COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING LABORATORY II

SUBJECT CODE BAA 2921

SUBJECT ENGINEERING LAB II

EXPERIMENT FORCES IN REDUNDANT TRUSS AND FORCES IN TRUSS

TITLE

DATE OF
22 SEPTEMBER 2020
EXPERIMENT
GROUP
06
NUMBER
SECTION 02

1. MUHAMMAD SYAMIR BIN SAMSUDIN AA18186

2. NURUL NAJEEHA BT MOHD NASIR AA18200

3. SITI NUR AIN BT MISRON AA18206

GROUP MEMBER:
NAME & ID NUMBER
4. PRAVINA KAMINI A/P GUNASEKARAN AA18199

5. SITI NABIHAH BT AMRAN AA18204

6. ABDULLAH AMEIR BIN A. RASHID AA19269

PERSON IN
EN MOHAMMAD SYAMSYUL HAIRI BIN SAAD
CHARGE
REMARKS

ENDORSEMENT

1
2
 TABLE OF CONTENT

PAGE
NO TITLE FORCES IN
REDUNDANT TRUSS FORCES IN TRUSS

1. INTRODUCTION 1 23

2. PRINCIPLES 7 24

3. OBJECTIVE 8 26

4. APPARATUS 9 27

5. PROCEDURE 10 28

6. RESULTS 11 30

7. CALCULATION 13 32

7. DISCUSSION 19 37

8. CONCLUSION 22 39

9. REFERENCES 40

10. APPENDIX 41

3
 A) FORCES IN REDUNDANT TRUSS

1. INTRODUCTION

Truss is a structure made of two force members all pin connected to each other.

The method of joints uses the free-body-diagram of joints in the structure to determine the forces in
each member. For example, in the above structure we have 5 joints each having a free body diagram
as follows.

1
For each joint one can write two equations (∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0). The moment equation is trivially
satisfied since all forces on a joint pass trough the joint. For example, for the above truss we have 5
joints, therefore we can write 10 equations of equilibrium (two for each joint). In the above example
there are seven unknown member forces (𝐹𝐴𝐵 . 𝐹𝐵𝐶 , 𝐹𝐶𝐷 , 𝐹𝐸𝐷 , 𝐹𝐸𝐶 , 𝐹𝐵𝐸 , 𝐹𝐴𝐸 ) plus three unknown support
reactions (𝐴, 𝐷𝑥 , 𝐷𝑦 ), giving a total of 10 unknowns to solve for using the 10 equations obtained from
equilibrium.

2
The method of sections uses free-body-diagrams of sections of the truss to obtain unknown forces. For
example, if one needs only to find the force in BC, it is possible to do this by only writing two
equations. First, draw the free body diagram of the full truss and solve for the reaction at A by taking
moments of D. Next draw the free body diagram of the section shown and take moments of E to find
the force in BC.

In the method of sections one can write three equations for each free-body-diagram (two components
of force and one moment equation).

Things to consider are such as zero force members which some members in a truss cannot carry load.
These members are called zero force members. Examples of zero force members are the colored
members (AB, BC, and DG) in the following truss.

3
Consider the following free-body-diagrams,

If you sum the forces in the y-direction in the left free-body-diagram, you will see that FAB must be
zero since it is not balanced by another force. Then if you sum forces in the y-direction you will find
that FBC must also be zero. If you sum the forces in the y direction in the right free-body-diagram,
you will see that FDG must be zero since it is not balanced by another force. A redundant joint which
sometimes a joint is redundant. For example, in the following free-body-diagram the load is directly
transmitted from each member to the one opposite it without any interaction.

By summing forces along the y-direction one will get 𝐹2 = 𝐹4 , and by summing forces along the
Y‑direction one will get 𝐹1 = 𝐹3 .

Redundant members sometimes a structure that contains one or more redundant members. These
members must be removed from the truss, otherwise one will have an insufficient number of equations

4
to solve for the unknown member forces. Slender members are not very useful in compression since
they buckle and, as a result, lose their load carrying capability. For example, in the following truss one
of the two members AC or BD is redundant. To solve the problem, we remove member BD which will
go into compression as a result of the applied loading (i.e., the diagonal AC will have to increase in
length and the diagonal BD will have to decease in length for the structure to bend to the right). If we
did not remove this member, we would have 9 unknowns (five member loads and four support
reactions) and only 8 equations (two for each joint).

Mechanisms are sometimes there is too much freedom in a structure. For example, the following
structure cannot carry any load since it will collapse under the load.

5
Curved members which are the two forces acting on a two-force-member are along the line
connecting the two points on which the loads are applied.

6
2. PRINCIPLE

A structure (Figure 1) may contain one or more redundant members depending on the degree of
indeterminacy. These members must be removed from the truss; otherwise one will have an
insufficient number of equations to solve for the unknown member forces. Once the truss is statically
determined and stable, the internal member forces can be calculated by using the method of virtual
work as shown in figure 2.

b d

No joint, member
just cross

Figure 1: Indeterminate/Redundant Truss

b d

1
(unit load)
1

a c
Figure 2: Virtual work method by applying 1-unit load

7
3. OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between the measured forces in a loaded redundant truss
experimentally and theoretically.

8
4. APPARATUS

1. Structures test frame

2. Redundant truss with strain gages
3. Ruler/Measuring tape
4. Load cell
5. Digital indicator force display

9
5. PROCEDURE

Start

v
The dimension of the truss is measured and tabulated.

The load sell is connected to the digital indicator.

v
The indicator is switched on. It must be switched on 10 minutes before taking reading to ensure its
stability.
v
The indicator reading in channel 1, is noted, tare button is press if it not Zero.
v

Force display of the indicator is pressed to take the initial reading of all channel.

Load is applied on end C by turning the load cell liver, W to give reading 5N and the load loadings
of each member is recorded.

Gradually increase the load each time to maximum of 20N and the readings is recorded. The positive
and negative value is recorded.

The load is decrease by turning the load cell in the opposite direction and the reading is recorded.

The forces in members is obtained experimentally for all loadings condition.

The theoretical value of the forces is calculated.

11. For both fixed end condition, the top chuck were fitted with the two cap head screws and
clamp both ends of the specimen. End

10
6. RESULTS

A B

C
E D
W
𝐿1 𝐿2

Frame Dimension (mm)

𝐿1 500
𝐿2 500
h 500

Member Initial reading Increasing W Decreasing W

(1) 0 5 10 15 20 15 10 5
BC (2) 0 6.0 11.5 18.3 24.8 18.1 11.8 6.1
DC (3) 0 1.4 0 -4.1 -7.5 -4.1 -0.8 1.3
BD (4) 0 -1.1 -2.1 1.2 2.7 2.0 -0.2 -0.7
BE (5) 0 11.3 6.7 -4.8 -13.7 -6.0 4.7 11.7
AD (6) 0 -3.1 -0.6 -5.2 -6.7 -6.2 -2.5 -2.6
ED (7) 0 -0.2 -3.6 -4.6 -6.8 -3.8 -3.2 -0.6
AB (8) 0 -0.5 6.4 19.3 29.9 20.1 8.1 -0.3

Table 2a: Measured Readings of Forces in Truss

11
Member Increasing W Decreasing W
(1) 5 10 15 20 15 10 5
BC (2) 6.0 11.5 18.3 24.8 18.1 11.8 6.1
DC (3) 1.4 0 -4.1 -7.5 -4.1 -0.8 1.3
BD (4) -1.1 -2.1 1.2 2.7 2.0 -0.2 -0.7
BE (5) 11.3 6.7 -4.8 -13.7 -6.0 4.7 11.7
AD (6) -3.1 -0.6 -5.2 -6.7 -6.2 -2.5 -2.6
ED (7) -0.2 -3.6 -4.6 -6.8 -3.8 -3.2 -0.6
AB (8) -0.5 6.4 19.3 29.9 20.1 8.1 -0.3

Table 2b: Measured Forces in Truss

Member Experimental (N) Theory (N)

BC (2) 24.8 28.28

DC (3) -7.5 -20.0
BD (4) 2.7 -20.0
BE (5) -13.7 0
AD (6) -6.7 28.28
ED (7) -6.8 -40.0
AB (8) 29.9 20.0

12
7. CALCULATIONS
AY

A B
A

C
EX
E D
EY W
𝐿1 𝐿2

L1 = 0.50m

L2 = 0.50m

h = 0.50m

Calculation for support reaction

+ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0;

20(0.50 + 0.50) + 𝐸𝑌 (0) − 𝐸𝑋 (0.50) = 0

20 + 0 − 0.50𝐸𝑋 = 0

20
= 𝐸𝑋
0.50

𝑬𝑿 = 𝟒𝟎𝑵

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0;

𝐸𝑌 − 𝐴𝑌 − 𝑊 = 0

𝐸𝑌 − 𝐴𝑌 − 20 = 0

𝐸𝑌 = −20 + 20

13
𝑬𝒀 = 𝟎𝑵

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0;

𝐸𝑋 + 𝐴𝑋 = 0

𝐴𝑋 = −𝐸𝑋

𝑨𝑿 = −𝟒𝟎𝑵

+ ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0;

𝐴𝑋 (0.50) + 20(0.50 + 0.50) = 0

−20
𝐴𝑋 =
0.50

𝑨𝑿 = −𝟒𝟎𝑵

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0;

−𝐴𝑌 − 𝑊 = 0

−𝐴𝑌 − 20 = 0

𝑨𝒀 = −𝟐𝟎𝑵

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0;

𝐸𝑋 + 𝐴𝑋 = 0

𝐴𝑋 = −𝐸𝑋

𝑨𝑿 = −𝟒𝟎𝑵

14
At joint C

FCB
45o

FCD

20N

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0;

−20 + 𝐹𝐶𝐵 sin 45° = 0

20
𝐹𝐶𝐵 =
sin 45°

𝑭𝑪𝑩 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟖𝑵

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0;

−𝐹𝐶𝐷 − 𝐹𝐶𝐵 cos 45° = 0

−𝐹𝐶𝐵 cos 45° = 𝐹𝐶𝐷

−(28.28)(cos 45°) = 𝐹𝐶𝐷

𝑭𝑪𝑫 = −𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝑵

15
At joint E
FE

EX FE

EY

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0;

𝐹𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝑌 = 0

𝐹𝐸𝐴 = −𝐸𝑌

𝑭𝑬𝑨 = 𝟎𝑵

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0;

𝐹𝐸𝐷 + 𝐸𝑋 = 0

𝐹𝐸𝐷 = −𝐸𝑋

𝑭𝑬𝑫 = −𝟒𝟎𝑵

16
At joint A

AY

AX FAB

FAD
FAE

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0;

−𝐹𝐴𝐸 − 𝐴𝑌 − 𝐹𝐴𝐷 cos 45° = 0

−0 − (−20) − 𝐹𝐴𝐷 cos 45 = 0

20 = 𝐹𝐴𝐷 cos 45°

20
𝐹𝐴𝐷 =
cos 45 °

𝑭𝑨𝑫 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟖𝑵

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0;

𝐹𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐹𝐴𝐷 cos 45° = 0

𝐹𝐴𝐵 + (−40) + (28.28) cos 45° = 0

𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 40 − (28.28) cos 45°

𝑭𝑨𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝑵

17
At joint B

FBA

FBC

FBD

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0;

−𝐹𝐵𝐷 − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 sin 45° = 0

𝐹𝐵𝐷 = −𝐹𝐵𝐶 sin 45°

𝐹𝐵𝐷 = −(28.28) sin 45°

𝑭𝑩𝑫 = −𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝑵

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0;

−𝐹𝐵𝐴 + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 sin 45° = 0

𝐹𝐵𝐶 sin 45° = 20.0

20
𝐹𝐵𝐶 =
sin 45°

𝑭𝑩𝑪 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟖𝑵

18
8. DISCUSSION
Determinacy of the truss.

AY

A B
A

C
EX
E D
EY W
𝐿1 𝐿2

When the member of EB has been removed, the truss becomes statically determinate.
b=7 r=3 j=5
Number of Redundant, D = b + r – 2j
D = 7 +3 – 2(5)
D=0

19
 Percentage of error

Percentage error
Member Length (mm) Experimental (N) Theory (N)
(%)

BC 710 24.8 28.28 12.31

DC 500 -7.5 -20.0 62.5

BD 500 2.7 -20.0 113.5

BE 710 -13.7 0 0

AD 710 -6.7 28.28 123.69

ED 500 -6.8 -40.0 83

AB 500 29.9 20.0 49.5

From the percentage of error, the accuracy of the experiment was obtained. This inaccuracy
may occur because of some errors that is due to the apparatus, internal or environment
factor.

Comparison of results obtained.

From the result, we can see that the experiment has a high percentage of error. The value
of experiment obtained is not consistent at all.

Cause and error during experiment.

There are many types of cause and error during experiment. The error may due to the
environment factor, human factor or the apparatus itself. The apparatus may not control
perfectly as the sensitivity is too high. A little vibration of apparatus leads to the change of
real reading of the indicator. The error while taking the reading from indicator also the
cause that affected the accuracy.

20
Precautions step that has to be taken in this experiment.
Reduce the mistake by avoided touching the member or supporter around the experiment
take place. Next, make sure the apparatus is in a good condition and take the reading while
the reading indicator was stable.

21
9. CONCLUSION

From the experiment we can conclude that the experiment is not acceptable as the percentage
of error was too high due to some of cause. Although the experiment is not achieved but we had
achieve the objective of this experiment which is to investigate the relationship between the
measured forces in a loaded redundant truss experimentally and theoretically.

The percentages of error of the experiment for BC is 12.31 %, for DC is 62.5 %, for BD is
113.5 %, for BE is 0 %, for AD is 123.69 %, for ED is 83 % and for AB is 49.5 %.

To improve the experimental results, the accurate value must obtain. The reading of the
indicator should be avoided taken when the value is not stable. This experiment helps the engineers
to preventing the structures fail due to small affect. The application of this experiment is to
construct a roof, bridges and other building structures.

22
FORCES IN TRUSS

1. INTRODUCTION

Trusses are often used to stiffen structures, and most people are familiar with the often very
elaborate systems of cross-bracing used in bridges. The truss bracing used to stiffen the towers of
suspension bridges against buckling are hard to miss, but not everyone notices the vertical truss
panels on most such bridges that serve to stiffen the deck against textural and tensional
deformation.
This bridge was built using relatively short I-beams for deck stiffening rather than truss
panels, reportedly for aesthetic reasons; bridge designs of the period favored increasingly slender
and graceful-appearing structures. Even during construction, the bridge became well known for its
alarming tendency to sway in the wind, earning it the local nickname \Galloping Gertie." Truss
stiffeners were used when the bridge was rebuilt in 1950, and the new bridge was free of the
oscillations that led to the collapse of its predecessor. This is a good example of one important use
of trusses, but it is probably an even better example of the value of caution and humility in
engineering.
The glib answers often given for the original collapse | resonant wind gusts, von Karman
vortices, etc are not really satisfactory beyond the obvious statement that the deck was not stiff
enough. Even today, knowledgeable engineers argue about the very complicated structural
dynamics involved. Ultimately, many uncertainties exist even in designs completed using very
modern and elaborate techniques. A wise designer will never fully trust a theoretical result,
computer-generated or not, and will take as much advantage of experience and intuition as
possible.

23
2. PRINCIPLE

The truss that will be investigated in this experiment is a statically determinate planar truss
which the loads are applied only at the joints. Thus, the truss member end forces must be collinear
and opposite for equilibrium.

A planar determinate truss can have only three unknown reaction forces. The forces in the
truss members can be obtained by using the method of joints. In this method, each joint of the truss
is isolated in a free body diagram and the unknown member forces are determined from
equilibrium of ∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0. For an example, the force FAB at joint A can be determined
as be shown in Figure 3.

E
A
D F

B C

140 mm

V
FAB

Joint
FAC

RAY = 100N

Figure 4 : Method of joint in truss

24
When involving with the truss analysis, some assumptions must be considered such as:

1. Loads are applied only at the joints

2. Weight of each member is small compared with the applied load
3. Loads are carried axially by members
4. Geometry is known

By using method of joint, must be strictly known that only two unknown member forces can be
solved for at the time. The remaining joints of the trusses can be isolated, and the unknown member
of forces can be determined.

The most practical way for determining the forces in the truss member by experimentally is by
using the strain gage. Since this strain gage measures strain, some conversion must be performed
to obtain the forces in the member.

Hook’s Law is using to calculate stress (σ) by converting the measured strain (ξ). For the case
where the tensile stress is uniformly distributed over the cross-sectional area it has the following
form:

E=σ
ɛ

Where E is the modulus of elasticity of the truss member and it depended to the material that has
been used. Since for this experiment, steel has been used, therefore the value of E is:

E= 210GN/m2

Once the stress in the member is determined, it can be converted into force (F) by multiplying the
axial stress by the cross-sectional area (A):

σ=F
A

25
3. OBJECTIVE

a) To investigate the forces in the loaded frame truss.

b) To investigate the relationship between the measured forces in a loaded frame truss
experimentally and theoretically.
c) To check linearity of the measured strain versus the applied load.

26
4. APPARATUS

1. Structures test frame

2. Digital force display
3. Truss with strain gages
4. 100 N load cell
5. Digital strain display
6. Callipers with ±0.001 mm accuracy
7. Two power supplies for the digital force display and the load cell

27
 5. PROCEDURE

Start

v
The dimension of the truss is measured and tabulated in table 1.

v
The load cell is connected to the digital indicator.

v
The indicator is switched on for 10 minutes before the reading is taken to stabilize the reading.
v
The indicator reading is noted on channel 1 and pressed the tare button if the reading is not zero.

The initial readings of all other channel are taken.

v

The digital load cell recorder is used. The load is applied at end C by turning the load cell lever, W,
to give a reading 100N and the loaded reading of each member of the truss is recorded.

v
Gradually increase the load each time to maximum of 20N and the readings is recorded. The positive
and negative value is recorded.

The reading of digital joint deflection to be taken in every load and put in table 4.

The load cell lever 100N increments are turned by increasing the load gradually each time, and the
reading is recorded until the maximum load 500N into table.

28
 The load is decreased by turning the load cell in the reverse direction gradually and the reading is
recorded again.
11. For both fixed end condition, the top chuck were fitted with the two cap head screws and
clamp both ends of the specimen.
The forces are obtained in the members experimentally form graphs for 500N loading.

The theoretical values of the forces in the members are calculated for the load of 500N and the final
results is tabulated in Table 3.

End

29
6. RESULTS

LOAD AD AE AF BD CF DE EF
(N) (2) (3) (7) (1) (5) (4) (6)
0 -5 6 -1 5 1 -6 -8
100 -14 -4 -11 10 7 7 4
200 -24 -15 -22 15 13 18 15
300 -34 -25 -31 20 19 28 25
400 -45 -35 -42 25 25 39 37
500 -54 -45 -51 30 30 50 47
Table 1 Member Strains (µɛ)

LOAD AD AE AF BD CF DE EF
(N) (2) (3) (7) (1) (5) (4) (6)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
100 -9 -10 -10 5 6 13 12
200 -19 -21 -21 10 12 24 23
300 -29 -31 -30 15 18 34 33
400 -40 -41 -41 20 24 45 45
500 -49 -51 -50 25 29 56 55
Table 2 True Member Strains (µɛ)

30
Calculate the equivalent member forces at 500N to complete the table.
Young’s is the ratio of stress to strain, that is;

E= σ
ɛ
Where:
E = Young’s modules (Nmˉ²)
σ = stress in the member (Nmˉ²)
ɛ = displayed strain
And,
σ= F
A

Where
A = Cross-sectional area of member
F = Force in member
Equivalent member forces at 500N

Rod diameter = 6 mm and Esteel = 210 GNmˉ²

Table 3: Comparison of experiment and theoretical forces

Percentage
Member Experiment Force (N) Theoretical Force (N)
Error (%)
AD -49 -62 20.97
AE -51 -64 20.31
AF -50 -63 20.63
BD 25 32 21.88
CF 29 37 21.62
DE 56 71 21.13
EF 55 69 20.29

31
7. CALCULATION

Theoretical Force (N)

• Member AD

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

= 210(−49)

= −10290 𝑁𝑚−2

𝐹 = 𝐴𝜎
= (6)(−10290)
= −61740 𝑁

• Member AE

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

= 210(−51)

= −10710 𝑁𝑚−2

𝐹 = 𝐴𝜎
= (6)(−10710)
= −64260 𝑁

32
 • Member AF

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

= 210(−50)

= −10500 𝑁𝑚−2

𝐹 = 𝐴𝜎
= (6)(−10500)
= −63000 𝑁

• Member BD

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

= 210(25)

= 5250 𝑁𝑚−2

𝐹 = 𝐴𝜎
= (6)(5250)
= 31500 𝑁

• Member CF

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

= 210(29)

= 6090 𝑁𝑚−2

𝐹 = 𝐴𝜎
= (6)(6090)
= 36540 𝑁

33
 • Member AE

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

= 210(56)

= 11760 𝑁𝑚−2

𝐹 = 𝐴𝜎
= (6)(11760)
= 70560 𝑁

• Member AE

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

= 210(55)

= 11550 𝑁𝑚−2

𝐹 = 𝐴𝜎
= (6)(11550)
= 69300 𝑁

34
Percentage Error

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 %
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

• Member AD

−62 − (−49)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 %
−62

= 20.97 %

• Member AE

−64 − (−51)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 %
−64

= 20.31 %

• Member AF

−63 − (−50)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 %
−63

= 20.63 %

• Member BD

32 − (25)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 %
32

= 21.88 %

35
 • Member CF

37 − (29)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 %
37

= 21.62 %

• Member DE

71 − (56)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 %
71

= 21.13 %

• Member EF

69 − (55)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 %
69

= 20.29 %

Average

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
7

20.97 + 20.31 + 20.63 + 21.88 + 21.62 + 21.13 + 20.29

= 7

= 20.98

36
8. DISCUSSION

1. What is the relationship between the experimental and theoretical value obtained?
The differences represent the inaccuracy of the result due to some errors made during
the experiment. One of error can be easily made when conducting the experiment is parallax
error due to wrong eye position when measure the distance of frame. Besides, zero error could
be happened if the indicator does not set in zero position initially. Others than that, the
experimental instruments are sensitive which mean that small forces or vibration can causes
the reading to deviate or sensitivity of the digital force display which is very high and caused
change in values when it detected slightest or the smallest movement, so the accuracy of the
experimental values that obtained is decreased. In addition, if the device was not well
maintenance or the equipment has not fully function correctly, it can also cause the result
getting from the experimental became inaccurate. Then, these forces or vibration are due to
human mistakes or environment factors in the laboratory can also lead to some error during
the experiment.

2. Will there be any changes to the angle of the frame with the loading?
When conducting the experiment, there are changes to the angles of the frame with the
loading. The angle of the frame will be increased when the load is increased. However, the
angle could not be seen or detected from naked eyes due to the changes are very small. It is
because the loads applied are small so cannot to make obvious changes. There are also positive
and negative forces with tension and compression at the member.

37
3. What are the precautions that should be taken in this experiment to ensure its accuracy?

Precaution of the experiment that should be taken to ensure the accuracy

a. The digital force display also gives inconsistent. The indicator must be set to zero before
the experiment start to avoid zero error.
b. The digital force display is sensitive. The indicator must be adjustment on for few minutes
before taking any readings to make sure the constancy of the indicator.
c. Repeat the experiment for several times to get the average values in order to get more
accurate results.
d. The vibration on the instrument must be avoided during the experiment to avoid any
deviation of the readings.
e. Besides that, make sure the values shown by the indicator are constant or stable before
taking the readings to reduce the parallax error. Always alert with the positive and negative
values.

38
9. CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, the objective of the experiment is determined. From the experiment that
has been carried out, we are success to investigate the relationship between the measured forces
in a loaded frame truss experimentally and theoretically, to check linearity of the measured strain
versus the applied load, to apply the knowledge that we had learned in mechanics of material and
to investigate the forces in the loaded frame truss. The calculation to evaluate of structural safety
can only be done mathematically and the experimental force data that we collected from digital
reading than be compared with the theoretical force value that be done manually. External forces
and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the
members which are either tensile or compressive forces. However, there are differences between
experimental value and theoretical value.

From the table, it is clearly show that some of the experimental value deviates from the
theoretical value. This is due to some error made when conducting the experiment such as
parallax error happen when measure the dimension of the truss, sensitivity of the digital force
display, environmental factor and so on. However, the parallax error can be reduced by take the
average of the readings or repeat the experiment for several times to get more accurate results.
Besides that, make sure no external force and do not touch the structure when conducting the
experiment. In order to improve the result obtained and also to reduce the errors, we should
ensure that the instruments and the apparatus that we used is well maintenance and fully function
correctly. The result experimental and theory in experiment have error to every member, and
average the error is 20.98.

It would be impractical, uneconomical, and unsafe for the structural engineer to evaluate
a bridge design by building a full-size. When a structure is built, it must be stiff enough to carry
its prescribed loads and fully corrected when reading the value.

39
10. REFERENCES

Forces in Redundant Truss

• http://bvcoend.ac.in/images/upload/BVP_Bharati_Vidyapeeths_College_of_Engineering
_,New_Delhi_58218178669439FILE12008UPLOAD68656321556643127.pdf
• http://emweb.unl.edu/NEGAHBAN/EM223/note12/note12.htm
• https://www.studocu.com/my/document/universiti-malaysia-pahang/civil-
engineering/practical/force-in-redundant-truss-full-report-table/1976546/view
• Engineering laboratory manual
Structural analysis, 8th Ed., Pearson

Forces in Truss
• https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Civil_Engineering/Book%3A_Structural_Analysis
_(Udoeyo)/01%3A_Chapters/1.05%3A_Internal_Forces_in_Plane_Trusses#:~:text=In%2
0truss%20analysis%2C%20a%20negative,the%20member%20are%20in%20tension.
• https://engineering.purdue.edu/~aprakas/CE297/CE297-Ch6.pdf
• Engineering laboratory manual
• Structural analysis, 8th Ed., Pearson

40
11. APPENDIX

Forces in Redundant Truss

Forces In Truss

41