II.

PURE BENDING

In this section we will discuss the analysis of structures that are under the
action of pure bending. As such, there will be no transverse shear force
along the beam section considered. The problems of beam bending
considered here are based on the Euler-Bernoulli Beam Theory.

In this section we will examine the problems in which the bending moment
is applied either symmetrically or unsymmetrically on homogeneous or non-
homogeneous beams. In addition, we will discuss the elastic and inelastic
bending of beams having symmetric or unsymmetric cross sections. The
determination of neutral axis location for elastic and inelastic beams will
also be discussed. The variation of bending-induced normal stresses on the
beam cross section will be shown in several example problems. Finally, in
this section we will discuss the bending of curved beams including the
determination of the neutral axis and distribution of normal stresses.

 II.1 Introduction

 II.1-1 Rectangular Moments of Inertia and Product of Inertia

 II.1-2 Parallel Axis Theorem

 II.2 Elastic Bending of Homogeneous Beams

 II.3 Elastic Bending of Non-homogeneous Beams
 II.4 Inelastic Bending of Homogeneous Beams
 II.5 Elastic Bending of Curved Beams

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 Section II.1 Introduction

The straight beam section under consideration is in the state of pure bending
(i.e., transverse shear force is zero along this section). Consequently, as the
beam bends, plane sections remain plane but rotate relative to each other as
shown in the figure below.

As illustrated in the figure above, the top surface of the beam is shortened
due to compression, and the bottom surface is elongated due to tension -
both as a result of bending moment M. By examining the figure below, it
becomes apparent that at some location between the top and bottom surfaces
of the beam there is a surface whose length is the same as the original length
of the straight beam. This surface is neither in tension nor in compression,
therefore, it is referred to as the "Neutral Surface". The intersection of the
neutral surface with the plane of the beam cross section is called the
"Neutral Axis".

Since the beam cross section only rotates without warping, the slope of the
cross sectional plane is constant, indicating that axial deflection due to
bending is linear. This finding implies that in originally-straight beams in
pure bending, the axial strain must also vary linearly with zero value at the
Neutral Axis.

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Note: The linearity of axial strain is a consequence of beam being
(a) originally straight, and
(b) in pure-bending state.

Therefore, no additional restriction such as material property or elasticity is

imposed.

Now we impose additional restrictions:

(c) bending stresses remain below material's elastic stress limit,
(d) stress-strain relationship is linear.

As a result of restrictions (c) and (d), Hooke's law may be used.

In summary it can be said that in elastic and homogeneous beams, the

Neutral Axis, N.A. always passes through the centroid of the cross section
with its orientation determined according to the shape of the cross section
and the orientation of the bending moment.

The stress and strain variations for some elastic beams are given below.

EXAMPLES

 (a) Elastic, homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section.

 (b) Elastic, homogeneous beam with symmetric cross section.
 (c) Elastic, non-homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross
section.

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 I. Elastic, homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section

II. Elastic, homogeneous beam with symmetric cross section

III. Elastic, non-homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section

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 Section II.2 Elastic Bending of Homogeneous Beams

The general bending stress equation for elastic, homogeneous beams is

given as

(II.1)
where Mx and My are the bending moments about the x and y centroidal
axes, respectively. Ix and Iy are the second moments of area (also known as
moments of inertia) about the x and y axes, respectively, and Ixy is the
product of inertia. Using this equation it would be possible to calculate the
bending stress at any point on the beam cross section regardless of moment
orientation or cross-sectional shape. Note that Mx, My, Ix, Iy, and Ixy are all
unique for a given section along the length of the beam. In other words, they
will not change from one point to another on the cross section. However, the
x and y variables shown in the equation correspond to the coordinates of a
point on the cross section at which the stress is to be determined.

Sign Convention on Bending Moment Components Mx and My:

As far as the general bending stress equation is concerned, if a moment

component puts the first quadrant of the beam cross section in compression,
it is treated as positive (see the examples shown below). Notice that this is
just a sign convention for the moment components and should not be
confused with the sign associated with the bending stress.

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Neutral Axis:

When a homogeneous beam is subjected to elastic bending, the neutral axis

(NA) will pass through the centroid of its cross section, but the orientation of
the NA depends on the orientation of the moment vector and the cross
sectional shape of the beam.

When the loading is unsymmetrical (at an angle) as seen in the figure below,
the NA will also be at some angle - NOT necessarily the same angle as the
bending moment.

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Realizing that at any point on the neutral axis, the bending strain and stress
are zero, we can use the general bending stress equation to find its
orientation. Setting the stress to zero and solving for the slope y/x gives

(II.2)

A positive angle is defined as counter clockwise from the horizontal

centroidal axis.

Notice that we can use the equation for orientation of NA to examine special
cases. For example, if the cross section has an axis of symmetry, Ixy = 0. In
addition if only Mx is applied, then NA will have angle of zero which is
consistent with what we would expect from mechanics of materials.

From this equation, we see that the orientation of NA is a function of both

loading condition as well as cross sectional geometry.

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

 Example 1* Thin-walled beam with horizontally symmetric cross

section under a horizontal bending moment
 Example 2* Thin-walled beam with horizontally symmetric cross
section under an oblique bending moment
 Example 3* Thin-walled beam with unsymmetric cross section under
an oblique bending moment
 Example 4 Skin-stringer beam with unsymmetric cross section under
horizontal bending moment

* Interactive Examples

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SECTION II.2 EXAMPLE 1

For the cross section and loading shown, determine

 (a) Neutral axis location and orientation,

 (b) Bending stress distribution,
 (c) Location and magnitude of the maximum bending stress.

Assume that the stresses due to the applied load do not exceed the elastic
limit.

EQUATION USED: Eq. A13.13

SOLUTION

(a) As seen in the figure above, the cross section is symmetric about the
horizontal axis; therefore, the product of inertia is zero in this case.
Furthermore, with the bending moment applied about the x axis, the y

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component of moment is zero. As a result of the previous two conditions, the
N.A. orientation according to eqn. A13.15 will be horizontal - passing
through the centroid as expected. This problem is an example of symmetric
bending.

NOTE: There is no need to find the horizontal position of centroid because

there is no need to calculate the moment of inertia about the y axis as y
component of bending moment is zero.

(b) Because of the conditions stated in part (a) of solution, eqn. A13.13
reduces to:

The bending stress distribution will be linear with a zero value at the NA.

(c) In this case, the maximum stress is at the farthest point from the NA.
Because of horizontal symmetry about the NA, the stress at the top and
bottom of the section will have equal magnitude with the one on top being
compressive. To get the maximum value of stress, the reduced equation
given previously will be used.

The moment of inertia about the x axis is

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This makes the maximum bending stress

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SECTION II.2 EXAMPLE 2

For the cross section and loading shown, determine

 (a) Neutral axis location and orientation,

 (b) Location and magnitude of the maximum bending stress.

Assume that the stresses due to the applied load do not exceed the elastic
limit. Also assume that each length shown is measured to the middle of the
adjacent member.

EQUATIONS USED: Eq. A13.13 and Eq. A13.15

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SOLUTION

(a) As seen in the figure above, this is a symmetric cross section with
unsymmetric loading. The response will be an unsymmetric bending.

With the product of inertia being zero due to cross-sectional symmetry, we

need to calculate the components of the applied bending moment and the
rectangular moments of inertia in order to determine the orientation of N.A.

The components of bending moment are:

By examining the applied moment, it is clear that both of its components

will produce compression on the first quadrant, hence, they are both
positive.

To calculate the rectangular moments of inertia, it is necessary to know the

location of the centroid. Due to horizontal symmetry only the horizontal
coordinate of centroid need to be calculated as its vertical coordinate is
known due to symmetry.

The moments of inertia about the x and y axes are

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The neutral axis will pass through the centroid with an angle of

(b) The maximum axial stress is at the farthest point from the NA, either at
point A, B, C, or D. To get the stress values, use equation A13.13 at all four
points. With the product of inertia equal to zero A13.13 reduces to

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The bending stresses at point A, B, C, and D are

The results indicate that the maximum bending stress is at point B

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SECTION II.2 EXAMPLE 3

For the cross section and loading shown, determine

 (a) Neutral axis location and orientation,

 (b) Location and magnitude of the maximum bending stress.

Assume that the stresses due to the applied load do not exceed the elastic
limit. Also assume that each length shown is measured to the middle of the
adjacent member.

EQUATIONS USED: Eq. A13.13 and Eq. A13.15

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SOLUTION

This problem requires more analysis as both the loading and cross-sectional
shape are unsymmetric. The procedure is similar to the previous example.
First need to find the centroid, moments of inertia about the x and y axes,
and the product of inertia.

The centroid is at

and the moments of inertia and product of inertia are

The components of the applied bending moment are determined as

The x component is negative because it causes tension in the first quadrant.

(a) Since this is a homogeneous section, and it is assumed to be within its

elastic limits, the neutral axis will pass through the centroid. Its angle with
respect to the x axis is

(b) The maximum bending stress occurs at the farthest point from the NA,
either at point A or B.

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Therefore, point B is the location of maximum bending stress.

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SECTION II.2 EXAMPLE 4

The skin-stringer wing section shown is subjected to a bending moment Mo

which acts in the vertical plane putting the top surface in compression.
Determine:

 (a) the location of the neutral axis (NA) and its orientation;
 (b) the largest permissible value of Mo if the maximum stress in the
wing is not to exceed 12 ksi;
 (c) the stresses normal to the plane of the cross section in all
stiffeners.

EQUATIONS USED: Eq. A13.13 and A13.15

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SOLUTION

Since the cross section is not symmetric, the product of inertia will not be
zero. With the reference point at stiffener 14, the centroid of this cross
section is obtained first. Then the rectangular moments of inertia and
product of inertia are determined.

(a) Since the wing section is elastic, the NA passes through the centroid.
Equation A13.15 gives

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Note that Mx = Mo and My = 0 in this problem.

(b) The simplest way to find the largest permissible Mo is to pick out a few
candidate stiffeners that appear the farthest from the NA. Then use equation
A13.13 to solve for Mo by fixing the stress at 12,000 psi. The lowest
moment will be the answer as it will not induce a bending stress at any point
above the allowable value of 12,000 psi.

In this case, stiffener 12 will have the maximum stress because it is the
farthest from the NA. Therefore, largest permissible moment is

(c) Use Momax for Mx in Eq. A13.13 to solve for stress in each stiffener.

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