UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA

FLUIDS AND THERMODYNAMICS LABORATORY
(CHE486)
NAME : MUHAMMAD AMIRUL BIN ROZALI (2017632026)
AZRUL HANIF BIN SHAFIE (2017631918)
SHAHIRA NADIA BT SHAHROL RIZAL (2017632098)
RAIHAN BT SHAHABUDIN (2017
AWANIS (2017
GROUP : EH2203A
EXPERIMENT : FLOWMETER DEMONSTRATIONS
DATE PERFORMED :
SEMESTER :3
PROGRAMME / CODE : EH220
SUBMIT TO : MISS HABSAH ALWI

No. Title Allocated Marks (%) Marks

1 Abstract/Summary 5  
2 Introduction 10  
3 Aims 5  
4 Theory 10  
5 Apparatus 5  
6 Methodology/Procedure 10  
7 Results 10  
8 Calculations 10  
9 Discussion 20  
10 Conclusion 5  
11 Recommendations 5  
12 Reference / Appendix 5  
TOTAL MARKS 100  

Remarks:

Checked by :

---------------------------

Date :
TABLE OF CONTENT PAGE
1.0 ABSTRACT 2
2.0 INTRODUCTION 2
3.0 AIMS 3
4.0 THEORY 3
5.0 APPARATUS 6
6.0 METHODOLOGY / PROCEDURE 6
7.0 RESULTS
8.0 CALCULATIONS 9
9.0 DISCUSSION 10
10.0 CONCLUSION 11
11.0 RECOMMENDATIONS 12
12.0 REFERENCES
13.0 APPENDIX 12
1.0 ABSTRACT

SOLTEQ® Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM 101) is an apparatus that

enables us to determine the water flowrate from the different types of flow measuring
devices, such as, venture meter, orifice meter and rotameter. Since this apparatus is
associated with hydraulic bench, so, at the end of the experiment, we are able to
compare the flowrate of the three types of the devices against the flow measurement of
the bench that operates by Volumetric Method. . The flowrate of rotameter and hydraulic
bench can be determine directly from the device, meanwhile, for the venture meter and
orifice meter, we could use the formula from Bernoulli’s Equation and continuity
equation. Furthermore, the total head loss and loss coefficient can be determined when
fluid flows through a 90° degree elbow and by determining the differential piezometer
head. At the end of the experiment, we have found the difference in value of flowrate
obtained from the different devices. The difference in the patterns of flowrate have been
plotted in graph of Qactual versus Qrotameter. From the graph, all devices show an
increment in the value of flow rate and the value of flowrate that is the closest to the
value of actual flowrate is shown by venturi meter. The imprecision value of flowrate
between the different types of flowmeter is due to some errors that will be explained in
the discussion part. Lastly, from graph of piezometric head versus velocity head, we
could determine the value of the loss coefficient from the slope of best fit line, which is
K= 0.3037. As a conclusion, our experiment was successfully done as the aims of the
experiment were achieved.
3.0 OBJECTIVES

There are several objectives of this flowmeter measurement experiment to;

1. Obtain the flowrate using several technique;

a) Rotameter
b) Venturi Meter
c) Orifice Meter
2. Determine fluid flows loss of coefficient in a 90 °C elbow.
3. Obtain the head loss of the fluid flow.
Vs2
4. Plot the graph of ΔH against .
2g
5. To validate Bernoulli’s equation of fluid flow by experimentally.
4.0 THEORY

Rotameter

A flow meter that rotating free float is used to indicate the element is commonly
known as rotameter. Normally, a rotameter has clear lessen tube that flows to the above
direction. A freely suspended ‘float’ of pumpbot shape is usually placed within the tube.
The float will rests at the bottom end on a stop if there is no flow. When the flow begins,
the float will rise to the upward and the force of buoyancy will be balance by the weight.
When the flowrates is small, the float will only rise in a short distance. Meanwhile the
float will rise in longer distance if the flowrates is bigger. The direct measure of flowrates
can be obtain by the level of the float, with a marked glass tube that has been well-
cablirated.
Venturi Meter

A venturi tube and difference pressure gauge is usually part of the venturi meter.
The converging and diverging potion is part of venturi. Other than that, it also has a
throat. The converging potion is there to increase the fluid’s velocity and to make sure
the static pressure is low. The changed in pressure reading is related to the discharge
rate, thus the dissimilarity of pressure among inlet and throat occurs. Meanwhile
diverging potion is there to alter the area of the stream to the entrance are besides
change the velocity head into the pressure head.
By assuming the flow is incompressible, there is no frictional losses, Bernoulli’s
equation;

And using the continuity equation Q = AV = AV , the above equation becomes

For ideal

But, if there is a real fluid flow, we can expect that the flowrates to be less than that was
in equation 2. This might occur because hte frictional effects and the head loss between
inlet and the throat. The non-ideality is always accounted with the intersection from the
experiment coefficient. As the Z is the same, the equation 3 becomes

At the end

Where,
Cd = The discharge coefficient which is 0.98
D2 = Diameter of the throat which is 16 × 10−3 m
D1 = Diameter of the inlet which is 23 ×10−3 m
At = Area of throat which is 2. 011 ×10−4 m2
A = Area of inlet 5.309 ×10−4 m2
g = gravity which is 9.81 m/ s2
ρ = Water’s density which is 1000 kg/m3
P1 = The pressure of the inlet in Pa
P2 = The pressure of the throat in Pa
Orifice Meter

The orifice is a calibrating unit. It usually has concentric square edge circular hole
in a thin plate. It is then clamped in between the flanges of the pipe.

The subsequent pressure tap is located at somewhere that gives the minimum
pressure, and is make-believe to be at the vena contracta. The middle of inlet pressure
tap is placed in amid one half and two pipe diameter from the upstream side. The
actual Q from the venturi meter is use for the orifice mete
 ………….. (6)

90° Elbow

The illustration above indicate the flows of fluid in a pipe line. It can be seen that
it has pipe fitting. The figure also shows variation of piezometric head as the pipe run.
By extrapolate both stream lines of friction gradient to the plane fitting, dissimilarity of
piezo head that affects by the fitting can be determined. By creating the heads of
velocity in both stream, total ΔH can be determined
The relative of the energy that lose to head of velocity can be seen as it flows around an
elbow. This happen when there is an enlargement or even contraction of the flow. Valve
also can be the factor for this to occur.

To get a precise value, it require long section pipe. This is to start with relative positions
of the linear section of the piezometric lines. But, in the manual, two piezometers being
use; one for each stream, at needed space to make sure there is no troubles.

Loss of friction head is being estimate. This can be done when we choose a
significance of friction factor, for a completely develop flow through pipe which the
friction is insignificant. The way use to determine friction factor is
In order to obtain the friction factor, f, its enough to establish the value of friction factor
at just one flowrate, usually the middle of the range. This is because f differ deliberately
with Re, and loss due to friction is insignificant to compare with values of ΔH.

Characteristics of flow along 90 degree elbow and diameter change.

Figure above shows a 90 degree elbow with a fixed cross section

K, the coefficient loss is depend on relation of the bow radius, R to the pipe inside
diameter, D. If the ration is decrease, K value will rise.
5.0 MATERIAL AND APPARATUS

Material

1) Water

Apparatus

1) Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101)

4 8

5 9

1. Manometer Tubes 6. Staddle Valve

2. Discharge Valve 7. Rotameter
3. Water Outlet 8. 90° Elbow
4. Water Supply 9. Orifice Meter
5. Venturi Meter
2) Hydraulic Bench – Provides continuous and controlled water supply and volumetric
measurement services to conduct the flow meter measurement
experiment.

1
4

3
5

1. Starter
2. Control Valve
3. Centrifugal Pump
4. Volumetric Tank
5. Sump Tank

3) Stop watch – To determine the flow rate of the water

 Graph of Piezometric Head versus Velocity Head
9

8
f(x) = 0.3 x
R² = 0.98
7
Piezometric Head, Δh' (mm)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Velocity Head,V²/2g (mm)

6.0 METHODOLOGY

1. General Start-Up Procedure:

The Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM 101) readily supplied to

work and only needs to be connected to the Hydraulic Bench (Model: FM110) as
followed:

i) The equipment was placed top of an appropriate hydraulic bench.

ii) Levelled the equipment on top of the bench.
iii) The hydraulic coupling was linked to the outlet supply of the hydraulic
bench.
iv) The discharge connect of the flow apparatus hose to the collection tank of
the hydraulic bench were both connected.
v) We were then ready to switch on the apparatus.

Starting up the Apparatus:

i) The flow of the control valve of hydraulic bench was fully closed and the
discharge valve was fully opened.
ii) The discharge hose was ensured that it was properly directed to
volumetric tank of fibreglass before starting up the system. Also ensured
that volumetric tank drain valve was left open to allow flow discharge back
into sump tank.
iii) As step (ii) was confirmed, the pump was started up supply from hydraulic
bench. The bench valve slowly opened. At this point, the water started to
flow from the volumetric tank of hydraulic bench and then drained back
into sump tank.
iv) Continued to fully open the flow control valve. Flow in the pipe became
steady and no trapped bubble found, the bench valve was closed to
reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
v) The water level in the manometer board was observed as it begins to
show different level of water heights. (If the water level in the manometer
 board is too high where it is out of visible point, adjust the water level by
using the staddle valve. With the maximum measurable flow rate, retain
maximum readings on manometer).
vi) The flow was slowly reduced by controlling the flow discharge valve of
apparatus, close the discharge valve completely if needed.
vii) The water level in the manometer board will begin to level into a straight
level. The level at this point maybe at the lower or maybe at the higher
end of the manometer board range. (Take note that the pump from the
hydraulic bench at this time is still supplying water at a certain pressure in
the system).
viii) ‘Trapped bubbles’ were monitored in the glass tube or plastic transfer
tube. The ‘trapped bubbles’ were removed from the system for better
accuracy. The removal can be done by pressing the plastic tube to push
the bubbles up or lightly ‘tab’ the glass tube to release the bubbles
upwards.

Note:
‘Flushing’ the system by ‘bleeding’ to air out if the above method fails.

All that is required the use of a small object such as pen or screw driver, to
depress the staddle valve, found at the top right side of the manometer
board.

Depress staddle valve lightly to allow fluid and trapped air to escape out.
(Be careful on the wet floor.)

Allow sufficient time for bleeding until all bubbles escape.

Once all the bubble has been ‘bleed’, start to reduce the water supply now
by manipulating both control valves. Reduce first the flow apparatus
discharge valve and then the hydraulic bench valve in alternate motion,
bringing down the datum level of the water in the manometer board.
 (a) Proper experiment was started at this point.
(b) Data obtained were:
Probe A and C for venturi calculation
Probe G and H for orifice calculation
Probe I and J for 90-degree elbow calculation
(c) Recorded water level of each probe at a certain flow. With the height
difference (∆h), calculated using the formula given. The results
obtained was verified by comparing the results against rotameter and
hydraulic bench for experiment of the measurement.
(d) As the other flow rates obtained, the experiment was then completed.

2. Demonstration of the operation and characteristic of three different basic

types of flowmeter

i) Apparatus on bench was placed, the inlet pipe was connected to bench
supply and outlet pipe into volumetric tank.
ii) With the bench valve fully closed and fully opened the discharge valve, the
pump supply was started up from hydraulic bench.
iii) The bench valve was slowly opened until it was fully opened.
iv) No trapped bubble and the flow in the pipe were steady, the bench valve
was closed to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
v) Used the air bleed screw to adjust water level in the manometer board.
The maximum readings on manometers with the maximum measurable
flow rate was retained.
vi) Recorded the readings on manometer from A to J, rotameter and
measured flow rate.
vii) Repeated step vi for different flow rates. Adjusted the flow rates by
utilizing both bench valve and discharge valve.
 viii) Adjusted the bench and flow control valve together to demonstrate similar
flow rates at different system static pressures. The manometer was
adjusted accordingly.

3. Determination of the loss coefficient when fluid flows through a 90-degree

elbow

i) Placed the apparatus on the bench, connected inlet pipe to bench supply
and outlet pipe into volumetric tank.
ii) The bench valve was fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened.
Started up the pump supply from hydraulic bench.
iii) The bench valve was slowly opened until it was fully opened.
iv) As the flow in the pipe steady and there were no trapped bubbles, closed
the bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
v) By using the air bleed screw, the water level in the manometer was
adjusted.
vi) Noted the readings on manometer (I and J) and measured flow rate.
vii) Step vi was repeated for different flow rates. The flow rates were adjusted
by utilizing both bench valve and discharge valve.
viii) The tables were completed.
Vs ²
ix) Graph ∆H against for 90-degree elbow to determine the coefficient of
2g
losses.

4. General Shut-down Procedure

i) The water supple valve and venturi discharge valve were switched off.
ii) Water supply pump was turned off.
iii) Water was drained off from the unit when not in use.
7.0 Data and Results

Venturi Meter

Experimen Manometer Reading (mm) Volum Time Flowrate Flowrate

t e (L) (min , Qa Calculated
) (L/min) Using
Bernoulli’
s
Equation
Qt (L/min)
A B C D E F

1 25 25 24 24 24 25 3 0.58 5.17 5.94

5 3 4 7 9 1
2 28 27 24 26 26 27 3 0.28 10.71 11.18
0 4 1 0 5 0
3 32 30 23 28 29 30 3 0.18 16.67 16.67
0 7 6 1 2 2
4 36 33 21 29 31 33 3 0.13 23.08 23.08
0 9 9 7 5 2

Orifice Meter

Experimen Manometer Reading Volume Time Flowrate, Flowrate

t (mm) (L) (min) Qa Calculated
(L/min) Using
G H
Bernoulli’s
Equation
Qt (L/min)
1 250 229 3 0.58 5.17 6.19
2 268 189 3 0.28 10.71 10.23
3 300 123 3 0.18 16.67 15.31
4 327 20 3 0.13 23.08 21.37

Rotameter

Experiment Volume (L) Time (min) Flowrate, Qa Rotameter Qt

(L/min) (L/min)
1 3 0.58 5.17 5
2 3 0.28 10.71 10
3 3 0.18 16.67 15
4 3 0.13 23.08 20
Determination of the loss coefficient when fluid flows through a 90⁰ Elbow

Volume Time Flowrate Manometer Differential V V2

(L) (min) Qa Reading Piezometer (mm/s) 2g
(L/min) (mm) Head, ∆h (mm)
(mm)

I J Elbow (h I −hJ ¿
3 0.58 5.17 236 236 0 0.1623 1.3426
3 0.28 10.71 221 218 3 0.3362 5.7610
3 0.18 16.67 192 188 4 0.5233 13.9573
3 0.13 23.08 143 135 8 0.7245 26.7533
8.0 Calculations

Sample Calculation For Actual Flow Rate, Qa

Flow rate , Q ( minL )= Volume ( L)

Time( min)

Experiment Calculations
1 L 3L
Flow rate , Q ( )
=
min 0.58 min
= 5.17 L/min

2 L 3L
Flow rate , Q ( ) =
min 0.28 min
= 10.71 L/min

3
Flow rate , Q ( minL )= 0.18
3L

= 16.67 L/min

4
Flow rate , Q ( minL )= 0.133 Lmin
= 23.08 L/min
Sample Calculation of Actual Flow Rates for Venturi Meter (Calculated Using
Bernoulli’s And Continuity Equation)
Q t =C d A 2 V 2
1
A 2 −12 ρ1
[
Qt =C d A 2 ⌊ 1−( ) ⌋ 2 g ( + Z1 −Z 2 )
A1 ρ2
2
]
A C 2 −1 1
Qt =C d A C ⌊ 1−( ) ⌋ 2 [ 2 g(H A −H C ) ]2
AA
Where,
C d = Coefficient of discharged (0.98)
AC = Area of cross section at C (m 2)
A A = Area of cross section at A (m2 ¿
H A = Manometer reading at A (m)
H C = Manometer reading at C (m)
g = 9.81 m/s 2

Experimen Calculations
t
1
1 22.011 x 10−4 2 −1
Qt =( 0.98)(2.011 x 10−4 ) ⌊−( −4
) ⌋ 2 [ 2( 9.81)(0.255−0.244) ] 2
5.309 x 10
= 5.94 L/min
1
2 22.011 x 10−4 2 −1
Qt =( 0.98)(2.011 x 10−4 ) ⌊−( −4
) ⌋ 2 [ 2( 9.81)(0.280−0.241) ] 2
5.309 x 10
= 11.18 L/min
1
3 22.011 x 10−4 2 −1
Qt =( 0.98)(2.011 x 10 ) ⌊−( ) ⌋ 2 [ 2(9.81)(0.320−0.236) ] 2
−4

5.309 x 10− 4
= 16.40 L/min
1
4 22.011 x 10−4 2 −1
Qt =( 0.98)(2.011 x 10 ) ⌊−( ) ⌋ [ 2(9.81)(0.360−0.219) ] 2
−4 2
−4
5.309 x 10
= 21.25 L/min

Sample Calculation of Actual Flow Rates for Venturi Meter (Calculated Using
Bernoulli’s And Continuity Equation)
Q t =C d A 2 V 2
 1
A 2 −12 ρ1
A1
2
ρ2 [
Qt =C d A 2 ⌊ 1−( ) ⌋ 2 g ( + Z1 −Z 2 )
−1
]
1
2

AG 2
Q t =C d A G ⌊ 1−( ) ⌋ [2 g( H G −H H ) ] 2
AH
Where,
C d = Coefficient of discharged (0.63)
AG = Area of cross section at G (m 2)
A H = Area of cross section at H (m 2 ¿
H H = Manometer reading at G (m)
H G = Manometer reading at H (m)
g = 9.81 m/s 2

Experimen Calculations
t
1 22.011 x 10−4 2 −1
1
Qt =( 0.63)(2.011 x 10 ) ⌊−( ) ⌋ 2 [ 2( 9.81)(0.250−0.229) ] 2
−4
−4
5.309 x 10
= 6.19 L/min
2 22.011 x 10−4 2 −1
1
Qt =( 0.63)(2.011 x 10 ) ⌊−( ) ⌋ [ 2( 9.81)(0.268−0.189) ] 2
−4 2
−4
5.309 x 10
= 10.23 L/min
3 22.011 x 10−4 2 −1
1
Qt =( 0.63)(2.011 x 10 ) ⌊−( ) ⌋ [ 2( 9.81)(0.300−0.123) ] 2
−4 2
−4
5.309 x 10
= 15.31 L/min
4 22.011 x 10−4 2 −1
1
2
Qt =( 0.63)(2.011 x 10−4 ) ⌊−( −4
) ⌋ 2
[ 2( 9.81)(0.327−0.02) ]
5.309 x 10
= 21.37 L/min
Sample Calculation for the Velocity of water flowing through the 90⁰ Elbow

Flow rate , Q(m 3 /s)

Velocity of water (m/s)=
π 2 2
D (m )
4

Experiment Calculations
1 8.61667 −5
V=
π
0.026 2
4
= 0.1623 m/s
2 1.785−4
V=
π
0.0262
4
= 0.3362 m/s
3 2.7783−4
V=
π
0.026 2
4
= 0.5233 m/s
4 3.8467−4
V=
π
0.026 2
4
= 0.7245 m/s

V2
Sample Calculation for
2g

Experiment Calculations
2
1 V 2 (0.1623)
= = 1.3426 mm
2g 2( 9.81)
2 V 2 (0.3362)
2
= = 5.7610 mm
2g 2 ( 9.81 )
2
3 V 2 (0.5233)
= = 13.9573 mm
2g 2( 9.81)
4 V 2 ( 0.7245 )
2
= = 26.7533 mm
2g 2 ( 9.81 )
9.0 DISCUSSION

From the experiment done, we have obtained the water flow rate measurement of three
different basic types of flowmeter that is Venturi Meter, Rotameter and Orifice Meter.
The value of flow rate of rotameter can be determined directly from the device,
meanwhile the value of flow rate of venture meter and orifice meter can be determined
from the formula of Bernoulli’s Equation. The value from manometer reading is
substituted into the formula. The difference in the manometer reading is the value of
pressure drop. The flowrates of rotameter is used as a guideline to gain the flowrate of
venturi meter and orifice meter. The actual flowrate was obtained from the hydraulic
bench by using the constant volume 3L and time taken for water of each experiment to
get 3L.

Figure 8.1
From the graph of Comparison of Flow Rates between The Flowmeter, it is shown that
all the flow rates of the three types of flowmeter increases as the flowrate of rotameter
and hydraulic bench increase. The water flow rate of hydraulic bench is taken as actual
flowrate. From the graph, we can see that the measurement reading of venturi meter is
the nearest to the reading of the actual flow rate, followed by orifice meter and
rotameter. However, the flow rate of all types of flowmeter does not increase uniformly
as oppose to the theory. The readings of the measurements of flowmeter device such
as venturi meter at first is higher than the actual flowrate but as the actual flowrate
increases the flow rate of the venturi meter calculated becomes lower than the actual
flow rate. Same goes with the readings of orifice meter causing the lines on the graph to
intercept each other. As for rotameter, although the rotameter is used as the guideline
to get the flow rate of other flowmeter devices, the actual flow rate readings is far from
the reading of rotameter.
The possible reason for this error to occur is due to the fluctuation of the float in
rotameter. The flowmeter equipment is not well maintained leading to the reading of the
flow rate to deviate from the actual value. Another error that may cause the deviation of
reading is pulsation error. “If the pulsation are large, the instantaneous flow may
temporarily exceed the rated flow range of the flow displayed on the flow meter is
smaller than the actual flow. Volume type reciprocating pumps are known for generating
large pulsations.”1. The methods to overcome the errors have been discussed in
recommendations part.

1
Source of trouble for flow meters, Ke
 Graph of Piezometric Head versus Velocity Head
9

8
f(x) = 0.3 x
R² = 0.98
7
Piezometric Head, Δh' (mm)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Velocity Head,V²/2g (mm)

Figure 8.2
From the graph of piezometric head versus velocity head, we could determine the value
of the loss coefficient from the slope of best fit line, which is K= 0.3037. The value of
velocity is obtained from the value of actual flowrate divided by area of the pipe. As a
conclusion, our experiment was successfully done as the aims of the experiment were
achieved.
10.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the flow rate of incompressible fluid can be measured using three
different devices in the Flowmeter Measuring Apparatus that is the Venturi Meter,
Orifice Meter and Rotameter. The flow rate of the rotameter can be directly taken from
the apparatus itself. While venturi meter and orifice meter has to be calculated using the
derivation of the Bernoulli’s Equation. The actual flowrate can be obtained from the
bench by setting the volume to 3L and record the time taken for water to reach 3L in
volume. The unit for flow rate of the incompressible fluid is m 3 /s which is the volume of
fluid passing through a tube per unit time.
Based on the data obtained from the experiment done, all of the flow rate of the devices
increases as the flow rate of rotameter increases. However from the graph of
comparison of flow rate between the flowmeter, we can see that the flow rate of the
water measured using the devices does not increase uniformly. For instance, the venturi
meter at first is lower than the value of the actual flow rate but after the flow rate of
rotameter was increased the flow rate for the venturi meter becomes lower than the
actual flow rate value. Same goes for the value of orifice meter causing the lines of
orifice meter flow rate, venturi meter flow rate and the actual flow rate to intercept each
other. Upon closer look of the graph we can conclude that the flow rate of the venturi
meter is the nearest to the value of actual flow rate. This is followed by the flow rate of
orifice meter and last of all the rotameter.
From the graph of piezometric head versus velocity head, we can determine the loss
coefficient which is k=0.3037. This value is obtained by making a best fit line on the
graph and getting the value of the slope. Lastly the velocity of the fluid can be obtained
by dividing the value of actual flow rate with the area of the pipe. With this, we have
successfully finished the experiment and fulfill the objective of the experiment.
11.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

From the experiment, there are several errors can be found. There are many
ways in order the prevent the errors from occurring and to obtained accurate results.
The first recommendation is we have to be fully prepared. Read the manual thoroughly.
This will avoid mistakes. This will also make the experiment held smoothly.

Other than that, the apparatus provided need to be fully maintain. As we know
from our experiment, there are some errors resulting from the failure of the pump to
supply water consistently causing the fluctuation of float in the rotameter. This could be
due to the pulsation error in rotameter.

Besides, there is a lot of readings from the manometer board. Therefore, the
readings must be taken at the eye level to prevent from parallax error. Eye level position
is when the reader’s eye is perpendicular to the manometer board. Parallax error can
affect the result recorded.

We also need to make sure that there is no air bubble trapped in the plastic
transfer tube and the manometer tube. Air bubbles trapped in the apparatus will
decrease the accuracy of the result collected. Air bubbles trapped can be removed by
depressing the top right staddle valve by the side of the manometer using pen and
screw driver.

Lastly, to get the average readings we need to repeat the same step for three
times. This is to reduce the deviation from the theoretical results.
12.0 REFFERENCES

1. SOURCES OF TROUBLE FOR FLOW METERS PART 2 | Flow Knowledge |

KEYENCE America. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.keyence.com/ss/products/process/flowknowledge/sources/trouble_0
2.jsp
2. CE 319F LAB 4. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.caee.utexas.edu/prof/kinnas/319LAB/Lab/lab 4-Bernoullis equation/4-
Bernoulli.htm
3. Jamal, H. (2017, April 26). Haseeb Jamal. Retrieved from
https://www.aboutcivil.org/parts-of-Hydraulic-Bench.html