Designation: E562 – 11

Standard Test Method for

Determining Volume Fraction by Systematic Manual Point
Count1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E562; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

INTRODUCTION

This test method may be used to determine the volume fraction of constituents in an opaque
specimen using a polished, planar cross section by the manual point count procedure. The same
measurements can be achieved using image analysis per Practice E1245.

1. Scope Phase Constituent Content of Metals by Automatic Image

1.1 This test method describes a systematic manual point Analysis
counting procedure for statistically estimating the volume 3. Terminology
fraction of an identifiable constituent or phase from sections
through the microstructure by means of a point grid. 3.1 Definitions—For definitions of terms used in this prac-
1.2 The use of automatic image analysis to determine the tice, see Terminology E7.
volume fraction of constituents is described in Practice E1245. 3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as 3.2.1 point count—the total number of points in a test grid
standard. No other units of measurement are included in this that fall within the microstructural feature of interest, or on the
standard. feature boundary; for the latter, each test point on the boundary
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the is one half a point.
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the 3.2.2 point fraction—the ratio, usually expressed as a per-
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- centage, of the point count of the phase or constituent of
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- interest on the two-dimensional image of an opaque specimen
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. to the number of grid points, which is averaged over n fields to
produce an unbiased estimate of the volume fraction of the
2. Referenced Documents phase or constituent.
2.1 ASTM Standards:2 3.2.3 stereology—the methods developed to obtain informa-
E3 Guide for Preparation of Metallographic Specimens tion about the three-dimensional characteristics of microstruc-
E7 Terminology Relating to Metallography tures based upon measurements made on two-dimensional
E407 Practice for Microetching Metals and Alloys sections through a solid material or their projection on a
E691 Practice for Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to surface.
Determine the Precision of a Test Method 3.2.4 test grid—a transparent sheet or eyepiece reticle with
E1245 Practice for Determining the Inclusion or Second- a regular pattern of lines or crosses that is superimposed over
the microstructural image for counting microstructural features
of interest.
1
This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E04 on 3.2.5 volume fraction—the total volume of a phase or
Metallography and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E04.14 on Quanti- constituent per unit volume of specimen, generally expressed
tative Metallography.
Current edition approved Oct. 1, 2011. Published October 2011. Originally as a percentage.
approved in 1976. Last previous edition approved in 2008 as E562 – 08´1. DOI: 3.3 Symbols:
10.1520/E0562-11.
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM PT = total number of points in the test grid.
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
Pi = point count on the ith field.
the ASTM website.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

1
 E562 – 11

PP (i) = Pi TABLE 1 95 % Confidence Interval Multipliers

P T 3 100 = percentage of grid points, in the No. of Fields n t No. of Fields n t
constituent observed on the i th field. 5 2.776 19 2.101
n = number of fields counted. 6 2.571 20 2.093
P̄p = 1 n 7 2.447 21 2.086

n i( Pp ~i! = arithmetic average of Pp (i). 8 2.365 22 2.080

51 9 2.306 23 2.074
s = estimate of the standard deviation (s) (see (Eq 10 2.262 24 2.069
3) in Section 10). 11 2.228 25 2.064
95 % CI = 95 % confidence interval 12 2.201 26 2.060
= 6ts/ = n (see Note 1). 13 2.179 27 2.056
14 2.160 28 2.052
t = a multiplier related to the number of fields 15 2.145 29 2.048
examined and used in conjunction with the 16 2.131 30 2.045
standard deviation of the measurements to de- 17 2.120 40 2.020
18 2.110 60 2.000
termine the 95% CI. ` 1.960
VV = volume fraction of the constituent or phase
expressed as a percentage (see (Eq 5) in Section
10).
% RA = % relative accuracy, a measure of the statistical 6. Apparatus
precision = (95 % CI/ P̄ p ) 3 100.
6.1 Test Grid, consisting of a specified number of equally
NOTE 1— Table 1 gives the appropriate multiplying factors (t) for any spaced points formed by the intersection of very thin lines. Two
number of fields measured. common types of grids (circular or square array) are shown in
Fig. 1.
4. Summary of Test Method
6.1.1 The test grid can be in the form of a transparent sheet
4.1 A clear plastic test grid or eyepiece reticle with a regular that is superimposed upon the viewing screen for the measure-
array of test points is superimposed over the image, or a ment.
projection of the image, produced by a light microscope, 6.1.2 Eyepiece Reticle, may be used to superimpose a test
scanning electron microscope, or micrograph, and the number grid upon the image.
of test points falling within the phase or constituent of interest 6.2 Light Microscope, or other suitable device with a
are counted and divided by the total number of grid points viewing screen at least 100 mm 3 125 mm, preferably with
yielding a point fraction, usually expressed as a percentage, for graduated x and y stage translation controls, should be used to
that field. The average point fraction for n measured fields image the microstructure.
gives an estimate of the volume fraction of the constituent. This
6.3 Scanning Electron Microscope, may also be used to
method is applicable only to bulk opaque planar sections
image the microstructure; however, relief due to polishing or
viewed with reflected light or electrons.
heavy etching must be minimized or bias will be introduced as
a result of deviation from a true two-dimensional section
5. Significance and Use through the microstructure.
5.1 This test method is based upon the stereological prin- 6.4 Micrographs, of properly prepared opaque specimens,
ciple that a grid with a number of regularly arrayed points, taken with any suitable imaging device, may be used provided
when systematically placed over an image of a two- the fields are selected without bias and in sufficient quantity to
dimensional section through the microstructure, can provide, properly sample the microstructure.
after a representative number of placements on different fields, 6.4.1 The applicable point counting grid shall only be
an unbiased statistical estimation of the volume fraction of an applied once to each micrograph. Point counting measurements
identifiable constituent or phase (1, 2, 3).3 should be completed on different fields of view and, therefore,
5.2 This test method has been described (4) as being different micrographs. Repeated point count measurements on
superior to other manual methods with regard to effort, bias, an individual micrograph is not allowed.
and simplicity. 6.4.2 The magnification of the micrograph should be as high
5.3 Any number of clearly distinguishable constituents or as needed to adequately resolve the microstructure without
phases within a microstructure (or macrostructure) can be resulting in adjacent grid points overlaying a single constituent
counted using the method. Thus, the method can be applied to feature.
any type of solid material from which adequate two-
dimensional sections can be prepared and observed. 7. Sample Selection
5.4 A condensed step-by-step guide for using the method is 7.1 Samples selected for measurement of the phase or
given in Annex A1. constituent should be representative of the general microstruc-
ture, or of the microstructure at a specified location within a lot,
heat, or part.
3
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of 7.2 A description of the sample locations should be included
this standard. as a part of the results.

2
 E562 – 11
TABLE 2 Guidelines for Grid Size SelectionA

NOTE 1—A grid size selection which gives a significant number of

fields having no grid points on the constituent of interest should be
avoided.
Visual Area Fraction Estimate
Grid Size (Number of Points, PT)
Expressed as a Percentage
2 to 5 % 100
5 to 10 % 49
10 to 20 % 25
>20 % 16
A
These guidelines represent an optimum for efficiency for the time spent
counting and for the statistical information obtained per grid placement.

8.2 Smearing or other distortions of the phases or constitu-

ents during preparation of the section or sections should be
minimized because they tend to introduce an unknown bias
into the statistical volume fraction estimate.
8.3 Etching of the sections, as described in Test Methods
E407, should be as shallow (that is, light) as possible because
deviations from a planar two-dimensional section will cause a
Circular Grid bias toward over estimation of the volume fraction.
8.4 Stain- or coloring-type etchants are preferable to those
that cause attack of one or more of the constituents or phases.
8.5 Description of the etchant and etching procedure should
be included in the report.
8.6 If etching is used to provide contrast or distinguishabil-
ity of constituents then the volume fraction estimates should be
obtained as a function of etching time to check the significance
of any bias introduced.

9. Procedure
9.1 Principle:
9.1.1 An array of points formed by a grid of lines or curves
is superimposed upon a magnified image (that is, a field of
view) of a metallographic specimen.
9.1.2 The number of points falling within the microstruc-
tural constituent of interest is counted and averaged for a
selected number of fields.
9.1.3 This average number of points expressed as a percent-
age of the total number of points in the array (PT ) is an
Square Grid
unbiased statistical estimation of the volume percent of the
microstructural constituent of interest.
NOTE 1—The entire 24 points can be used, or the outer 16, or the inner 9.1.4 A condensed step-by-step description of the procedure
8 points. is provided in Annex A1.
FIG. 1 Examples of Possible Grid Configurations That Can Be 9.2 Grid Selection:
Utilized 9.2.1 The grid should consist of equally spaced points
--```,,,,``,`,``,`,`,`,,````,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

formed by the intersection of fine lines. Diagrams of two

7.3 Any orientation of the prepared section (that is, whether possible grids, one with a circular pattern and one with a square
longitudinal or transverse) can be used. However, it should be pattern, which are recommended for use, are shown in Fig. 1.
recorded since it may have an effect upon the precision 9.2.2 Determine the number of points (that is, the grid size,
obtained. PT ) from a visual estimate of the area fraction occupied by the
7.4 If the sample microstructure contains gradients or inho- constituent of interest. Table 2 provides guidelines for this
mogeneities (for example, banding) then the section should selection. The values in Table 2 do not correspond to theoreti-
contain or show the gradient or inhomogeneity. cal constraints; but, by using these values, empirical observa-
tions have shown that the method is optimized for a given
8. Sample Preparation precision.
8.1 The two-dimensional sections should be prepared using 9.2.2.1 The user may choose to employ a 100 point grid
standard metallographic, ceramographic, or other polishing over the entire range of volume fractions. The use of 100–point
procedures, such as described in Methods E3. grid facilitates easy volume percent calculations. the use of

3
 E562 – 11
TABLE 3 Prediction of the Number of Fields (n) to be Observed as a Function of the Desired Relative Accuracy and of the Estimated
Magnitude of the Volume Fraction of the Constituent
33 % Relative Accuracy 20 % Relative Accuracy 10 % Relative Accuracy
Amount of volume Number of fields n for a grid of PT = Number of fields n for a grid of PT = Number of fields n for a grid of PT =
fraction, Vv in percent 16 25 49 100 16 25 49 100 16 25 49 100
points points points points points points points points points points points points
2 110 75 35 20 310 200 105 50 1,250 800 410 200
5 50 30 15 8 125 80 40 20 500 320 165 80
10 25 15 10 4 65 40 20 10 250 160 85 40
20 15 10 5 4 30 20 10 5 125 80 40 20

NOTE 1—The given values in the table above are based on the formula:

n . S 4
E 2 3 PT
· DS
100 2 Vv
VV D
where:
E = 0.01 3 % RA, and
VV = is expressed in %.

only one overlay or eyepiece reticle for all volume percent as a function of PT , the selected relative accuracy (statistical
determinations may save both time and money. precision), and the magnitude of the volume fraction.
9.2.2.2 For constituents present in amount of less than 2%, 9.6 Selection of the Array of Fields:
a 400–point grid may be used. 9.6.1 Use a uniformly spaced array of fields to obtain the
9.2.3 Superimpose the grid, in the form of a transparency, estimated value, Pp , and the estimated standard deviation, s.
upon a ground glass screen on which the section image is 9.6.2 If gradients or inhomogeneities are present, then a
projected. uniform spacing of fields may introduce a bias into the
9.2.4 A grid in the form of an eyepiece reticle may also be estimate. If another method of field selection is used, for
used. example, random, then describe it in the report.
9.2.5 If the constituent areas form a regular or periodic 9.6.3 When the microstructure shows a certain periodicity
pattern on the section image, avoid the use of a grid having a of distribution of the constituent or phase being measured, any
similar pattern. coincidence of the points of the grid and the structure must be
9.3 Magnification Selection: avoided. This can be achieved by using either a circular grid or
9.3.1 Select the magnification so that it is as high as needed a square grid placed at an angle to the microstructural
to clearly resolve the microstructure without causing adjacent periodicity.
grid points to fall over the same constituent feature.
9.7 Grid Positioning Over Fields—Make grid positioning
9.3.2 As a guideline, choose a magnification that gives an
of each field without viewing the microstructure to eliminate
average constituent size that is approximately one half of the
any possibility of operator bias. This can be accomplished by
grid spacing.
moving the x and y stage mechanism a fixed amount while
9.3.3 As the magnification is increased, the field area
shifting to the next field without looking at the microstructure.
decreases, and the field-to-field variability increases, thus
requiring a greater number of fields to obtain the same degree 9.8 Improving Measurement Precision— It is recommended
of measurement precision. that the user attempt to sample more of the microstructure
9.4 Counting: either by multiple specimens or by completely repeating the
9.4.1 Count and record for each field the number of points metallographic preparation on the same sample when the
falling on the constituent of interest. precision for a single set of data is not acceptable (see Section
9.4.2 Count any points falling on the constituent boundary 11).
as one half.
9.4.3 In order to minimize bias, any point that is doubtful as 10. Calculation of the Volume Percentage Estimate and
to whether it is inside or outside of the constituent boundary % Relative Accuracy
should be counted as one half. 10.1 The average percentage of grid points on the features
9.4.4 of interest provides an unbiased statistical estimator for the
Pi 3 100 volume percentage within the three dimensional microstruc-
PP~i! 5 PT (1) ture. The value of the multiplier, t, can be found in Table 1.
Thus, the average, P̄p , the standard deviation estimator, s, and
9.4.5 The values of PP(i) are used to calculate P̄p and
the 95 % confidence interval, 95 % CI, should be calculated
standard deviation, s.
and recorded for each set of fields. The equations for calculat-
9.5 Selection of the Number of Fields:
ing these values are as follows:
9.5.1 The number of fields or images to measure depends on
the desired degree of precision for the measurement. Table 3 1 n
P̄p 5 n ( Pp ~i! (2)
gives a guide to the number of fields or images to be counted i51

4
 E562 – 11

F 1 n
s 5 n 2 1 ( [Pp ~i! 2 P̄p #2
i51
G
1/2
(3)
12. Report
12.1 Report the following information:
s 12.1.1 Raw data; note when n > 30, the reporting of raw
95 % CI 5 t 3 (4)
=n data is optional, however, the raw data shall be available for
10.2 The volume percentage estimate is given as: review when requested,
12.1.2 Estimated volume % ( P̄ p ) 6 95 % CI,
Vv 5 P̄p 6 95 % CI (5) 12.1.3 Standard deviation,
10.3 An estimate of the % relative accuracy associated with 12.1.4 % relative accuracy (calculated value, not one esti-
the estimate can be obtained as: mated from Table 2),
95 % CI 12.1.5 Number of fields per metallographic section,
% RA 5 3 100 (6) 12.1.6 Number of sections,
P̄p
12.1.7 Sample description and preparation, including
10.3.1 Estimates for the number of fields required to obtain etchant, if used,
a % relative accuracy of 10, 20, or 33 % with different volume 12.1.8 Section orientation,
percentages and grid sizes are provided in Table 3. These 12.1.9 Magnification,
values were calculated under the assumption that the features 12.1.10 Grid description,
have a random distribution upon the metallographic section. 12.1.11 Field array description and spacing, and
10.4 The % relative accuracy reported should always be 12.1.12 List of volume % estimates for each metallographic
calculated from the sample data and should not be taken from section 6 95 % CI.
Table 3.
13. Effort Required
11. Improving the Volume Fraction Estimate
13.1 A reasonable estimate for the time required to perform
11.1 If additional fields are measured to reduce the % the manual point count on 30 fields for a single type of
relative accuracy, then the following rule gives an excellent microstructural feature is 30 min. This time estimate can
guideline: To reduce the % RA by 50 %, then a total of four probably be decreased to 15 min after some experience and
times the original number of fields should be measured. familiarity with the point counting procedure and the micro-
11.2 When additional fields are selected on the same sec- structure analyzed are obtained.
tion, they should not overlap the initial set but may fit between
fields of the initial set, and should also form a systematic 14. Precision and Bias 4
sampling array.
14.1 The systematic point count technique is the most
11.3 As an example, if a 6 by 5 array of fields was used to
efficient manual technique for development of an unbiased
obtain the initial set, then by halving the spacing and measur-
estimate of the volume fraction of an identifiable constituent or
ing the intermediate field positions, a total of four times the
phase.
number of fields can be measured. Hence, 120 total fields
14.2 The presence of periodicity, structural gradients or
would be measured by halving the spacing (in both x and y
inhomogeneities in the section can influence the precision and
directions) and measuring the intermediate positions to form a
accuracy of the volume fraction estimate. Guidelines are given
12 by 10 array. This additional effort should reduce the
in 7.4, 9.2.5, 9.6.2, 9.6.3, 11.5 and 11.6.
confidence interval, and thus the % RA, by approximately
14.3 The quality of the sample preparation can influence
50 %.
precision and accuracy of the volume fraction estimate. Guide-
11.4 Where additional fields are measured on the same
lines are given in Section 8.
section, the average, P̄p , the standard deviation estimate, s, the
14.4 The point density of the grid used to make the volume
95 % confidence interval, 95 % CI, and the % relative accu-
fraction estimate can influence the efficiency, precision and
racy, % RA, should be calculated using the increased total
relative accuracy of the volume fraction estimate. Guidelines
number of fields as a single data set.
are given in 9.2.
11.5 If additional sections are prepared from the same
14.5 The magnification employed in the point count can
sample by completely repeating the sample preparation, or if
influence precision and relative accuracy. Guidelines are given
additional samples are prepared, then the same procedure
in 9.3.
should be used for each section, and the data recorded and
14.6 The counting of grid points at a constituent boundary,
reported separately. A grand average can be calculated by
particularly when doubt exists as to their exact location,
taking the average of the set means in this case. If no sample
presents an opportunity for bias in the estimate of the volume
heterogeneity is indicated (that is, the confidence intervals
fraction. Guidelines are given in 9.4.2, and 9.4.3.
about the mean of each set overlap), then the 95 % CI can be
14.7 The number of fields measured, the method of field
calculated from the standard deviation obtained using the data
selection and their spacing will influence the precision and
from all of the sets (that is, pooling the data and calculating a
relative accuracy of the volume fraction estimate. Guidelines
mean, standard deviation, and 95 % CI).
are given in 9.5, and 9.6.
11.6 Where the 95 % CI do not overlap for the different sets,
then a statistically significant difference between samples or
sections may be present. In this case, more rigorous statistical 4
Supporting data have been filed at ASTM International Headquarters and may
significance tests should be considered. be obtained by requesting Research Report RR:E04-1003.
--```,,,,``,`,``,`,`,`,,`

5
 E562 – 11
14.8 The precision of a given measurement of the volume (10) on each micrograph, the repeatability and reproducibility
fraction is determined by calculation of the standard deviation, standard deviations and 95 % confidence intervals increased
95 % confidence interval, and % relative accuracy as described with increasing P̄p for measurements with the 25 point test grid
in Section 10. but were essentially constant for the 100 point test grid. Note
14.9 If a greater degree of precision and relative accuracy is that the interlaboratory % relative accuracies (which are much
required, follow the guidelines in Section 11. poorer than those for the individual operators) improve as P̄p
14.10 Results from a round-robin interlaboratory program increases and as the grid point density (PT ) increases. The 100
(5), where three micrographs with different constituent volume point grid, with four times the number of grid points, decreased
fractions were point counted using two different grids (25 and the relative accuracies by about 21 to 51 % as P̄ p increased
100 points) by 33 different operators, were analyzed4 in (Micrographs A to C).
accordance with Practice E691 to develop repeatability and
reproducibility standard deviations and 95 % confidence limits
(see Table 4). For the same number of random grid placements

TABLE 4 Results of Interlaboratory Point Counting Round-Robin5

Repeatability Reproducibility Repeatability Reproducibility Repeatability Reproducibility
Micrograph P̄p (%)
Std. Dev. (%) Std. Dev. (%) 95 % CI (%) 95 % CI (%) % RA % RA
25 Point Test Grid
A 9.9 5.3 5.3 14.8 14.8 149.5 149.5
B 17.8 6.6 6.9 18.6 19.4 104.5 109.0
C 27.0 8.8 9.4 24.7 26.2 91.5 97.0
100 Point Test Grid
A 9.3 3.9 3.9 11.0 11.0 118.3 118.3
B 15.9 3.4 4.0 9.4 11.2 59.1 70.4
C 25.1 3.9 4.3 10.9 12.1 43.4 48.2

ANNEX

(Mandatory Information)

A1. PROCEDURE FOR SYSTEMATIC MANUAL POINT COUNT

A1.1 Visually estimate area percent of constituent or A1.7 Determine the number of turns required on the stage
feature of interest on metallographic section. translation knobs to move the stage from one field position to
the next. Do not observe the image while translating to a new
A1.2 Using Table 3, select grid size, PT . field to avoid bias in positioning the grid.
A1.3 Superimpose the grid upon the microscope viewing A1.8 Count and record the number of grid points, Pi ,
screen and select magnification such that the size of the falling within the features of interest.
features of interest are approximately one half of the spacing
between grid points. NOTE A1.2—Any point that falls on the boundary should be counted as
one half. To avoid bias, questionable points should be counted as one half.
A1.4 Select a statistical precision, (% RA) for example, 10,
A1.9 Calculate the average % of points per field, P̄p , and
20, or 33 %, desired for the measurement. Note that the % RA
its standard deviation, s.
is defined as follows:
95 % CI NOTE A1.3—A hand calculator with a ( + key can be used to calculate
% RA 5 3 100 these quantities.
P̄ p
A1.10 The average percentage of points is:
A1.5 Using Table 3, obtain an estimate of the number of
fields, n, required to obtain the desired degree of precision. 1 n 1 n
P̄p 5 n ( Pp ~i! 5 n ( Pi /PT 3 100
i51 i51
NOTE A1.1—A minimum of 30 fields must be measured in order to
calculate the 95 % confidence interval using the equation given in A1.12.
A1.11 The standard deviation estimate is:
A1.6 Determine the spacing between fields that will form a
systematic (equally spaced) array covering a majority of the F1 n
s 5 n 2 1 ( [Pp ~i! 2 P̄p #2
i51
G
1/2

sample area without overlap.

A1.6.1 For example, on a 10 mm 3 15 mm specimen area A1.12 The 95 % confidence interval for P̄p is:
where 40 fields are indicated from Table 3, a 5 by 8 array of ts
95 % CI 5
fields at 1.5 mm intervals might be used. =n

6
 E562 – 11

REFERENCES

(1) DeHoff, R. T., and Rhines, F. N., eds., Quantitative Microscopy, (4) Hilliard, J. E., and Cahn, J. W., “An Evaluation of Procedures in
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY, 1968. Quantitative Metallography for Volume-Fraction Analysis,” Transac-
(2) Underwood, E. E., Quantitative Stereology, Addison-Wesley Pub- tions AIME, Vol 221, 1961, pp. 344–352.
lishing Co., Reading, MA, 1970. (5) Abrams, H., “Practical Applications of Quantitative Metallography,”
(3) Howard, R. T., and Cohen, M., “Quantitative Metallography by Stereology and Quantitative Metallography, ASTM STP 504, ASTM,
Point-Counting and Lineal Analysis,” Transactions AIME, Vol 172,
Philadelphia, PA, 1972, pp. 138–182.
1947, pp. 413–426.

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