do not vary linearly across the
section because stress is not proportional to strain. Illustrations of common
cases of this are shown in Fig. 7-4.

In Fig. 7-4a the solid line shows the stress variation in a homogeneous beam
of symmetrical section for a material that has the same stress-strain variation
in both tension and compression. The equivalent linear stress distribution that
would yield the same moment is shown by the dotted line. The maximum
value of the fictitious straight-line fiber stresses; the modulus of rupture is
seen to be greater than the true maximum stresses.

If the material does not have the same stress-strain in tension and
compression, the neutral axis must shift toward the stiffer side of the beam in
order to maintain equality of the resultants of the tensile and compressive
forces, as shown in Fig. 7-4b.

(a) (b)

c c
Neutral
Axis
t Neutral
Axis t

Fig. 7-4 Bending stresses above the proportional limit

7.2. ASSUMPTION IN SIMPLE BENDING THEORY

Consider a prismatic beam of symmetrical cross section subjected to a simple
loading condition from which the geometry of deflection can be studied and
strain distribution determined the stress-strain relations would give the stress
distribution, which can be related to forces and moments through an

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Chapter (7) Static bending

equilibrium condition. For the analysis the following assumptions are

considered:

1- Transverse sections of the beam which are plane before bending will
remain plane during bending.
2- From condition of symmetry during bending transverse sections will be
perpendicular to circular arcs having a common center of curvature.
3- The radius of curvature of the beam during bending is large compared with
transverse dimensions.
4- Longitudinal elements of the beam are subjected only to simple tension or
compression and there is no lateral stress (pure bending moment).
5- Young’s modulus for the beam material has the same value in tension and
compression.

7.3. DERIVATION OF FLEXURE FORMULA

Suppose that a beam is subjected to pure bending moment applied in
a vertical plane, the beam is bent so that the upper surface is concave and the
lower is convex. In other words, the upper fibers are compressed while the
lower fibers are stretched.

Between these two extremes, there is a plane remains neutral and unchanged
in length. That means that the direct stress varies through the depth from
compression in the upper fibers to tension in the lower passing through
a point in between where the stress is zero. The Plane, which has no stress, is
termed “neutral plane”; the line of intersection of the neutral plane and any
cross section of the beam is known as the “neutral axis”.

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Chapter (7) Static bending

Consider the small element taken from a beam subjected to a pure bending
moment, see Fig. (7-5). The beam cross section has a vertical axis of
symmetry. The neutral axis exists somewhere at a distance y1 from the bottom
fibers and y2 from the top fibers. Before applying the load all distance 1-3, m-
n, and 2-4 are equal. When the load is applied, all fibers under the neutral
plane are tensile and lengthen. Only the length of the fiber nn (neutral axis)
remains unchanged.

Consider now a small area da lies on a plane S-T at a distance y from the
neutral plane (see Fig. 5). This plane will rotate when subjected to loads about
a point C called the “center of curvature”.

Fig. 7.5 A beam subjected to a pure bending moment

To calculate the deformation in plane S-T, draw from n fine parallel to the
side of the element 1-2 to intersect plane S-T in the point q. The deformation
of plane S-T will be equal to the arc qT which equals (yd) while the original
length Sq equals mn = Rd
Deformation qT = yd
Original length = Sq = mn = Rd

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Chapter (7) Static bending

Where R is the distance from plane mn to the center of curvature, C, and is

termed the radius of curvature.

Now the strain and stress can be calculated

deformation
Strain 
original length
yd

Rd
y

R
Stress () = strain () x modulus of elasticity (E)
Ey

R
E 
 (1)
R y
The equilibrium of one side of the section under its external and internal
forces is considered.

Firstly, the horizontal equilibrium (x = 0) gives

 da

 (Ey / R )da  0

Since E and R are constants, the equation becomes

E / R  yda  0

 yda represent the static moment of the cross section. Since E&R are not
zero, the statically moment must be equal to zero which only occurs about the
neutral axis.

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Chapter (7) Static bending

Secondly, the summation of the moments about the centroid of the section
(M =0) gives.
M   da.y (2)
Substituting equation (1) in equation (2)
Ey 2
M da
R
E 2
M  y da (3)
R
2
 y da Represent the second moment of area of the section. Equation (3)
tends to
EI x
M
R
l M
 (4)
R EI x

Where 1/R is termed the curvature of the neutral axis and EI is termed the
flexural rigidity of the section.

Now equation (1) and (4) will be gathered to give the flexure formula
l M 
 
R EI x Ey

E M 
 
R Ix y

This leads to the flexure formula

M.y

Ix

The equation can be put in different shape

M

Zx

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Chapter (7) Static bending

Where Zx equals Ix/y and is called elastic modulus of the section. The
magnitude of the normal stress  can then be calculated if the bending
moment at the section and the cross section dimension are determined.

One can see that the normal stress  has extreme values as the distance y has
extreme values, meaning that the stresses will be maximum at the external
fibers of the section. Positive values of y give tensile stresses while negative
values give compressive stresses.

7.4. SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY

Flexural tests on beams are usually made to determine strength and stiffness
in bending. Occasionally they are made to obtain a fairly completed picture of
stress distribution in a flexural member. Beam tests also offer a means of
determining the resilience and toughness of materials in bending.

The stress at proportional limit, yield strength and modulus of rupture may be
determined to establish appropriate load factors and allowable bending
stresses for use in design. The modulus of rupture also may be used simply as
a criterion of quality in control tests.

Because the loads required to cause failure may be relatively small and easily
applied, bending tests can often be made with simple and inexpensive
apparatus. Because the deflections in bending tests are many times the
elongation in tension tests, a reasonable determination of stiffness or
resilience can be made with less sensitive and less expensive instruments than
are required in a tension test. Thus the bending test is often used as a control
test for brittle materials, notably cast iron and concrete. It is less suited for
determining the ultimate strength of ductile materials.

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Chapter (7) Static bending

For wire and sheet metals, the bending test is sometimes used as an arbitrary
measure of relative flexibility. For ductile materials in the form of rods, such
as reinforcement bars for concrete, a cold bend test is used to determine
whether or not the rod can be bent sharply without cracking and serves as an
acceptance test for this form of ductility.

7.5. BENDING TESTS

7.5.1 Specimens
a) Type
There are two common bending test arrangements:
1. Three-point ( center-point ) bending (Fig. 7-6a)
2. Four-point bending (Fig 7-6b)

(a) (b)
Fig. 7-6. The two common bending test arrangements

The selection of the teat arrangement depends on the material, the specimen
dimensions and the particular test specification being followed. The four
point bending test is generally preferred, since it provides a constant moment
over a substantial length of the span. The shear stress in this portion of the
beam is zero. For this reason, failures occur outside the inner loading points
should be discounted.

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Chapter (7) Static bending

On the other hand, the bending moment in the three point bending various
along the length of the beam and has a maximum directly under the central
load point. Now there are also shear stresses present everywhere in the beam,
so that if failure does not occur right under the load point, the value of the
maximum moment is uncertain. Although it is also necessary to assume that
the effects of shear can simply be ignored, this test is easier to carry out,
particularly on small specimens.

b) Shape of cross-section
Circular, squared, or rectangular cross sections may be used.

c) Size
Although specimen dimensions for bending tests vary greatly, depending on
the material and the type of information being sough, the beam dimensions
must be so proportioned that it dose not fail by lateral buckling or shear
failure before the ultimate flexural strength is reached.

In order to avoid shear failure, the span must not be too short with respect to
the depth. Values of L= 6d to L=12d, where L = length and d = depth are
generally used. The actual value depends on the material, the shape of beam
and the type of loading. A value of L< 15b, where b = width, usually
safeguards against lateral buckling.

7.5.2 Apparatus
The principle requirements of the supporting and loading blocks for beam
tests are as follows.
1- They should be of such shape that they permit the use of a definite and
known length of span.

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Chapter (7) Static bending

2- The areas of contact with the material under test should be such that
unduly high stress concentrations (which may cause localized crushing
around the bearing areas) do not occur.
3- There should be provision for some longitudinal adjustment of the position
of the supports so that longitudinal restraint will not be developed as
loading regresses.
4- There should be provision for some lateral rotational adjustment to
accommodate beams having a slight twist from end to end so that torsion
stresses will not be induced.
5- The arrangement of parts should be stable under load.

A number of specifications describe in detail the type of support to be used

with particular materials. Apparatus for measuring deflection should be so
designed that crushing at the supports, settlement of the supports, and
deformation of the supporting and loading blocks or of parts of the machine
do not introduce serious errors in the results. One method of avoiding these
sources of error is to measure deflections with reference to point on the
neutral axis above the supports. Typical arrangements are shown in Fig. 7-7.

For determining fiber strains, a surface strainometer, resistance gages, or

a portable strain gage may be used to measure strains along selected gage
lines, or a special device may be used to indicate the relative rotation of plane
cross sections at some given distance apart, as shown in Fig. 7-8.

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Chapter (7) Static bending

Fig. 7.7 Typical arrangements to measure deflections with reference

to point on the neutral axis above the supports

Fig. 7.8 Surface strainometer, resistance gages, or

a portable strain gage
7.5.3 Procedures
Conducting routine flexural tests of the type used in quality control work is
quite simple. Often only the modulus of rupture is required, which can be
obtained from the load at rupture, the location of reactions and loads, and the
dimension of the critical cross section. Even in this simple case, however,
measurements must be made very precisely.

When deflections or strains are to be measured, as in the case when the

modulus of elasticity is to be determined, advantageous locations for the

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Chapter (7) Static bending

instruments must be decided on. Suitable arrangement depends on the

purpose of the investigation, the instrumentation available, and the physical
configuration of the specimen and apparatus. In general, locations along the
centerline of the specimen and at its mid span are best, so as to reduce the
effect of minor twisting and to maximize the precision of the results by
measuring relatively large deflections.

In any case the assembly of specimen and supports must be properly aligned
and centered in the machine. Deflectometers and strain gages, like the other
components, should be checked for proper operation over the required range
and must be located carefully.

Test speeds in general should be planned so that readings can be taken

accurately and precisely. Even in simple rupture tests, when no intermediate
readings are necessary, the load rate should be slow enough so that dynamic
effects are avoided.

7.6. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES IN FLEXURAL

7.6.1 Flexural Strength
The flexural strength of a material can be determined from a bending test in
which the load and deflection are observed. Strength includes the proportional
limit strength and modulus of rupture (ultimate strength in bending). These
properties may be determined to establish allowable bending stresses for use
in design; the modulus of rupture may be used as criterion of quality. The
flexural strength at proportional limit p and modulus of rupture  can be
determined as follows:

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Chapter (7) Static bending

MpY
p 
I

Mp is the bending moment at proportional limit (Mp = PpL/4 for the case of
beam subjected to central load, Pp = load at proportional limit, and L =
length of the beam).
Y is the distance from the neutral axis to an extreme fiber.
I is the second moment of inertia of cross sectional area.

While the ultimate strength in bending (modulus of rupture) is be determined

as:
MmY
m 
I

Where, Mm = ultimate strength in bending

7.6.2 Stiffness
The stiffness of a material may be determined from a bending test in which
the load and deflections are observed. Young’s modulus “E” is used as
a measurement of material stiffness in the elastic stage, as the value of E
increases; the stiff will be the material. E can be computed from the equation:

PL3
Δ
48EI

PL3 P
E   constant
48 I Δ

Where, P/ is the slope of straight line portion of the load deflection curve in
the elastic stage.

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Chapter (7) Static bending

7.6.3 Bending Resilience

Bending resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb elastic energy,
which will be completely recovered upon the removal of the load. It is equal
to the area of triangle under the load-deflection diagram up to the
proportional limit:

Resilience (R) = (½ )  Pp  p

= Area under the straight line in P- curve
Modulus of Resilience = R/Volume

7.6.4 Toughness in Bending

The energy required to rupture a material is taken as measure of its toughness.
Tough material can withstand great deformation together with high stress
without fracture. Toughness is the total area under the load-deflection
diagram.
Toughness (T) = (2/3) Pmax max
= Total area under the load –deflection curve
Modulus of Toughness = T/Volume

7.7. FAILURE OF MATERIALS IN BENDING TEST

7.7.1 Brittle Materials
The failure of beams of brittle material such as cast iron and plain concrete
always occurs by sudden rupture. Although as failure is approached the
neutral axis shifts toward the compression face and thus tends to strengthen
the beam, failure finally occurs in the tensile fibers because the tensile
strength of these materials is only a fraction of the compressive strength. The
ratio of tensile to compressive strength is about 25 percent for cast iron and
about 10 percent for concrete.

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Chapter (7) Static bending

The failure of reinforced concrete beams may be caused by:

1- Excessive elongation of the steel due to stresses above the yield point,
resulting in vertical cracks on the tensile side of the beam.
2- Failure of the concrete in compression at the outermost compressive fibers.
3- Failure of the concrete in diagonal tension, primarily due to excessive
shearing stresses, resulting in the formation of cracks that slope downward
toward the reaction, often becoming horizontal just above the main steel in
simple span beams.

7.7.2 Ductile Materials:

Beams of ductile steel do not rupture at all. When bending moment has
reached a sufficient magnitude, called the “plastic moment” nearly the entire
section is strained into the plastic range and hence stresses to the yield stress
(in tension on one side of the neutral axis and in compression on the other).
Under this constant moment the beam develops "plastic hinge, as illustrated
by Fig. 7.9.

7.8. EFFECT OF VARIABLES:

In flexural tests of brittle materials some of the more important factors that
affect the results are the type and rate of loading, the length of span, and the
cross sectional dimensions of the beam.

8.1 Loading Type

The effect of the type of loading is illustrated by the results of numerous tests
of concrete. These tests have indicated the relative magnitude of the modulus
of rupture for three common types of loading is as follows:
1- In a simple span, the largest value of the modulus of rupture is obtained
from central loading.

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Chapter (7) Static bending

2- Cantilever loading tests tends to give slightly higher results than central
loading on a simple span.
3- Third point loading on a simple span, invariably gives results somewhat
less than central loading (roughly 10 to 25%). These relations probably
hold, at least in principle, for other brittle materials give the most
concordant results.

Fig. 7.9 Plastic hinge

7.8.2 Specimen Dimensions

Tests of both cast iron and concrete have shown that for beams of the same
cross section, the shorter the span length, the greater the modulus of rupture.
The shorter the span, the less is the computed value of the modulus of

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Chapter (7) Static bending

elasticity of cast iron, although the difference is not over about 10% for
length diameter ratios ranging 10 to 30.

The shape of the cross section of a beam may appreciably affect the resistance
of the beam. Tests of cast iron beams having a variety of shapes but of about
the same cross sectional area show that in general the modulus of rupture and
the modulus of elasticity are lower for beams having a relatively large
proportion of the cross sectional area situated near the extreme fibers. This is
the case with I- section, although the breaking loads are considerably greater
for such section (see Fig. 7-10). Tests of both cast iron and concrete indicate
lower strength for beams of large cross sectional dimensions.

7.8.3 Test Speeds

Speed of testing has the same general effect in the flexure test as in the
tension and compression tests, that is the greater the speed, the higher the
indicated strength.

7.9. COLD BEND TEST

The cold bend test offers a simple somewhat crude, but often-satisfactory
means of obtaining, an index of ductility. Essentially the test consists in
sharply bending a bar through a large jangle and noting whether or not
cracking occurs on the outer surface of the bend piece. Often the angle of
bend at which cracking starts is determined.

Bend tests are sometimes made to check the ductility for particular types of
service or to detect loss of ductility under certain types of treatment. Thus,
cold bend tests, which are made by bending a metal at ordinary temperatures,
may serve to detect too high a carbon or phosphorous content or improper

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Chapter (7) Static bending

rolling conditions in steel. Cold bend tests are required in the specifications
for some steel, particularly these in the form of rod and plate, such as bars for
concrete reinforcement. Figure 7-10 shows suitable device to bend a bar into
a U-shape.

The specified angle of bend and size of pin around which the piece is to be
bent without cracking depends on the grade of metal and the type of service
for which it is to be used. Samples of metal bars or plates are cold bend
around a pin such that the sides of the sample are parallel. The diameter of
pin may be specified as follows:

For a diameter of bar D or thickness of plate T up to 25 mm, the radius of pin

R = D or T. If D or T more than 25 nun, R = 1.5 D or 1.5 T

In the case of concrete reinforcement bars, which must be bent cold in

job, the requirement for structural steel is that specimen is bent through 180 o
in each case. It is required that a specimen of rivet rod stock be bent flat on
itself.

7.10. A HOT BEND TEST

Is sometimes made, for example, on wrought iron by heating it to welding
temperature (about 1000C) and bending the heated piece on an anvil, the test
serves to detect too high a sulphur content.
A quench-bend test is occasionally used in connection with rivet steels
for boilers and is made by heating, quenching, and then bending, the test in
this case is used to detect too high a carbon content.
A nick bend test is made ' when it is desired to make a rapid
examination of a metal for coarse crystalline structure or for internal defects.

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Chapter (7) Static bending

Sometimes the specimen is nicked with a cold chisel clamped in, a vise, and
bent with a hammer. In more carefully made tests, the nick or groove may be
made by a hacksaw or in a milling machine, and after a slight bend is started
with hammer, it is completed by axial loading in a testing machine.

In bending test of some materials, such as wire and plastics, ASTM

specifies that the bending moment as well as the angle of bend be observed.

Fig. 7.10 Suitable device to bend a bar

into a U-shape

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