Educational Psychology:: An Integrated Approach To Classroom Decisions

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:
An Integrated Approach To Classroom Decisions

© 2005
Thomas Fetsco, Northern Arizona University

John McClure, Northern Arizona University
0-321-08088-2
Visit www.ablongman.com/replocator to contact your local Allyn & Bacon/Longman representative.
The colors in this document are not

an accurate representation
of the final textbook colors.
s a m p l e c h a p t e r
The pages of this Sample Chapter may have
slight variations in final published form.
Allyn & Bacon

75 Arlington St., Suite 300
Boston, MA 02116
www.ablongman.com
Introduction to the Study
of Educational Psychology
C H A P T E R
1
f you are reading this chapter, you are most likely beginning a
I course in educational psychology that is part of a teacher-training
program. Like most people in your position, you are likely to be
Standards in This Chapter asking yourself two questions:
The Interstate New ● “Exactly what is educational psychology?”
Teacher Assessment and
● “Why do I need to study educational psychology?”
Support Consortium
(INTASC) has developed a The answers to these questions are related and complex. This chap-
set of standards that define ter begins with brief answers. The remainder of the chapter clarifies
the knowledge, skills, and
and elaborates those answers. However, you should keep in mind
attitudes that contribute to the
success of teachers beginning that this first chapter is only the beginning of an explanation and
their careers. (A full listing of that the entire book is, to a certain extent, an attempt to help you
these standards appears on p. 4 answer these questions.
and on in the inside cover of this
text.) Learning the material presented
in this book will contribute to your
ability to master the INTASC standards.
Chapter 1, in particular, correlates most
closely with:
● Standard 9: Reflective Practice and
Professional Growth
Close-ups
Elementary
on
the Classroom
I am really enjoying student teach- best learning activity to use? I’ve noticed that Mr. Henson
Maria ing in the fourth grade with
Greg Henson. I’m learning so
uses quite a variety of techniques, but I’m not sure how he
decides what to use when. I am also worried about the stu-
Lucero much that I know will help me
when I get my own classroom.
dents’ motivation and discipline during my lesson. I wonder
if the kids will behave as well for me as they do for him. Fi-
Student Teaching
One thing I’ve learned about nally, I am concerned about how to deal with student differ-
in the Fourth
teaching is that I didn’t know ences. The students come from a variety of different ethnic
Grade
as much about it as I thought. We backgrounds, and there are several students whose families
really only barely scratched the sur- have recently emigrated from other countries.
face in my methods classes, and it’s a lot When I raised these questions with Mr. Henson, he asked
harder and more complex than I thought it was going to be. that I try to put together a lesson tonight and then sug-
I’ve been observing and helping out for three weeks, but gested we could talk about it tomorrow before class starts. We
now Mr. Henson wants me to plan and teach my own lesson both always arrive early, so we should have a good hour to
for next week. This will be the first lesson of a unit on frac- talk before we have to get ready for the first lesson.
tions and will introduce the basic concept of fractions and
their uses. Now that I am going to teach a real lesson to real
kids, I have a number of questions. For instance, what is the Decision Point: What information about the learners in Mr.
Henson’s class might help Maria answer her questions?
Before proceeding with Chapter 1, be sure you read the Close-ups on the Classroom
features about Maria Lucero and Jeffrey Larkin. At various points in the chapter, you
will revisit both teachers in their classrooms and follow their decision-making progress.
Their classroom experiences are closely integrated with the key concepts of this chap-
ter and serve as important models for understanding Educational Psychology.
What Is Educational Psychology?

What is educational psychology? An exact answer to this question depends on
whom you ask. However, for the purposes of this book, educational psychology is de-
fined as that branch of psychology that is concerned with the study of the mental
processes and behaviors associated with human learning and instruction. Educational
psychologists ask questions about the nature of learners and learning, the character-
istics of effective teaching, and how the nature of classrooms affects learning.
Educational psychologists study a wide range of phenomena associated with learn-
ing, both in the laboratory and in the classroom. Over the last thirty years, however,
educational psychologists’ interest in classroom learning has increased dramatically. A
review of research reported in recent issues of the Journal of Educational Psychology
reveals the breadth of questions investigated by educational psychologists. In 1999, the
Journal of Educational Psychology reported the results of studies investigating the
teaching and learning of writing (four studies), mathematics and problem solving (eight
studies), and reading (fifteen studies). In addition, some studies investigated questions
THEMES OF THE TIMES
about the effects of technology on learning, individual student differences affecting
Expand your knowledge of the school achievement, and the effects of social influences on students.
concepts discussed in this When educational psychologists ask questions about learning, they apply the
chapter by reading current and methods of science, careful observation, and rational analysis to answer their ques-
historical articles from the New tions. The answers to their questions are used to formulate and assess theories that
York Times by visiting the teachers use in their decision making.
“Themes of the Times” section Teaching is a complex activity, and effective teaching requires a complex set of
of the Companion Website. knowledge and skills. These characteristics have been organized into various sets of
standards that are used by many states in the certification of teachers, such as those
2 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

Secondary
After three and a half years of that would help the average student reach each object in the
Jeffrey study I’m finally starting my sequence. Then we could go lesson by lesson and determine
student teaching, the last step how we might modify each lesson to accommodate the dif-
Larkin before I get my certificate. ferences of any student or group of students within the class.
Student Teaching For the next fifteen weeks I’ll Mr. Goodman has also told me that I would have to design
in Ninth Grade be working with Mr. William an assessment plan for the unit. I told him that I wasn’t sure
General Goodman and his ninth grade which assessment method would be best. Mr. Goodman said
Science general science classes. I’ve been that I should choose an assessment method that made sense
observing the class for a week and with respect to my objectives and the teaching activities
have finally had my first one-on-one meet- within the unit. He suggested that I get started organizing
ing with Mr. Goodman. He told me that he wants me to pre- objectives and roughing out some lesson plans, and then we
pare a science unit on magnetism to be taught around the would think about how to assess the students’ learning.
first of November.
As we talked, I told him that my most immediate concern
was how to deal with the wide range of student diversity in Decision Point: What decisions will Jeffery have to make
his classes. Mr. Goodman suggested that we begin with the as he prepares his instructional unit? If you were in Jef-
sequence of objectives for the unit and try to plan lessons fery’s position, what questions would you have for your su-
pervising teacher?
developed by the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium

(INTASC), shown in Table 1.1. A glance at the principles that make up the INTASC
standards will give you an idea of how important an understanding of psychology is
to teacher effectiveness. Effective teaching results in student learning. Learning is a
psychological process, and to influence this process teachers must understand the na-
ture of this process and their students.
This book is intended to help you develop an understanding of learning and learn-
ers, in accordance with the INTASC principles. Our approach to this objective is based
on three assumptions. The first is that teachers must make decisions in complex multi-
dimensional environments, and that the quality of their decisions influences their ef-
fectiveness. The second assumption is that the scientific study of teaching and learning
can provide teachers with information that helps them better understand their class-
rooms and therefore improve the quality of their decision making. The scientific study
of teaching and learning leads to formal theories about how people learn and how teach-
ers may assist and guide the learning process. The final assumption is that
no single theory of learning or teaching is optimal for every situation that What are the three
teachers will face in the classroom. Teachers need to know about, and flex-
ibly apply, a variety of theories to make effective classroom decisions. Know- assumptions of this text?
ing how research is used to develop and evaluate theories allows teachers to
make better decisions about which theory to use when. In summary, we believe that an
understanding of scientific theories and how research is used to develop and modify the-
ories can help you apply theories and research to your own classroom.
Science, Theories, and Educational Practice

Without initiation into the scientific spirit one is not in possession of the best tools which
humanity has so far devised for effectively directed reflection. (Dewey, 1916, p. 223)
Science is a method of studying the world. This method includes the collection and
analysis of data and the generation of logical explanations for the data that have been
gathered so far. These logical explanations are called theories. The effectiveness of
C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 3

TABLE 1.1 INTASC Standards: What Beginning Teachers Should Know and Be Able to Do
Standard Description
1 Content Pedagogy The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s) he or
she teaches and can create learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful
for students.
2 Student Development The teacher understands how children learn and develop, and can provide learning opportunities that
support their intellectual, social, and personal development.
3 Diverse Learners The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to learning and creates instructional
opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners.
4 Multiple Instructional The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students’
Strategies development of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills.
5 Motivation and The teacher uses an understanding of individual and group motivation and behavior to create a
Management learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning,
and self-motivation.
6 Communication The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques
and Technology to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom.
7 Planning The teacher plans instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, the community,
and curriculum goals.
8 Assessment The teacher understands and uses formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure
the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of the learner.
9 Reflective Practice and The teacher is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and
Professional Growth actions on others (students, parents, and other professionals in the learning community) and who
actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally.
10 School and Community The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community
Involvement to support students’ learning and well-being.
Source: The Council of Chief State School Officers, Washington, D.C.; available at website http://www.ccsso.org/intasc.html
teachers’ decisions depends on their ability to understand their students and class-
rooms. Developing this understanding is the goal of reflective practice. As the quote
by John Dewey suggests, the scientific approach provides teachers with one of the
most effective means of achieving this understanding.
In general, a theory is a set of beliefs about how the world works, or
How do theories affect our at least how some part of it works. Such beliefs help explain the world and
allow us to make predictions and modify the world to achieve our objec-
ability to solve problems tives. For every aspect of our day-to-day lives we have sets of beliefs that
and make decisions? we use to understand our situation and guide our response. Therefore, in
a sense, anybody who tries to solve a problem begins with a theory.
For many people, such beliefs take the form of informal intuitions developed from
their encounters with similar problems. These informal beliefs are sometimes referred
to as common sense or implicit theories (Clark & Peterson, 1990). Teachers might
have implicit theories about how students learn, how they are motivated, or the causes
of students’ misbehaviors. Research has shown that the implicit theories of teachers
do influence their teaching practice (Ignatovich, Cusick, & Ray, 1979; Munby, 1983;
Olson, 1981; Smith, 1989; & Torff, 1999).
Scientific theories are a set of formal statements that describe variables and re-
lationships that are important to the understanding of some part of the world. For
example, information-processing theory proposes that the rate of learning is limited
by learners’ ability to pay attention. That scientific theories comprise such a set of for-
mal statements is important because it makes it easier to test the accuracy or preci-

sion of the described relationships. By testing
these relationships, we develop a more accu-
rate understanding of the world and are able
to make more accurate predictions. For in-
stance, a researcher might investigate what
kinds of distractions are most likely to influ-
ence the rate of learning. In general, experts
are more likely to use these types of formal
theories when they solve problems within
their domains of expertise.
It is important to note that scientists
don’t think of their theories as the truth. The-
ories are the best explanation they have so
far. The development of theories is an evolu-
tionary process. Theories compete to explain
what we know, and as new information
comes to light, some theories are modified Theories help teachers
and survive, whereas others are abandoned (Kuhn, 1970). The theories of educational improve their practice by
psychologists are subject to these same evolutionary forces, meaning that as we learn helping them understand
more about human nature, the theories of educational psychologists change. Driving how their students are
this evolutionary process is the scientific method. motivated to learn.
Research and the Evolution

of Scientific Theories
Scientific inquiry begins and ends with a theory. After developing a theory,
the researcher uses the theory to formulate research questions. The ques-
What are the steps involved
tions that a scientist tries to answer are influenced by the scientist’s theory. in a scientific inquiry?
To answer these questions, scientists conduct research. The research is de-
signed to gather information in a way that helps answer the research question. After
planning their research, researchers make observations and gather data. The data are
then analyzed to answer the original question. Sometimes the result of this research
strengthens the theory that generated the question, but often the results of research re-
quire that the theory be refined or modified in some way. Frequently, the research
process causes researchers to ask new questions and the process begins again. This
cyclic process is illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Comparing Theories
Teaching is a complex task and classrooms are complex environments. To study this
complexity, researchers tend to focus on limited aspects of the teaching task or class-
room environment. Generally, they choose their research topics based on their indi- FIGURE 1.1 The
vidual knowledge and interests. As a result, no single theory of teaching and learning Theory/Research Cycle:
exists. An important task for teachers is to compare various theories and select that The Relationship between
theory that is most appropriate for a given situation. Theory and Research
Theories may be compared along three dimensions.
Theory
• The theory’s characteristics, including the scope of the theory as well
as the constructs and processes of the theory;
• Epistemic value, or the theory’s potential to explain and make predic-
Research
tions about the world; and Conclusions
Questions
• Applicability, or the theory’s ability to guide people’s decision making
in everyday problem situations.
Characteristics of Theories. Because human beings are so complex, psy-

chologists often focus on some restricted aspect of human nature. Their re- Data Research
search concentrates on answering questions about a small set of psychological

Lookin
My meeting with Mr. Henson this morning has me to think about what the students could do that
answered some of my questions, but has given
me even more to think about. I think he was a
Maria would prove to me that they had learned these
three things. With Mr. Henson’s help I came up
little overwhelmed with my questions, because
he suggested that we first plan the lesson and
Lucero with a set of questions and exercises I thought
the kids should be able to do if they understood
then worry about things like motivation, disci- the concepts I would be presenting. Finally, Mr.
pline, and the differences among the learners. 1.1 Henson asked me what kind of activities would help
We began our discussion of the lesson by going the kids answer the questions and complete the exercises I
over the plan I had developed the night before. My idea was had listed.
to adapt an activity that I had learned in my mathematics After our meeting I think I have a better idea about the
methods class for my lesson on fractions. I had always lesson planning process, but I still have many questions. Mr.
found the activity enjoyable and thought it would be fun for Henson has suggested that I work on the lesson and then
our students as well. Mr. Henson thought the activity was we will meet again to discuss any other issues I might have.
creative, but seemed unsure about its appropriateness for
this lesson. He suggested that maybe a better way to start ● How would you describe Mr. Henson’s theory of learners
would be to make a list of instructional objectives, in other and learning?
words, things we wanted the students to learn from the les-
son. We did some brainstorming and eventually came up
with three objectives for the lesson. Then Mr. Henson asked
Decision Point: Is it possible to adapt this approach to
lesson planning to other subjects?
phenomena, and the resulting theory tries to explain these phenomena. This charac-
teristic is referred to as the scope of the theory. The scope of a theory refers to the type
of phenomena that the theory attempts to explain. Because of this, it is important to con-
sider the focus of different theories when making comparisons. For a teacher, the ques-
tion becomes, “What classroom situations will this theory help me understand?”
Consider the science teacher who wishes his or her student to learn how to use an an-
alytic balance. This teacher needs a theory that describes the process of learning and the
factors that affect it. Alternatively, a teacher evaluating a character-education curricu-
lum might need a theory that specifically describes the factors that affect children’s em-
pathy and their ability to understand other people’s perspectives.
All theories describe some aspect of the world, and psychological theories attempt
to describe the human mind and human behavior. These theories involve the de-
scription of psychological constructs and psychological processes. A psy-
How are psychological chological construct is a hypothetical human characteristic that is used to
constructs and psychological explain patterns of behavior. Learning style, intelligence, mood, and per-
processes different? sonality are examples of psychological constructs. Psychological processes
are actions that create or modify psychological constructs. Learning, mo-
tivation, and development are three psychological processes that are of particular in-
terest to educational psychologists and teachers. The description of these processes
is an objective in Chapters 2 through 6. Psychological theories differ in terms of the
psychological constructs and processes used to explain human performance.
Psychological constructs may vary in terms of their permanence. A trait is a psy-
chological construct that represents a relatively permanent and consistent mental
characteristic. Personality and intelligence are typically described as traits. For in-
stance, you may have friends who have been very outgoing for as long as you have
known them. They enjoy meeting new people, and they like to interact socially with
other people. You might explain the person’s behavior by saying that she or he is
friendly or extroverted. In other words, you seem to believe that there is some un-
derlying psychological trait that explains this consistent pattern of behavior. A men-
tal characteristic that arises from a specific situation and then goes away when the

situation changes is called a state. Many emotions are examples of states. In psycho-
logically healthy people, fear or anxiety are mental states brought on by some situa-
tion. For instance, a student may feel anxious before an important test, but when the
test is over, the anxiety subsides. The emotion is tied to the student’s situation.
Different theories may use different psychological processes and constructs to ex-
plain the same event. These differences produce different ways of understanding a sit-
uation. For example, developmental theorists may use the psychological construct of
readiness and the process of maturation to explain differences in children’s academic
performance and behavior across grade levels. From this perspective, if a child is hav-
ing trouble in school, the problem may be that the child is just not mature enough to
achieve at the expected level. The solution would be to provide the students with tasks
that are appropriate for their levels of development. On the other hand, learning the-
ories might explain students’ performance in terms of the psychological construct of
knowledge, which results from the psychological process of learning. Learning the-
ory would explain a child’s academic problem as indicating a lack of knowledge and
suggest that instruction be designed to make use of what the child already knows to
develop the knowledge necessary to achieve in the classroom.
Epistemic Value of a Theory. Howard (1985) suggests that scientists judge a theory
based on its contribution to understanding the world, guided in their judgment by
what he has termed epistemic value. Epistemic value refers to the power of a theory
to contribute to our understanding of a specific situation or the world in general. Epis-
temic value includes the following:
• Predictive accuracy, or how closely predictions derived from a theory match real
world outcomes;
• Internal coherence, or the degree to which the constructs and processes proposed
by a theory are logically related;
• External consistency, or how well the theory describes objects and events in the
real world;
• Unifying power, or the ability of a theory to identify, incorporate, and
explain similarities in data from different fields of research; What are the six
• Fertility, or the ability of the theory to inspire and guide research that characteristics of a theory
results in useful information; and
• Simplicity, or the number of constructs or processes comprising the that contribute to its
theory. All things being equal, simpler theories are preferred. epistemic value?
Practical Application. The practical application of the theory is a final comparison

point for theories. Some theories provide attractive descriptions of situations, but are
weak in terms of their applicability. Practitioners need theories that provide expla-
nations and suggest a course of action to solve the problems they face. In some cases
an older theory may simplify a problem even though the theory is known to be an
incomplete, narrow, or inaccurate description of the world. For example, sailors still
use a system of celestial navigation based on the assumption that the earth is at the
center of the universe and the stars are in fixed positions relative to each other in
space. These assumptions are incorrect, but by making these assumptions the calcu-
lation of their geographic position is simplified with no noticeable loss of accuracy.
One way to judge the practical application of a theory is to consider the types of
principles that can be developed from that theory. By making predictions and testing
the accuracy of the predictions, we are able to make judgments about the accuracy
of our theories. When repeated test results reveal a consistent relationship between
specific situations, actions, and outcomes, the relationship may be stated as a princi-
ple. For instance, cognitive learning theory proposes that learning depends on the ac-
tive participation of the learner. This being the case, one prediction that might be
made is that learners’ intentions affect what they take away from a learning activity.

Lookin
After looking over my lesson plan, Mr. Henson said and are more willing to put effort into participating
that he had only a few suggestions, but that
overall it was pretty good. Then we began talk-
Maria in new classroom activities. Another advantage of
behavioral approaches is that they assume that
ing about student motivation and differences.
Mr. Henson said that he thinks about class-
Lucero people are people. For example, people generally
like it when others who are important to them
room motivation and discipline in terms of be- recognize their accomplishments. A teacher realizes
havioral learning theory. He noted that this theory 1 that he has to modify how he shows recognition based
.2
has some practical recommendations for classroom on the students’ background experiences and expectations,
teachers. He said he has found that by reinforcing the learn- but he knows that it’s helpful to find a way to recognize
ers for doing things correctly and obeying the rules he is each student’s accomplishments.
able to keep the kids on task most of the time. When I said
that I hadn’t seen him giving out any candies or gold stars ● What is the advantage of learning a theory that has many
as rewards Mr. Henson laughed and said he uses social rein- practical applications?
forcers such as praise. He said candy and gold stars don’t work
all the time and can be somewhat expensive. Mr. Henson says
most of his kids respond very well to praise, if it is sincere
and explicitly related to a specific performance. One side ef- Decision Point: When you are trying to make a decision,
fect of this is that the students seem to enjoy the class more how will you decide which psychological theory will be
most useful?
This prediction has been supported by numerous studies. A principle that can be de-
rived from these consistent research findings is: Learning is an active, goal-directed
process.
Principles serve an important role in the application of theory. Principles often
serve as the foundation for making decisions and formulating a solution to a prob-
lem. A good decision maker uses a theory to understand a problem. This under-
standing allows the decision maker to select the relevant principle. The principle then
serves as the basis for a solution to the problem. This is how Ramona Mahoney ap-
plies this approach.
➤ I believe that what students learn from a lesson is greatly influenced by the stu-
dents’ intentions. Sometimes students need help in this area. One way to help
the students is to begin with some activity designed to encourage them to set
appropriate goals for the lesson. For instance, for my science unit on electric-
ity I begin by having students observe the deflection of a compass needle when
it is placed near a wire connected to a dry-cell battery. The students are always
surprised, and the unexpected behavior of the compass needle arouses their cu-
riosity. They then set out to discover what is causing this effect.
U sing Theory and Research

to Improve Teaching
As a teacher, you will make hundreds of decisions daily. As you plan for your
classes, you must decide what to teach, how to teach, and how to assess your students’
learning. As you deliver your lessons, you must decide if students are motivated and
learning, or if a change of plan is required. To manage the classroom effectively, you
must decide how to respond to the unique problems and behaviors of each student.
After you have presented a lesson, you will probably start thinking about how to im-
prove future lessons. Other decisions are associated with the administrative and

housekeeping actions required by schools, districts, and other governmental agencies.
Teaching is the act of making decisions, acting on those decisions, and evaluating the
effects of those decisions.
Teachers make their decisions in complicated environments. Classroom teaching
requires the successful completion of many different types of tasks, a concept known
as multidimensionality (Doyle, 1986). Teachers are managers, instructors, mediators,
counselors, and at times medics. They are responsible for teaching a wide-ranging cur-
riculum that includes facts, skills, problem solving, as well as interpersonal skills and
attitudes. In addition, they must be able to relate effectively to their students and the
adults in their students’ lives.
The variety of the decisions that teachers face makes teaching complex and de-
manding. However, the teacher’s task is made even more complex because teachers’
decisions are rarely independent of decisions made previously. For example, a teacher
deciding what concepts or skills to teach needs to consider the concepts and skills that
were previously taught. A teacher deciding how to respond to a student’s disruptive
behavior may need to consider the student’s past responses to similar situations.
The multidimensionality of teaching means that knowledge of a single theory may
be insufficient for all the situations faced by teachers. No single theory is likely to be
the most useful theory in all situations. Part of the decision-making process for teach-
ers, therefore, is the selection of the theory that is most useful for a given situation.
To make an informed selection of a theory, you need some method for comparing the-
ories, and you need to know something about the nature of the educational research
behind the theories.
The Contribution of Scientific Study

to Teacher Decision Making
A decision is the end product of an often complex thought process. Re-
search has focused on three aspects of teachers’ decision making: their On which aspects of decision
thinking processes as they plan for the various aspects of their classes; their making does scientific
thinking while they are interacting with students; and the nature and ef- research have the most
fects of the teachers’ theories and beliefs on their planning and decision
making (Clark & Peterson, 1986). It is this last aspect that is most directly direct impact? Why?
affected by scientific research.
What people know or believe plays a central role in how they think and act in
any given situation (Borko & Putnam, 1996). This applies to teachers and their de-
cision making. Teachers’ beliefs about the nature of their students and how they learn,
about the purpose of education, and about themselves as teachers all influence their
decision making (Calderhead, 1996). Specifically, teachers’ knowledge and beliefs in-
fluence how they set goals in their classrooms, which student characteristics they iden-
tify as critical, and the instructional and management strategies they apply.
The theories that result from the scientific study of teaching and learning can be
valuable tools that help teachers organize and clarify their thinking, thus improving the
quality of their decisions and teaching practice. Much of what expert teachers know
and believe about teaching is grounded in personal experience; and their decisions are
often based on the intuitions derived from this experience. However, even experienced
teachers may be stumped by unfamiliar circumstances or an unusual problem. In these
situations, the results of the scientific study of teaching may be helpful.
For new teachers, understanding the insights derived from the scientific study of
teaching can be even more valuable. As a new teacher you may lack the experiences
and intuitions of experienced teachers; however, you will be required to make deci-
sions the moment you enter your first classroom. Where will you begin? The theo-
ries derived from a scientific study of teaching can provide a valuable starting point
for your decision making. Your purpose in studying educational psychology is to de-
velop a theoretical base in preparation for making decisions in your future classroom.

Theories and Decision Making
How do theories affect the decision-making process of teachers? To answer this ques-
tion, we first need to think about the nature of decision making and what makes a
good decision maker. Then, we need to think about how theory might assist the
decision-making process.
Decision Making as Problem Solving. Making a decision is a form of problem solv-

ing that usually means choosing a course of action. Psychologists who study human
problem solving typically identify a series of steps in the process of solv-
How are the steps of ing a problem. These steps include (a) understanding the nature of the
the problem-solving problem, (b) developing a plan to solve the problem, (c) implementing the
process similar to a plan, and (d) looking back and evaluating the effectiveness of the planned
solution (Polya, 1985).
scientific inquiry? To understand the nature and role each of these steps plays in the
problem-solving process, researchers have compared the problem-solving
performances of experts and novices. An expert is someone who has demonstrated a
great deal of proficiency in solving problems in a particular area, such as classroom
teaching, chess, physics, mathematics, and so on. A novice is someone with limited
experience within a specific domain. Typically, experts are better able to understand
the important characteristics of a problem and formulate effective solutions more ef-
ficiently than are novices (Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981).
What accounts for these observed differences? Experts’ ability to understand and
solve problems in their domain of expertise seems to be related to their extensive and
well-organized knowledge of the problem domain (Glaser, 1984). Experts’ knowledge
makes them especially sensitive to important relationships among the elements that
define the problem situation. Having an effective theory allows them to:
• Identify the important characteristics of the problem situation and ignore unim-
portant characteristics;
• See the underlying pattern of relationships in the problem situation; and
• Identify principles that can be used to guide the generating of a solution.
To illustrate these points, consider how an expert teacher might use her under-
standing of behavioral learning theory to respond to a child whose talking is dis-
rupting learning. First, she focuses on the misbehavior as part of a sequence rather
than as a single event. By taking this focus, the teacher is able to identify those fac-
tors that trigger the misbehavior. Perhaps the student’s talking only occurs during cer-
tain types of activities or when the student is with a particular student or students.
By seeing the student’s misbehavior as a sequence, the teacher also focuses on the con-
sequence of the misbehavior. The teacher may try to determine what rewards the stu-
dent receives for the misbehavior.
By understanding these cause-and-effect relationships, the teacher may try to use
principles derived from behavioral learning theory to modify the disruptive behavior.
For instance if the student talks when with certain students, the teacher can arrange
for these students not to be together. Alternatively, she may arrange her class to make
some other behavior more attractive than talking.
Expert teachers’ theories about teaching also influence how they perceive a prob-
lem and the principles that they apply in the classroom. You probably already have
developed some of these theories, and certainly others will develop as you gain ex-
perience as a teacher. The intent of this book is to supplement these personal theo-
ries with knowledge of some scientific learning and teaching theories. We believe that
understanding these scientific theories of instruction and learning is an important step
toward becoming an expert decision maker in your classroom.
The next section gives you suggestions for how theory and research can help im-
prove your classroom teaching. One of the major goals of this text is to provide you
with a mechanism for evaluating theories that are proposed for classroom use.

Decisions in the Classroom
A lot is required of teachers as decision makers, and your authors believe that the sci-
entific study of teaching can help you make more effective decisions in your multidi-
mensional world. One approach that scientists frequently use when studying a
complex process is to break the process into parts and study the parts separately. Once
the parts of the process have been adequately described, the scientist may then study
the relationships between the parts. The advantage of this approach is that it makes
it easier to ask and find the answers to specific questions. To simplify the discussion
of the kinds of decisions teachers make, your authors have decided to divide the teach-
ing process and the types of decisions teachers make into three areas, referred to as
decision points. The three decision points are:
1. Planning decisions. These include decisions that are made before a specific in-
teraction with the learners occur.
2. Teaching and managing decisions. These decisions include those made while in-
teracting with the students.
3. Assessment decisions. These decisions are made to assess the effectiveness of an
interaction with a student.
This division aids our discussion of how the various psychological theories may
help your practice as a teacher, but it is important to keep in mind that all types of
decisions are interconnected. Decisions that are made while planning a lesson often
determine the types of interactions you have with the students. For instance, if you
decide to have your students do group work, you are presented with a set of oppor-
tunities and challenges that differ from those you would have face if you had decided
to do a lecture. Group work may present you with more opportunities to monitor stu-
dents’ understanding one on one than will a lecture. The challenge of keeping the stu-
dents focused and on task is also likely to be greater if you decide to do group work
rather than present a lecture. Relationships also exist between the decisions you make
when planning and the decisions you face when assessing the effectiveness of your les-
son, and between the decisions you make while teaching and your assessment deci-
sions. While reading the following chapters, keep in mind how the choices you make
in one part of your teaching activity influence the decisions you will need to make
later on.
A Decision-Making Guide for Selecting Theories

As noted earlier, theories that may help you understand and make a decision in one
situation may not be useful in another situation. So the first step in making a good
decision is to select a theory that is appropriate to the situation. When making this
first decision, you may want to consider and weigh all the dimensions we just dis-
cussed. Your goal is to find the theory that gives the best description of and provides
the best practical guidance for the situation you are facing.
Teachers and Research

The development of theories is an evolutionary process, that is, theories change
as new information becomes available. This means that for teachers to get the most
benefit from theories, they must keep up with current developments in the field. In
other words, teachers should be aware of and use current research to expand and
modify their understanding and application of theory. Although the actual impact of
educational research on classroom teaching can be debated, we tend to believe that
a conceptual understanding of educational research can be beneficial to teachers in
two ways: as consumers of research and as researchers in their own right.

Teachers as Consumers of Research
First, teachers may benefit as consumers of the information produced by others.
Teachers have multiple sources of information about learning and teaching in class-
rooms. They are exposed to interpretations of educational research in their college
classes, through on-site training experiences, through informal conversations with col-
leagues, through professional journals, and through other outlets such as the Inter-
net. It is important that you become critical consumers of the information you gather.
A critical interpretation of research helps you understand and appropriately apply the
results of research to your own teaching.
Teachers as Researchers
Research is not an activity limited to professional researchers. Teachers conduct re-
search every day in their own classrooms. When they evaluate the effectiveness of new
ideas, instructional techniques, or materials, teachers are conducting a form of re-
search. For example, a teacher who is trying different instructional approaches to help
a student who is having trouble grasping the course content is conducting research.
While not formally stated, the teacher is testing a hypothesis about the nature of learn-
ing and the learner. The results of this informal research may help the teacher improve
his or her ability to teach the learner and improve professional skills.
A more formal approach to teacher research in classrooms is action research. Ac-
tion research is defined as teacher-initiated, school-based research (Gay & Airasian,
2000). Consider how an action-research approach might be used in the example given
in the preceding paragraph. First, the teacher would use the information the teacher
had about the student, the course content, and the teacher’s beliefs about learning to
make an explicit statement of the problem. The statement might include information
about the student and the learning situation that the teacher believed was relevant.
The statement would also describe the current state of the student’s learning and a de-
scription of what a solution would accomplish. Here is an example of a problem state-
ment developed by Jane Forbes for a student in her tenth grade chemistry class:
➤ William is not doing well on his chemistry examinations. He seems to be

bright and motivated, but doesn’t volunteer to participate much in either large
group discussions or when working within his lab group. I talked to him
about his work and he seemed embarrassed. He appeared to understand
chemistry concepts at a very basic level, but had difficulty discussing what he
knew. He says he finds the textbook and class discussions hard to follow. I
talked to some of his other teachers and they have confirmed that his read-
ing skills are poor. The school psychologist has told me that William’s per-
formance on tests of reading comprehension are below average, but that he
doesn’t have a disability. I believe if I can improve his comprehension of the
text and class discussions, he will do better on the tests.
Next the teacher would identify specific instructional modifications that might
help the student and apply the modifications and collect data through appropriate
observational techniques to determine which modifications yielded results that were
closest to the desired solution. Here’s how Jane Forbes decided to handle William’s
situation.
➤ I’ve talked to William and he has agreed to try a new reading comprehension
strategy called concept mapping. I will teach him how to construct concept
maps, then for each reading assignment I will require him to create a map from
the main concepts of the assignment. At first I will identify the concepts for
him, but eventually I want him to find the main ideas for himself. I will also
provide him questions for each reading assignment. He will justify his answers
with reference to his concept map. He has a study hall during my prep-period

so he will stop by to discuss his map and answers be-
fore class starts. In addition to monitoring his perfor-
mance on quizzes and test, I will keep track of how
often he contributes to class and group discussions.
Finally, having determined which techniques were most
effective for the student, the teacher would apply the tech-
nique more generally to the instruction of that student. This
is how Jane Forbes accomplished this last step.
➤ It took a while for William to master the concept
mapping techniques, but his maps gradually im-
proved. As his maps improved so did his answers to
the assigned questions and his ability to explain his
answers during our pre-class meetings. I kept a record
of William’s participation in class discussions and
found that as his maps improved he seemed to be par-
ticipating more in the class discussions and lab
groups. His test scores have also improved, but not to
the level I would expect. Maybe he needs help in de- Use other teachers’
veloping some test-taking strategies. The concept mapping approach seems to experiences to improve
have worked, and I have suggested he try it with some of his other classes. I your teaching and to
have talked to Bob Carson, William’s history teacher, and he is enthusiastic stay up-to-date in
about Bill’s concept mapping in his class also. the profession.
As can be seen, action research is typically more focused on the specific problems
and decisions of a teacher or group of teachers. As with all forms of research, action
research is a systematic approach to problem solving and decision making in the class-
room. Gay and Airasian identify four steps in the action research process: (1) problem/
topic identification; (2) data gathering; (3) decision making; and (4) action.
Note the similarity between the steps in action research and the theory/research
cycle presented in Figure 1.1 on page 5. Problem identification corresponds to the the-
ory and research portions of Figure 1.1. The problems that teachers identify derive
from their own unique situations, but the teacher’s perception of a problem and the
questions the teacher asks are influenced by the teacher’s theories about learners and
learning. Data gathering corresponds to the research and data portions of Figure 1.1.
In action research, decision making is similar to the conclusion portion of Figure 1.1.
In action research, the decision leads directly to action on the part of the teacher.
Action research is based on a specific classroom and directed toward solving a spe-
cific problem or answering a specific question within that classroom. For this reason
the decision made is more likely to lead to a specific teacher action. The teacher’s ac-
tion leads directly to another question; that is, was the action effective? With this
question the whole process begins again.
Some General Insights about Educational Research

Your authors would like to help you in your interpretation and application of edu-
cational research by providing some general insights gained from our own reading
and interpretation of educational research:
• Different research questions require different data collection procedures.
• An effective understanding of classrooms requires both qualitative and quanti-
tative data.
• There can be multiple competing explanations for the same data.
• The range of differences among individuals, even within the same group, is
greater than the range of differences between groups.
• Learning is complex, and classroom learning must be understood in the context
of many interacting variables.

Lookin
Mr. Goodman has been working with me on de- their observations and comprehension of the lab
veloping objectives and lessons for my unit on
magnetism, and now we are looking to see
Jeffrey results. Mr. Goodman also pointed out that there
are several students who speak English as a sec-
what accommodations we might need to make
for student differences. The first lesson in the
Larkin ond language. Differences in students’ English
proficiency may affect their ability to complete
unit is a lab activity designed to familiarize the and benefit from the lab activity.
students with the general properties of magnets. 1 Mr. Goodman suggested that we give careful
.1
Specifically, the students are to learn that different thought to how we organize the groups so that differ-
magnets produce magnetic fields of differing strengths, and ences in students’ previous experiences would not prove a
that these differences can be measured. The students will be barrier to successful completion of the lab and may actu-
working in groups following the instruction in the lab man- ally improve the overall learning of all of the students in
ual and recording their observations in their notebooks. the class.
At first I thought this lesson would be appropriate for
students from all different backgrounds, but Mr. Goodman ● What might be the advantages and disadvantages
suggested that we look at the lesson more closely. First, he of Mr. Goodman’s approach to dealing with his students’
pointed out that because the students came from a wide va- differences?
riety of socioeconomic backgrounds, there might be some
students who have played with magnets or observed their
properties and other students who have not. Differences in Decision Point: In what way is the process of accommo-
the students’ experiences with magnets may help or hinder dating diversity in the classroom similar to the general
processes of problem solving or research?
Varied Data Collection Procedures. When teachers or researchers ask a research

question, they must decide what type of data would be most useful in answering the
question, and the best way to gather those data. Three commonly used data collec-
tion procedures are helpful for different types of questions: direct observation, per-
formance assessment, and self-report.
If researchers or teachers want to know how often, how long, or under what cir-
cumstances a behavior occurs, they might use direct observation techniques. Direct
observation techniques require an observer to record those behaviors as
List examples of they occur. If researchers wanted to know how often teachers ask ques-
assessment situations tions during an hour, then it makes sense to use direct observation tech-
niques. The researcher might sit in the back of the room or watch a
for which a teacher might videotape of the classroom. Each time the teacher asks a question, the re-
use direct observation. searcher might make a mark on a recording sheet. If a teacher wants to
know how often a student participates in class, she might move a token
from her left pocket to right pocket with every instance of participation. Later, a count
of the chips in the right pocket provides an estimate of the amount of participation.
If researchers and teachers want to know if students understand and can apply
what they have learned, they might employ performance assessments. Performance
assessments evaluate students’ learning by having them complete a predetermined
task. For example, if a science teacher wants to know if students can correctly pre-
pare a microscope slide, then that teacher could evaluate students as they prepare a
slide. If researchers want to know if students can apply some problem-solving skills,
then they could have those students problem solve and observe the desired skills.
If researchers and teachers want to know how people feel, or what they are think-
ing, they may want to use self-report techniques. Self-report techniques ask people to
report or discuss their perceptions, beliefs, and thought processes. For example, teach-
ers or researchers who want to understand students’ math problem solving might ask
students to talk aloud about their thinking as they solve problems. If they want to
know how students feel about themselves, they might ask them to fill out a self-esteem
inventory or survey.

Obviously, the three techniques can
be used for other purposes than those in-
cluded in these examples, and other data
collection techniques exist besides these
three. The purpose is to show how a data
collection procedure should be matched
to the type of research questions being
asked. As researchers, we want to make
sure we collect the data we need for deci-
sion making.
Qualitative and Quantitative Data. Our

questions determine the types of data col-
lection techniques we use, and the data
collection techniques determine the types
of data that result from our procedures.
There are two general categories of data,
qualitative data and quantitative data. Direct observation is an
Qualitative data are observations of essential characteristics or differences and often important way to assess
take the form of verbal descriptions of a person, group, or situation. Quantitative data students’ progress.
are a measure of the quantity or amount of something and are expressed as numbers
such as scores or counts.
Collecting qualitative data is more than recording observations; it also How are qualitative and
involves an interpretive process. Through this interpretive process, the re- quantitative data different?
searcher tries to understand the significance of observed events. In his
book, Life in Classrooms, Philip Jackson (1990) noted that when elementary school
students raised their hands to attract the teacher’s attention, they often supported the
raised right arm by placing their left hand just under the elbow. The significance at-
tached to this observation was that the arm was heavy, and children must often keep
their hand up for long periods of time before the teacher responds. These qualitative
data were combined with others to help understand classrooms as crowded places
with limited resources. Extending this interpretation still further, Jackson concluded
that in elementary schools children must learn to wait and be patient.
The process of collecting quantitative data often begins by creating an opera-
tional definition that describes the characteristic being measured in terms of a score or
some other type of numerical observation. For example, in assessing the effectiveness
of a specific instructional method, the researchers Jane Stallings and Eileen M. Krasav-
age (1986) collected quantitative data on (a) the quality of instruction, (b) student
engagement during instruction, and (c) student learning. To assess the quality of in-
struction, trained observers assigned a score to teachers’ classroom performances. The
students’ engagement during instruction was operationally defined by the proportion
of time students were observed to be off-task (chatting, disrupting, waiting, etc.) dur-
ing a class period. The researchers addressed students’ learning by the change in their
performance on standardized achievement tests.
Quantitative and qualitative data each have advantages and disadvantages.
Quantitative data can be analyzed using powerful statistical methods to find patterns
and make comparisons across many observations. As a result, the conclusions drawn
from quantitative data are often more generalizable. The generalizability of a con-
clusion refers to the number of different situations to which the conclusion may be
applied. A disadvantage of quantitative data is that sometimes important details are
lost.
For example, consider a teacher who is assessing his students’ mathematical
problem-solving skills. One approach might be to give the students a set of word
problems and ask them to solve the problems showing all their work. The quantita-
tive data that may result from this might be a score indicating the proportion of prob-
lems correctly solved, or partially correct. However, the information that might be lost

is the types of errors that the students are making. Examining the students’ responses
qualitatively may reveal patterns that point to students’ misconceptions about vari-
ous parts of the problem-solving process. This kind of information may allow teach-
ers to give specific help to some students or alert them to problems with the way the
problem-solving concepts and skills have been taught.
Qualitative data allow the researcher to preserve the fine details of observed sit-
uations. This often leads to important and interesting insights about the situation be-
ing studied. The trade-off is that qualitative data are often so specific to a particular
situation that the researcher can only draw valid conclusions about the particular per-
son or group being studied.
Returning to the previous example, through a qualitative analysis of students’
problem-solving performance a teacher may identify a student’s misconception. But,
do all the students in the class share the same misconception? Because many student
differences may affect whether or not a particular student develops a similar mis-
conception, it would be dangerous to assume that all the students have the same prob-
lem. The question cannot be answered without completing a qualitative analysis of
each student’s response to the problem-solving exercise.
Multiple Competing Explanations. To explain their data, researchers try to make log-
ical connections between the data and other knowledge possessed by the researcher,
including theoretical knowledge. Researchers want these explanations to be valid. Va-
lidity refers to the quality or the correctness of an explanation or a decision. Re-
searchers try to increase the likelihood that their explanations are valid by considering
alternative explanations for their data. By eliminating alternative explanations, re-
searchers can have more confidence in the conclusions they draw from their research.
Once researchers have collected and analyzed data, they are ready to draw some
conclusions. Frequently, the researcher’s conclusion is an explanation of the results.
The idea that the same observation or data can have multiple explanations is an im-
portant idea for both teachers and researchers. It helps us avoid jumping to incorrect
conclusions.
Consider a hypothetical study of the effectiveness of a new classroom manage-
ment program in a school. The program is introduced enthusiastically by the princi-
pal, who states that this program will work and that discipline referrals to the
principal’s office will be a measure of its effectiveness. Not surprisingly, referrals to
the principal’s office do decrease once the program has been instituted. Certainly, the
decreased referral rate could be attributed to the program. However, another plausi-
ble explanation is that teachers stopped referring discipline problems because they
thought it would make them look bad to the principal. What other data do you think
could be collected to evaluate which of these two hypotheses is correct?
Teachers also must consider the various plausible explanations for their obser-
vations. If their explanations are incorrect, they may select interventions that don’t
match the problem. For example, one explanation for why a student does not turn
in his homework is because the student doesn’t care. Obviously, there are other ex-
planations, such as the student doesn’t understand the lessons, or his home is so
chaotic he can’t complete his homework. Can you see how failure to consider alter-
native explanations in this case might prevent you from making good choices about
how to help your student?
Within-Group and Between-Group Differences. Within-group differences and be-

tween-group differences are ideas that are borrowed from statistics. The within-group
differences are how much members of the same group differ from each other.
Between-group differences are how much members of one group differ, on average,
from members of another group. In research as well as in classroom teaching, it’s help-
ful to remember that the within-group differences often equal or exceed between-
group differences. This is particularly important for issues of learner diversity. For

example, although children with different
ethnic backgrounds may differ in impor-
tant (between-group) ways, there are also
important differences within each ethnic
group. Assuming all the children from
the same ethnic group learn the same
way can cause problems for both re-
searchers and teachers. Researchers may
miss important subgroups they need to
study, and teachers run the risk of stereo-
typing individual students from a partic-
ular group.
The Complexity of Learning. Much of

the research conducted by educational
psychologists and teachers is focused on
answering questions about how instruc-
tion influences student learning. Trying to Each child has his or her
answer this question is a complex problem. Many factors affect how and what a per- own unique set of abili-
son will learn in any given situation. In an effort to make sense of this situation, Jenk- ties and needs.
ins (1979) proposed a model of learning research called the theorist’s tetrahedron or
simply the tetrahedral model. The tetrahedral model is a model of four key instruc-
tional variables and how they affect each other. Figure 1.2 provides a drawing of the
tetrahedral model modified for use with both research and classroom learning.
Focus on Learner Diversity

Cross-Cultural Research
The influence of culture on many aspects Errors may also be made when the general characteristics
of a person’s experience, including experi- associated with a particular cultural group are ascribed to an
ences in the classroom, is generally recog- individual from that culture. Researchers may fail to appre-
nized. However, consideration of some of the problems and ciate the amount of variation among the members of a par-
issues of cross-cultural research suggests that teachers ticular cultural group (Padilla & Lindholm, 1995). Members
should be cautious about making inferences about individ- of different cultural groups may vary widely in terms of the
ual students based on their cultural background. socioeconomic class, education level, language proficiency,
Leung (1989) points out that one of the difficulties in con- and acculturation, all of which may affect the experiences
ducting cross-cultural research is observer bias. Bias in this that an individual brings to the classroom.
case refers to the unintentional influence of the observer’s The interaction between people and their culture is com-
own background on the conclusions based on the observations plex. Both researcher bias and variation among the members
made. This type of bias is especially likely in situations in of cultural groups make cross-cultural research complex and
which the observer has a cultural background different from researchers’ conclusions tentative. In the meantime, teach-
that of the person observed (Banks, 2001). For instance, a ers should keep an open mind and avoid judging students
researcher may observe that students with high levels of aca- based on their cultural backgrounds. In other words, teach-
demic performance ask more questions during class. The re- ers should treat all students as individuals with unique abil-
searcher may conclude that learners ask questions because ities and motives.
they are interested in the subject and are therefore moti-
vated to engage in more behaviors that result in learning.
While this interpretation may apply in some cultures it may
not apply to students from a culture in which questioning el- ● How might the effects of observer bias and variation
ders is considered impolite. If a learner from such a culture among members of a culture affect a teacher’s decision
is having academic difficulty, attempting a motivational making? (For your authors’ perspective on this question, go
remedy may be ineffective or even harmful. to the text website for this chapter.)

Subjects
A tetrahedron is a three-sided pyramid. In
(Students) the model proposed by Jenkins, each of the
four points of the pyramid is an important vari-
able that affects learning. The four variables of
the tetrahedral model are orienting tasks, ma-
terials, criterial tasks, and subjects. Orienting
tasks refer to the type of instruction and learn-
ing activities being used by the teacher. For
example, is the student to memorize a list, sum-
marize the gist of a poem, and so on? Materi-
Orienting Tasks Criterial Tasks als are the way in which the learning task is
(Learning (Classroom
Activities) Assessments)
presented. Is it presented orally, on a computer,
through earphones, and so on? Criterial tasks
refer to the way in which learning is to be as-
Materials sessed. Will the teacher assess learning by ask-
(Mode of Presentation) ing learners to recognize learned materials, to
recall learned materials, or to complete some
FIGURE 1.2 Adapted more complex performance? Subjects refer to
Tetrahedral Model the learners. In any learning situation it is important to consider any learner charac-
(Adapted from Jenkins, J. J. teristics that might influence the learning process. Some of the important learner char-
(1979). Four points to remem-
acteristics include abilities, interests, knowledge, and purposes.
ber: A tetrehedral model of
memory experiments. L. S. A second important characteristic of the tetrahedron is that each point of the tetra-
Cermak & F. I. M. Creik (eds.). hedron is connected to each of the other three points. Jenkins was trying to show with
Levels of processing and human his model that a comprehensive understanding of classroom learning requires that we
memory. Hillsdale, NJ: consider how each variable interacts with the other three. For example, the criterial
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.)
tasks should make sense with the type of learning that is being studied.
Jenkins proposed the tetrahedral model as a way to conceptualize the key vari-
ables in learning research. However, the tetrahedral model can be adapted
Identify examples of the to describe and guide understanding of classroom situations. In your class-
four variables of the room setting the orienting tasks refer to the actions you expect of your stu-
dents during a lesson. These expected actions might include taking notes,
tetrahedral model in manipulating materials, or discussing a concept. Materials refer to the type
a classroom you have of media you use in your lessons, for example, videos, diagrams, or books.
recently observed. It is interesting to note that as the teacher you may be considered part of
the media from which your students are expected to learn. Criterial tasks
refer to the way you test your students and assign grades. The subjects are your stu-
dents and their diverse characteristics.
Both teachers and researchers can use the tetrahedral model to frame important
questions. Both might be interested in how learner characteristics interact with dif-
ferent forms of media. For example, do some students do better with computerized
instruction than others? Both might be interested in how learner characteristics in-
teract with criterial tasks or assessment procedures. For example, are there important
gender or cultural differences that affect performance on some forms of assessment?
The tetrahedral model provides a useful framework for considering how different
variables affect learning.
Theory, Research, and Textbook Reading

At the beginning of this chapter, it was noted that knowledge of research and
theories allows educators to make better decisions. By knowing about and under-
standing theory teachers are better able to understand how and why their students
learn. This allows them to make better decisions when planning lessons, when deliv-
ering a lesson, or when evaluating and improving on the effectiveness of a lesson.
Knowledge of research allows teachers to understand the latest techniques and strate-
gies and to incorporate those strategies and techniques into their own classrooms.
However, it is not only teachers who can benefit from an understanding of learning;

Lookin
I have made good progress in developing lesson that made sense with regard to our objectives, and
plans for the unit on magnetism. Today Mr.
Goodman and I began discussing how I would
Jeffrey then we would consider which student differ-
ences might interfere with making a fair assess-
assess whether or not the students reached our
objectives. I told Mr. Goodman that the one
Larkin ment of the students’ progress. One approach was
to consider what knowledge and skills beyond
thing I have learned about this process is how all what was taught were required to successfully per-
the decisions are related. Choosing an objective af- 1 form on an assessment. If some students lacked those
.2
fects the kind of learning activities that make skills, we might have to modify the assessment procedure or
sense. He pointed out that the same thing applied to think- integrate the teaching of those skills into our lessons.
ing about assessment. Assessment tasks had to make sense
given our objectives and given the learning activities we ● How does the approach to designing lessons and as-
used to help the students reach those objectives. sessment activities relate to the tetrahedral model pre-
However, one of my concerns was whether the assess- sented in Figure 1.2?
ment would be fair to all of the students regardless of their
backgrounds. Mr. Goodman suggested that we use the same
strategy for developing fair assessments as we used for de-
Decision Point: What does the tetrahedral model suggest
veloping the lessons. First, we would develop an assessment
about the need for teachers to be flexible in planning and
performance?
students may also benefit from such understanding. Good learners are, in a sense,
their own teachers and make good decisions about what and how to study. By learn-
ing about how good readers learn from text you can help your students use their text-
books more effectively. In this section we present some theory and research that will
help you as a learner use this text to your best advantage.
Mayer (1984, 1999) suggests that there are three different types of readers and that
these types may be classified by how well they are able to learn from the texts they
read. After reading a passage from a textbook some learners remember only a small
amounts of the information and are unable to apply the information from the read-
ing to new situations. Other learners can remember many of the facts and details of
what they have just read, but are nevertheless unable to apply the information to new
situations. Finally, some readers remember the main ideas from the reading and apply
what they’ve read to new situations. The difference in these three groups seems to be
in the way they mentally process the concepts from the material they are reading.
Starting from a constructivist/information-processing theory Mayer (1984, 1999)
suggests that meaningful learning depends on how well learners perform three cog-
nitive activities: (a) selecting important information, (b) organizing the information
selected, and (c) integrating the organized information with what they already know.
Readers who fail to select important concepts within the text are able to remember
very little of what they read. Readers who are able to select the important ideas are
able to recall what they read, but if they fail to organize and integrate the new ma-
terial, they will not be able to apply the material to new situations.
Selecting Important Information

Selection refers to the process of focusing attention. In any situation, what is learned is
determined by how attention is directed. Things we attend to are likely to be remem-
bered, and things that do not attract our attention are more likely to be forgotten.
Whether or not a reader focuses on some idea or concept depends on the reader’s knowl-
edge and the characteristics of the material being read (Cook & Mayer, 1988). If the
reader is familiar with a topic he or she is able to select important ideas from what is read.
When the information presented is new, then the selections are likely to be less efficient.
Authors can assist readers unfamiliar with the material by providing cues within
the text that signal the importance of the concepts presented (Mayer, 1984, 1999). In

the current text, we signal the importance of a concept by changing the font, for in-
stance, using either bold or italicized letters, by separating important concepts by bul-
leting and by questions in the margins that can be answered by attending to specific
facts or concepts within the text. As you read this text, attending to these cues will
help you select those ideas that are most important. This in turn will prepare you for
the next learning process, organization.
Organizing Information
Organization refers to the learner’s creation of logical connections among ideas and
concepts presented in the text (Mayer, 1984). Research suggests organizing the in-
formation presented in a text helps learners form a mental representation or model
that increases their ability to recall and apply what they remember (Mayer, 1989). As
with selection, organization also depends on the knowledge of the reader. But in ad-
dition to knowledge of the content, readers’ abilities to organize the information from
a passage also depends on whether or not they are able to recognize the underlying
structure of the text. If readers are able to recognize these structures, they are better
able to organize the new information.
Science texts, such as the one you are reading, have organizational structures that
are different from those found in narratives. Cook and Mayer (1988) investigated
whether training readers to recognize structure in scientific texts lead to better un-
derstanding. They found that even good readers benefited from learning how to rec-
ognize some of the common ways in which science books organize information. Some
of the structures that appear in our text book include:
• Generalizations. This structure is built around a topic sentence that presents a
main idea or concepts. Additional information in the passage describes various
aspects of the main idea or provides examples. The key to organizing this type
of passage is to identify the main idea and then understand how the additional
information relates to that idea.
• Sequence. This structure describes a series of events or steps of a process. To or-
ganize information from this type of structure you first identify the topic, then
list the steps in the sequence, and finally describe the change that occurs from one
step to the next.
• Classification. This type of structure organizes facts, concepts, or events into cat-
egories. The structure is often hierarchical in that the passage may describe sub-
categories within categories. To organize this information you first need to
identify the main class or category, then find the subcategories, and note what dis-
tinguishes each subcategory from the others at the same level.
• Compare and Contrast. These structures identify the similarities and differ-
ences between two concepts. To organize this structure, you first must identify
the two concepts being compared. Then list their similarities and differences.
Looking for these structures and using them to organize the information being
read have been shown to increase readers’ ability to recall and apply what they have
read (Cook & Mayer, 1988; Mayer, 1999). As you read this text, be on the lookout
for these types of structures. Headings, bullets, diagrams, and tables have been included
to provide you with clues to help you find these structures and organize what you are
reading. Developing coherent organization for the facts and concepts you have learned
allows you to take the next step toward meaningful learning, integration.
Integrating Information
Integration refers to actions that learners take to find connections between new facts
and concepts and things that are already known (Mayer, 1984, 1993). As with se-
lection and organization, the ability of readers to integrate new information depends
on the reader’s initial knowledge base. Obviously, readers cannot connect what
they’ve learned with things they don’t know, but even when readers have knowledge

that could be usefully connected with the information presented in a text, readers may
still fail to make the connection. In this case, there are text features that can help read-
ers remember what they already know and make the connections. Examples of some
of the text features that serve this function are analogies, examples, cases, and ques-
tions that remind readers of previously presented materials. You will find features
such as these in this text. Remember, the purpose of these features is to help you in-
tegrate the information being presented.
Selection, organization, and integration are all actions that are under
the control of the learner. What this means is that the meaningfulness of What text features may help
what you learn depends on choices you make. This text provides some you as a reader integrate the
guidance for your choices and additional guidance is likely to come from
your instructor. But ultimately, you must make the choice to learn and in- important facts, concepts,
vest the effort needed to select, organize, and integrate what is presented. and ideas within a chapter?
Teachers as Decision Makers

A major theme of this text is that teachers are decision makers. To give you a feel for
how theories can guide decision making, you were asked to think about questions and
issues as you read about the teachers presented in two cases. In this section we pre-
sent our perspectives on the cases and then discuss how the learning principles of this
chapter may be connected to applications in later chapters.
Maria Lucero’s Decision Points

Planning a lesson always requires a consideration of characteristics that can be placed
in one of two categories: (a) characteristics that affect the students’ ability, and
(b) characteristics that affect their motivation to learn. While different theories pro-
vide different perspectives on what these characteristics are and how they relate to stu-
dents’ performance in classrooms, there are some that seem to turn up in all theories.
One of the characteristics that affects students’ ability to learn is the things they’ve
learned through their previous experiences. Previous experiences affect what people
are able to do and what they choose to do. Therefore, in Maria’s case she might want
to know what experiences these kids have had, in and out of school, that might be
relevant to her lesson topic.
One of Maria’s concerns is that she provide a lesson that will help all her students
learn regardless of their backgrounds or individual differences. The strategy recom-
mended by her supervising teacher is to begin the lesson planning process by consid-
ering her instructional objectives, planning the lesson, and then making adaptations
for student differences as necessary. This strategy can be applied to the planning of
any lesson and is the perspective taken in this text. The idea is that not all individ-
ual differences are relevant to students accomplishing all instructional objectives. A
well-planned lesson is likely to be effective for a majority of students. Once this ini-
tial plan is made, the teacher can consider modifications that address those student
differences that are logically related to the objectives the students are to reach.
Mr. Henson and Maria are approaching their decision making from the per-
spective of behavioral learning theory, which is presented in Chapter 2. Different the-
ories let you think about problems and decisions in different ways. One theory may
be useful in one situation, whereas another theory may be more useful in a different
situation. One of the purposes of courses in educational psychology and this text is
to provide you with information about various psychological theories so that you
choose the theory that will be most helpful to your own decision making.
Jeffrey Larkin’s Decision Points

Jeffrey’s situation is similar to Maria’s, and once again Jeffrey, will need to think about
what experiences his students have had, that will influence their ability to benefit from
the learning activities. In addition, Jeffrey must consider how a sequence of lessons

fits together. The questions that Jeffrey will ask will depend on his beliefs about learn-
ers and learning. Learning theories are formal expressions of such beliefs, and because
of the scientific process, are likely to be more precise and consistent in the way they
formulate a decision-making situation.
The strategy for accommodating diversity used by Mr. Goodman and Jeffrey is
very similar to the one applied by Maria and her supervising teacher. In both cases
the goal of instruction is to assist all students to reach the objectives of the lessons.
The theory chosen will help the teacher determine what activities students must en-
gage in to reach the objectives, and which student characteristics will affect the abil-
ity of students to reach the lesson’s objective.
The tetrahedral model is a meta-theoretical perspective of the learning situation. It
provides teachers a way to think about instruction in their classrooms. The model sug-
gests that there are a series of interacting variables that teachers must keep in mind as
they make decisions in their classrooms. Because of the complexity of these interactions,
much of the decision making of teachers is really a parallel process that requires the
teacher to consider decisions in light of decisions already made. In addition, teachers
must sometimes reconsider decisions made previously in light of later decisions.
Looking Ahead
The theme of this book is that effective teachers are good decision makers. In order
to make good decisions in the complex, multidimensional environment of the class-
room, teachers must be able to organize their thinking about students, learning, and
instruction. Theories provide teachers with a valuable perspective, a frame of refer-
ence, from which to analyze and understand classrooms and students.
Once teachers understand a situation, they must make a decision and act on it.
This means that teachers must formulate and implement plans. They must then mon-
itor the progress of the plans to determine if they are working, and if any modifica-
tion of the plans is required. Principles, derived from theories, provide a framework
for the formulation of a plan of action.
A goal of educational psychology is to provide teachers with tools to assist in their
analysis and understanding of classrooms. Developing theories and identifying prin-
ciples of learning and instruction accomplish this goal. The purpose of this text is to
provide prospective teachers with a foundation of theories and principles that will
help them: (a) understand students and classrooms, (b) make decisions and formu-
late plans, and (c) monitor the effectiveness of their actions.
Name Date
Chapter 1 Study Guide

Use this Study Guide to review and test your knowledge of key concepts introduced in
this chapter and to search out further information on issues and topics raised in this
chapter.
Research
Key Terms Navigator.c m
Review the following key words from the chapter and then connect to Research Navi-
gator (www.researchnavigator.com) either directly or through this book’s Companion
Website to explore research on the topics as they relate to education today. ➤

Chapter 1 Study Guide continued
Action research (p. 12) Operational definition (p. 15) Selection (p. 19)
Between-group differences (p. 16) Organization (p. 20) Self-report techniques (p. 15)
Criterial tasks (p. 18) Orienting tasks (p. 18) State (p. 7)
Decision points (p. 11) Performance assessments (p. 14) Subjects (p. 18)
Direct observation (p. 14) Principle (p. 7) Tetrahedral model (p. 17)
Educational psychology (p. 2) Psychological construct (p. 6) Theory (p. 4)
Epistemic value (p. 7) Psychological process (p. 6) Trait (p. 6)
Generalizability (p. 15) Qualitative data (p. 15) Validity (p. 16)
Implicit theory (p. 4) Quantitative data (p. 15) Within-group differences (p. 16)
Integration (p. 20) Scientific theory (p. 4)
Materials (p. 18) Scope (p. 6)
Alternative Response Items

1. What term best describes a set of formal statements 6. What term best describes the actions of a classroom
describing relationships that explain events in the real teacher who develops an explicit description of a
world? classroom problem, develops a plan for dealing with
the problem, collects data to analyze the effectiveness
a. Implicit theory c. Principle
of the plan, and then uses the results to deal with sim-
b. Scientific theory d. Psychological construct
ilar problems in the classroom?
2. Which statement best defines the psychological con- a. Action research c. Explicit research
cept of a trait? b. Scientific research d. Principle development
a. A mental characteristic that arises from a 7. What term best describes data in the form of rich
specific situation and changes when the situation complex verbal descriptions?
changes. a. Quantitative data c. Subjective data
b. A mental characteristic that remains relatively b. Qualitative data d. Observational data
constant from one situation to another.
c. A mental process that is associated with a specific 8. Mr. Garrison decides not to use a particular learning
situation stops when the situation changes. theory because it only seems suitable for understand-
d. A mental process that remains constant from one ing how students learn science. With which character-
situation to the next. istic of a theory is he concerned?
a. Scope c. Internal coherence
3. Which of the following is best thought of as a state? b. Predictive accuracy d. External consistency
a. Intelligence c. Friendship
9. When comparing qualitative data with quantitative
b. Personality d. Emotion
data, which of the following statements is most correct?
4. Which of the following research topics would be ex- a. Conclusions made from qualitative data are less
amples of the types of research questions typically ad- likely to be generalizable.
dressed by educational psychologists? b. Conclusions made from quantitative data are less
likely to be generalizable.
a. How does learners’ prior knowledge affect their
c. Conclusions made from qualitative data are less
ability to problem solve?
likely to be valid.
b. How does the amount of teacher praise affect
d. Conclusions made from quantitative data are less
learning in a classroom?
likely to be valid.
c. How does frequency of reinforcement affect learn-
ing of new behaviors? 10. Which of the following is an example of data col-
d. All of the above lected through self-report?
a. Test scores from a standardized achievement test.
5. Research consistently indicates that practice results in
b. A school psychologist’s notes on a student’s de-
an increase in performance speed and a reduction in
meanor while taking an intelligence test.
the error rate. What term refers to a statement that
c. The results of career counseling survey that indi-
describes this relationship?
cates students’ likes and dislikes.
a. Scientific theory c. Principle d. Letter grades assigned to student presentations in a
b. Implicit theory d. Psychological process speech communications class. ➤

Chapter 1 Study Guide continued
Constructed Response Items

Short Answer/Completion Items
1. Teachers who have developed an intuitive understand- 3. What are the five aspects of the epistemic value of a
ing of what works and what doesn’t work in their theory?
classes may be said to have a(n) __________ theory.
4. Traits and states are both examples of __________.
2. What are the steps of action research?
Essay Items
1. Describe the relationship between theories and 3. Compare and contrast the nature and utility of quan-
research. titative and qualitative data.
2. Discuss how knowledge of psychological theories

might help teachers become better decision makers.
Practicing Your Decision Making

In this chapter, we’ve described three decision points in the teaching process. Because
teaching and learning are closely related activities, it is possible to apply the same de-
cision points to understanding the decisions that learners must make. Use this idea to
analyze your own studying. What decisions must you make when you are planning to
study, while you are studying, and when you assess the effectiveness of your study?
INTASC in Action
Use the following activity to think about how research and theory relate to INTASC
Standard 9.
Standard 9: Reflective Practice and Professional • A school district needs to determine whether or
Growth. Teachers learn a lot through their personal not an educational program has been successful.
experience in the classroom. However, what are the How might educational research help with these
limitations of relying solely on their personal experi- decisions?
ence for these types of decisions?
• A school district must decide whether or not to
purchase a thinking skills curriculum.
Web Resources
If you would like to read more about scientific theories and their applications, go to
the following sites.
American Educational Research Association (AERA) Eisenhower National Clearinghouse Online
www.aera.net/index.htm www.enc.org/topics/
AERA is the premier educational research organization in ENC Online is a K–12 math and science teacher center
the country. Visit their homepage to become familiar with dedicated to disseminating useful information and offering
the scope of research conducted in education. products to improve K–12 mathematics and science teach-
ing and learning. The Educational Topics section of the
American Psychological Society (APS) site will help you locate articles that cover some of today’s
www.psychologicalscience.org/ most important topics for math and science educators and
The is the homepage of the American Psychological Soci- parents.
ety (APS) and will allow you to become familiar with the
psychological issues that may be investigated through em-
pirical research.

Educational Psychology:: An Integrated Approach To Classroom Decisions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Educational Psychology:: An Integrated Approach To Classroom Decisions

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Educational Psychology:: An Integrated Approach To Classroom Decisions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:

An Integrated Approach To Classroom Decisions

Thomas Fetsco, Northern Arizona University

Visit www.ablongman.com/replocator to contact your local Allyn & Bacon/Longman representative.

The colors in this document are not

Allyn & Bacon

What Is Educational Psychology?

2 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

developed by the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium

Science, Theories, and Educational Practice

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 3

4 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

Research and the Evolution

Characteristics of Theories. Because human beings are so complex, psy-

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 5

6 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

Practical Application. The practical application of the theory is a final comparison

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 7

U sing Theory and Research

8 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

The Contribution of Scientific Study

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 9

Decision Making as Problem Solving. Making a decision is a form of problem solv-

10 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

A Decision-Making Guide for Selecting Theories

Teachers and Research

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 11

➤ William is not doing well on his chemistry examinations. He seems to be

12 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

Some General Insights about Educational Research

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 13

Varied Data Collection Procedures. When teachers or researchers ask a research

14 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

Qualitative and Quantitative Data. Our

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 15

Within-Group and Between-Group Differences. Within-group differences and be-

16 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

The Complexity of Learning. Much of

Focus on Learner Diversity

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 17

Theory, Research, and Textbook Reading

18 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

Selecting Important Information

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 19

20 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

Teachers as Decision Makers

Maria Lucero’s Decision Points

Jeffrey Larkin’s Decision Points

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 21

Chapter 1 Study Guide

22 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

Alternative Response Items

C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to the Study of Educational Psychology 23

Constructed Response Items

2. Discuss how knowledge of psychological theories

Practicing Your Decision Making

24 P A R T I Theoretical Perspectives on Learning www.ablongman.com/fetsco

You might also like

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.